Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Verbal aggression

Verbal aggression is a form of psychological aggression characterized by the use of spoken or written language to attack an individual's self-concept, character, or sense of worth, rather than focusing solely on their ideas, actions, or positions, often manifesting through insults, threats, yelling, profanity, or demeaning comments.^[1] This type of communication is distinct from physical aggression due to its non-corporeal nature but is recognized in psychological research as comparably potent in inflicting emotional harm.^[2] In interpersonal dynamics, verbal aggression frequently arises in familial, romantic, professional, and educational contexts, where it serves as a means to intimidate, control, or express hostility.^[3] It is influenced by both dispositional factors, such as trait verbal aggressiveness—a stable personality tendency toward such behavior—and situational antecedents like anger, stress, or perceived provocation.^[4] Unlike constructive argumentation, which targets issues for resolution, verbal aggression personalizes conflict, eroding trust and relational satisfaction.^[5] The consequences of verbal aggression extend beyond immediate emotional distress, contributing to long-term mental health challenges including depression, anxiety, diminished self-esteem, and impaired emotional regulation.^[6] Recent research as of 2025 indicates that childhood verbal abuse increases the risk of poor adult mental health by 64%, comparable to physical abuse, with prevalence rising from 12% to nearly 20% since the 1950s.^[2] Chronic exposure, particularly in childhood or intimate relationships, can lead to neurobiological changes, heightened aggression in victims, and increased risk of cardiovascular issues or relational dissolution.^[6]^[7] Scholarly interventions, such as communication training to promote assertiveness over aggressiveness, have shown promise in mitigating its prevalence and effects.^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Verbal aggression refers to the use of symbolic means, such as spoken or written words, to attack an individual's self-concept with the intent to inflict psychological pain or emotional harm.^[1] This form of communication is characterized by its deliberate aim to demean, control, or injure the recipient emotionally, distinguishing it from unintentional offenses or neutral expressions.^[1] Unlike physical aggression, verbal aggression excludes any bodily actions and focuses solely on linguistic delivery, whether oral (e.g., yelling or threats) or textual (e.g., written insults).^[8] Key components include the perpetrator's intent to injure, which separates verbal aggression from accidental slights, and its emphasis on verbal symbols that target personal identity rather than ideas or positions.^[1] For instance, a personal attack like calling someone "worthless" aims to erode self-esteem, whereas constructive criticism such as "Your work needs improvement" does not seek emotional harm.^[9] Common manifestations encompass swearing, name-calling, ridicule, and veiled threats, all designed to evoke negative emotional responses.^[10] The scope of verbal aggression spans both state-based instances, where it arises situationally in response to provocation, and trait-based patterns, where individuals habitually engage in such behaviors due to a predisposition toward verbal aggressiveness.^[11] As a subset of broader non-physical aggression, it primarily operates through psychological means to assert dominance or vent hostility.^[9] Verbal aggression differs fundamentally from physical aggression in its mechanism and outcomes. While physical aggression entails direct bodily harm through actions such as hitting or striking, verbal aggression inflicts psychological injury exclusively through spoken or written words, without any physical contact or risk of bodily damage.^[12] For instance, hurling insults aims to demean or provoke emotional distress, contrasting with the tangible physical injuries caused by a punch. This distinction underscores verbal aggression's role as an adaptive, lower-risk alternative in human interactions, often emerging from evolutionary shifts toward linguistic expression over brute force.^[12] In contrast to relational aggression, which indirectly undermines an individual's social standing through tactics like gossip or exclusion to damage relationships, verbal aggression delivers direct emotional harm via explicit language.^[9] Relational aggression might involve spreading rumors behind someone's back to isolate them socially, whereas verbal aggression employs overt public shaming or name-calling to immediately target the recipient's self-esteem.^[13] Although both are nonphysical, verbal aggression's immediacy and linguistic focus distinguish it from relational forms' subtler, network-based manipulations.^[9] Verbal aggression constitutes a core subset of emotional abuse but is delimited by its reliance on explicit verbal attacks, excluding the broader non-verbal components often present in emotional abuse. Emotional abuse encompasses manipulative behaviors like the silent treatment, withholding affection, or passive-aggressive gestures that erode self-worth without words, whereas verbal aggression centers on derogatory language such as threats or belittling remarks.^[14] For example, constant criticism through spoken words qualifies as verbal aggression, but isolating someone through prolonged silence falls under emotional abuse's non-verbal domain.^[15] This boundary highlights verbal aggression's specificity to linguistic mediums, even as it contributes to the psychological control characteristic of emotional abuse.^[14] Verbal aggression extends into digital realms through cyberbullying, where hostile messages or comments online represent an amplified form of verbal attacks, though cyberbullying often incorporates multimedia elements beyond pure text.^[16] Trait verbal aggression strongly predicts participation in cyberbullying, with individuals prone to verbal hostility more likely to perpetrate or experience online harassment.^[16] However, the distinction lies in the medium's persistence and reach, as digital verbal aggression can proliferate rapidly without face-to-face immediacy. Central to verbal aggression are its defining features: intent to harm through words alone, a strictly linguistic medium, and often immediate emotional impact on the target. Unlike physical aggression's instrumental goals or relational forms' delayed social repercussions, verbal aggression's intent is typically reactive and aimed at instant psychological provocation.^[9] The medium—confined to verbal expression—ensures no physical escalation, while its impact manifests swiftly in heightened stress or lowered mood, differentiating it from the protracted effects of other aggressive types.^[9]

History and Theoretical Foundations

Historical Development

The concept of verbal aggression traces its early roots to late 19th- and early 20th-century psychoanalytic theories, particularly Sigmund Freud's hydraulic model of instincts, which posited aggression as an innate drive that could build pressure and require release through cathartic outlets, including verbal expression in therapy.^[17] Freud's introduction of the death instinct in 1920 further linked aggression to self-destructive and outward-directed impulses, with psychoanalytic practices emphasizing verbal articulation of hostility to alleviate psychic tension.^[18] By the 1920s, this framework appeared in clinical observations where verbal hostility emerged as a key indicator of unresolved aggressive drives during free association sessions.^[19] In the mid-20th century, social psychology advanced the understanding of verbal aggression through broader theories of human conflict, notably the frustration-aggression hypothesis formulated by John Dollard and colleagues in 1939, which described verbal outbursts as common displaced responses to blocked goals.^[20] Although proposed just before World War II, this hypothesis gained traction in post-WWII research, where scholars examined aggression's social dimensions, including verbal forms, amid efforts to comprehend wartime violence and interpersonal hostility.^[21] Studies during this era, influenced by observational methods, highlighted verbal aggression as a non-physical manifestation often modeled in social contexts, laying groundwork for trait-based analyses.^[22] The 1980s marked the emergence of verbal aggressiveness as a distinct personality trait within interpersonal communication research, shifting focus from general aggression to its communicative specifics.^[23] Dominic A. Infante's pioneering work formalized this trait, emphasizing its role in relational dynamics and distinguishing it from physical or argumentative behaviors.^[24] A seminal milestone was the 1986 publication by Infante and Charles J. Wigley, which proposed an interpersonal model of verbal aggressiveness and introduced a reliable scale to measure it, influencing subsequent studies in communication science.^[1] Recent developments from the 2010s to 2025 have integrated verbal aggression with digital communication, driven by the proliferation of social media platforms like Twitter (now X), where anonymity facilitates escalated online hostility.^[25] Research during this period has explored how social modeling and platform dynamics amplify verbal aggression, with studies documenting its prevalence in politically motivated discourse and cyberbullying contexts.^[26] By the early 2020s, investigations extended to predictive factors like social media addiction and its links to real-world aggressive behaviors, underscoring verbal aggression's adaptation to virtual environments.^[27]

Key Theories

One of the foundational frameworks for understanding verbal aggression is the Frustration-Aggression Theory, proposed by Dollard et al. in 1939, which posits that frustration arises from the blockage of goal-directed behavior and inevitably leads to some form of aggression, including verbal expressions as a displaced response when direct confrontation is not possible.^[28] In this model, verbal aggression serves as a cathartic outlet to reduce the tension built from frustration, often manifesting in insults or threats toward innocent targets when the source of frustration cannot be directly addressed.^[20] The theory emphasizes that the intensity of verbal aggression correlates with the level of frustration, though subsequent reformulations have clarified that not all frustrations result in aggression, and verbal forms may predominate in social contexts where physical aggression is restrained.^[29] Building on environmental influences, Social Learning Theory, articulated by Bandura in 1973, explains verbal aggression as a behavior acquired through observation, imitation, and reinforcement rather than innate drives. According to this theory, individuals learn aggressive verbal patterns by modeling the language and responses of significant others, such as parents who use hostile rhetoric during conflicts or media portrayals that reinforce verbal dominance as effective.^[30] Reinforcement mechanisms, including social approval or avoidance of punishment, strengthen these behaviors, making verbal aggression a habitual response in interpersonal interactions.^[31] Bandura's framework highlights the role of vicarious learning, where witnessing rewarded verbal aggression—such as in family arguments or televised confrontations—encourages its adoption, particularly in children and adolescents.^[32] Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), initially developed by Giles in 1973 and later adapted to aggressive contexts, views verbal aggression as a strategic form of communicative divergence, where speakers adjust their speech styles to emphasize differences and assert dominance or hostility toward out-group members.^[33] In this theory, non-accommodation through aggressive verbal tactics, such as interrupting, mocking accents, or using derogatory slang, signals disapproval and aims to psychologically distance oneself from the interlocutor, often escalating conflicts.^[34] Adaptations of CAT to verbal aggression underscore how such divergence maintains power imbalances in conversations, with empirical studies showing its prevalence in intergroup tensions where verbal hostility reinforces social boundaries.^[33] The Trait Theory of Verbal Aggressiveness, advanced by Infante and Rancer in the 1980s, conceptualizes verbal aggression as a stable personality trait predisposing individuals to habitually employ hurtful language that attacks others' self-concepts, independent of situational triggers. This theory distinguishes verbal aggressiveness from argumentativeness, portraying it as a maladaptive disposition linked to low self-esteem and high impulsivity, where trait carriers frequently resort to character assassination, teasing, or threats in everyday discourse.^[35] Infante and colleagues' model integrates it within broader aggressive communication traits, supported by psychometric evidence from the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale, which reliably measures this predisposition and predicts relational damage through chronic verbal hostility.^[11] In the 2020s, theoretical extensions have integrated verbal aggression with emotional regulation models, particularly emphasizing anger rumination as a mediator that sustains aggressive verbal tendencies by prolonging focus on provoking events and impairing adaptive coping.^[36] These developments build on earlier frameworks by incorporating cognitive-behavioral processes, where poor emotion regulation—such as suppression or rumination—amplifies trait verbal aggressiveness, leading to escalated verbal outbursts in response to anger.^[37] Recent models, informed by mindfulness and self-regulation research, propose interventions targeting rumination to mitigate verbal aggression, highlighting its role in perpetuating cycles of hostility within interpersonal dynamics.^[38]

Measurement and Assessment

Verbal Aggressiveness Scale

The Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) is a self-report instrument designed to measure an individual's trait-like tendency to engage in verbally aggressive communication, specifically by attacking the self-concepts of others to inflict psychological harm. Developed by Dominic A. Infante and Charles J. Wigley in 1986, the scale emerged from an interpersonal model distinguishing verbal aggressiveness as a distinct personality trait that predisposes individuals to use language as a means of dominance rather than persuasion or problem-solving.^[1] The VAS consists of 20 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (almost never true) to 5 (almost always true), with higher scores indicating greater verbal aggressiveness. Ten items are aggressively worded to directly assess attack tendencies, while the other ten are benevolently worded and reverse-scored to capture prosocial communication styles. Representative aggressive items include "If individuals I am trying to influence really deserve it, I attack their character" and "When people do things which are mean or cruel, I attack their character in order to help correct their behavior." These items focus on verbal behaviors aimed at hurting others' self-esteem, such as character assassination or ridicule.^[39] The scale demonstrates strong internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients typically ranging from 0.82 to 0.85 for the full 20-item version and 0.82 for the aggressive subscale across multiple studies. Validity evidence includes convergent correlations with behavioral measures of aggressive messaging (r = 0.40–0.54) and discriminant validity from prosocial traits, supporting its unidimensional or bidimensional structure depending on the analysis. Cross-cultural adaptations in the 1990s, such as validations in U.S. and Japanese samples, confirmed measurement equivalence and reliability (alphas >0.80), though factor loadings were somewhat weaker in non-Western contexts, indicating the need for cultural sensitivity in interpretations.^[39]^[40] Scoring involves summing responses after reverse-scoring the benevolent items, yielding a total range of 20 to 100; scores below 50 typically indicate low aggressiveness, 50–70 moderate, and above 70 high, though cutoffs vary by normative data. In research, VAS scores predict relational outcomes like conflict escalation and reduced satisfaction, providing a reliable trait indicator for studies on communication dynamics.^[39] Despite its strengths, the VAS has limitations, including potential self-report biases where respondents may underreport aggressive tendencies due to social desirability. Additionally, as a trait measure, it does not capture situational or state-based verbal aggression, limiting its utility in dynamic contexts.^[39]

Other Tools and Methods

Observational methods provide an objective alternative to self-reports for assessing verbal aggression in real-time interactions. Researchers often employ coding schemes to systematically analyze conversations, such as categorizing utterances into levels of verbal hostility, including insults, threats, or character attacks. For instance, one adapted coding scheme from the Emotional Aggression subscale of the Conflict Tactics Scale uses 10 items to identify and count aggressive exchanges during observed discussions, which has demonstrated high inter-rater reliability in studies of dating relationships.^[41] State measures focus on episodic or situational verbal aggression, capturing fluctuations in behavior rather than stable traits. The Situation-Response Questionnaire on Verbal Aggression assesses immediate aggressive tendencies through scenario-based items that prompt responses to provocative situations, offering a tool for momentary evaluations in clinical or experimental settings. Unlike the trait-focused Verbal Aggressiveness Scale, this approach emphasizes context-specific outbursts.^[42] Physiological indicators complement behavioral assessments by linking verbal aggression to autonomic responses. Studies have explored biomarkers such as cortisol and heart rate variability (HRV) in relation to aggression, though specific ties to verbal contexts require further research.^[43]^[44]^[45] Digital tracking methods leverage computational tools to detect verbal aggression in online environments. Content analysis using sentiment analysis algorithms identifies hostility in social media posts by classifying language patterns indicative of aggression, such as derogatory terms or inflammatory rhetoric, with deep neural networks achieving over 85% accuracy in aggression detection tasks on platforms like Twitter. Post-2020 advancements in AI have enhanced these tools, incorporating natural language processing to analyze multimodal data, including text and emojis, for real-time monitoring of online verbal hostility.^[46]^[47] Multi-method approaches integrate multiple data sources to improve validity in verbal aggression assessments, particularly in relational contexts. Combining self-reports with partner reports, for example, reveals discrepancies and mutual influences in perceived aggression, as daily diaries from both partners show that one-sided reports predict relational dissatisfaction more robustly than single-source data. This triangulation, often paired with observational coding, reduces bias and enhances ecological validity in studies of intimate partner dynamics.^[48]^[49]

Types of Verbal Aggression

Constructive Forms

Constructive forms of verbal aggression encompass assertive and argumentative communication strategies that challenge ideas or behaviors to foster improvement, resolution, or growth, without targeting an individual's self-worth or employing personal insults. These forms emphasize intellectual engagement and problem-solving, such as delivering feedback in a professional setting by stating, "Your proposal could be strengthened by incorporating recent market data, as it currently overlooks potential risks," which highlights specific issues for refinement rather than attacking the proposer's competence. In communication research, this is primarily captured by the concept of argumentativeness, defined as a trait predisposing individuals to advocate for their positions and refute others' on contentious topics through reasoned debate, viewing such exchanges as opportunities for intellectual stimulation and skill demonstration. Highly argumentative people tend to initiate and enjoy arguments, classifying them as high, moderate, or low based on their comfort and proficiency in these interactions, which promotes constructive dialogue in group settings like meetings or classrooms. Rhetorical aggression represents another constructive manifestation, involving the strategic use of forceful, vivid language in persuasive contexts to advocate for change or challenge societal norms ethically, without hostility or degradation. For instance, in political speeches, speakers may employ strong metaphors or direct critiques of policies—such as "This outdated regulation stifles innovation and must be dismantled"—to rally support and stimulate public discourse, enhancing persuasion through emotional and logical appeal. Research indicates that argumentative elements in such rhetoric facilitate message processing and compliance-gaining by encouraging audience reflection, rather than eliciting defensiveness. This approach aligns with broader theories of symbolic aggression, where assertive verbal and nonverbal cues are deployed to assert rights or secure rewards in socially approved manners. In therapeutic contexts, verbal confrontation serves as a constructive tool to prompt self-reflection and behavioral change, particularly in counseling and psychotherapy during the 1990s. Therapists use this technique to gently highlight inconsistencies between a client's words, actions, or goals—such as noting, "You express a desire for closer relationships yet avoid vulnerability"—to encourage deeper insight and accountability without judgment. Studies from this era, including process analyses of family therapy sessions, demonstrate that well-timed confrontations correlate with improved relational dynamics and client progress, as they facilitate resolution of internal conflicts when integrated with empathy and support. Self-confrontation methods, where clients review their own recorded interactions, further amplify this effect by promoting autonomous reflection. The benefits of these constructive forms include bolstered problem-solving abilities and greater emotional resilience, as they channel assertive energy into productive outlets that mitigate escalation to harmful behaviors. Empirical evidence shows that individuals high in argumentativeness exhibit lower tendencies toward verbal aggressiveness, with a meta-analytic review revealing a modest negative correlation (r = -0.16) between the two traits, suggesting that cultivating argumentative skills can reduce overall destructive verbal tendencies. In disagreement scenarios, constructive arguments predominate in positive outcomes, such as family or organizational resolutions, where they outnumber aggressive attacks and enhance mutual understanding. A key boundary for constructive forms is the absence of intent to demean or harm; they remain focused on ideas, behaviors, or systems, transitioning to destructive variants when shifting to personal attributions like character flaws. This distinction ensures that the verbal challenge serves developmental purposes, preserving relational integrity while avoiding the emotional damage associated with attacks on self-concept.

Destructive Forms

Destructive forms of verbal aggression involve messages designed to harm the recipient's self-concept rather than engage constructively with their arguments or positions, often leading to emotional distress and relational damage. These behaviors contrast with constructive forms by prioritizing injury over resolution. Key categories include character attacks, which target inherent personal traits such as calling someone "stupid" or "lazy"; competence attacks, which belittle skills or abilities, like mocking someone's intelligence or professional expertise; insults and teasing that demean identity; threats or maledictions implying harm; and the use of profanity to express contempt. These categories were identified in early research as common manifestations of verbal aggression.^[50] The intent behind destructive verbal aggression can be classified into hostile forms, where the aggressor derives pleasure from causing pain (akin to sadistic enjoyment of harm), and instrumental forms, aimed at achieving control or compliance through intimidation. This distinction draws from Infante's 1980s framework, which emphasized how verbal attacks on self-concept serve emotional catharsis or strategic goals, often escalating relational tension. In hostile cases, the focus is on inflicting psychological injury for its own sake, while instrumental aggression uses threats or insults to manipulate outcomes, such as silencing opposition.^[24] Escalation in destructive verbal aggression typically progresses from subtle tactics like sarcasm or veiled insults to overt expressions such as yelling laced with obscenities, creating a cycle of increasing intensity during disputes. Laboratory studies simulating arguments have demonstrated this pattern, where initial mild provocations prompt reciprocal attacks, leading to heightened emotional arousal and more severe verbal barbs within minutes. For instance, participants in controlled conflict scenarios often shifted from teasing to direct threats when unmet needs fueled frustration, highlighting how early interventions could disrupt the trajectory. This prevalence correlates strongly with high trait scores on the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS), where individuals prone to such behaviors exhibit consistent patterns across situations, as measured by self-reported tendencies toward hurtful messages.^[51] In digital contexts, destructive verbal aggression manifests through text-based threats, such as doxxing—publicly exposing personal information to incite harm—or online insults amplified by anonymity, extending traditional categories into virtual spaces with rapid dissemination.

Causes and Antecedents

Individual Psychological Factors

Individual psychological factors play a significant role in predisposing people to verbal aggression, encompassing stable personality traits, emotional processing patterns, cognitive interpretive styles, biological underpinnings, and early developmental experiences. These internal elements can amplify the likelihood of engaging in verbally aggressive behaviors, often independently of external provocations. Personality traits, particularly within the Big Five model, show consistent associations with verbal aggression. High levels of neuroticism, characterized by emotional instability and proneness to negative affect, positively correlate with increased verbal aggression, as individuals high in this trait are more likely to express frustration through hostile language. Low agreeableness, characterized by reduced concern for others and lower cooperation, is positively associated with verbal aggression, with studies from the 1990s onward confirming that disagreeable individuals exhibit higher rates of confrontational verbal exchanges. Impulsivity, often linked to low conscientiousness, and diminished empathy further exacerbate these tendencies by impairing inhibition of aggressive verbal responses. Emotional triggers rooted in poor regulation contribute substantially to verbal aggression. Anger rumination, the repetitive focus on anger-provoking events, sustains heightened arousal and directly predicts verbal outbursts by prolonging negative emotional states. This process aligns with the frustration-aggression hypothesis, where unresolved frustration leads to displaced verbal aggression toward safer targets, as individuals redirect pent-up anger due to inadequate emotional control mechanisms. Cognitive biases, such as hostile attribution bias, distort perceptions and fuel verbal aggression. Originally identified in Kenneth Dodge's 1980s studies on children, this bias involves interpreting ambiguous or neutral cues—such as a peer's neutral comment—as intentionally hostile, prompting defensive verbal attacks; extensions to adults confirm its role in escalating relational conflicts through misattributed threats. Biological factors, including genetic influences, underlie vulnerability to verbal aggression. Twin studies estimate heritability at approximately 40-50% for aggressive behaviors, including verbal forms, indicating a substantial genetic component that interacts with environmental cues to manifest in adulthood. Additionally, low serotonin levels, a neurotransmitter implicated in mood regulation, correlate with impulsive verbal aggression by reducing prefrontal cortex control over emotional responses, as evidenced in meta-analyses of human aggression. Developmental factors from childhood shape long-term propensities for verbal aggression through observational learning, as theorized in Albert Bandura's social learning framework. Exposure to parental verbal aggression during childhood predicts similar patterns in adult relationships, with intergenerational transmission occurring via modeled behaviors where children internalize and replicate hostile communication styles observed in family dynamics. Cultural norms significantly shape the expression and tolerance of verbal aggression, with variations observed across individualistic and collectivist societies. In individualistic cultures like the United States, higher levels of student verbal aggression have been reported compared to collectivist societies such as Japan, where social harmony norms may suppress overt aggressive behaviors.^[52] Cross-cultural studies from the 2010s and early 2020s, including comparisons between the U.S. and Japan, indicate that collectivist orientations foster greater inhibition of verbal aggression due to emphasis on group cohesion and politeness, whereas individualistic contexts permit more direct confrontational language.^[53] These differences highlight how cultural values moderate the acceptability of verbal hostility in social interactions.^[54] Family and peer influences play a key role in the intergenerational transmission of verbal aggression, where patterns of harsh parenting and exposure to aggressive language within the home predict similar behaviors in offspring. Longitudinal research demonstrates that parental verbal aggression toward children correlates with increased verbal and relational aggression in adolescents, perpetuating cycles across generations through modeled behaviors and emotional dysregulation.^[55] Peer groups further amplify this transmission, as adolescents in aggressive family environments often engage in hostile interactions with peers, reinforcing verbal aggression norms.^[56] Additionally, media exposure to aggressive language, such as violent television content, contributes to heightened verbal hostility; American Psychological Association reports from the 2000s link repeated viewing of media violence to increased aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, including verbal components, particularly in children.^[57] Recent research also implicates social media addiction as an antecedent, where excessive use predicts higher levels of verbal aggression through mechanisms like online disinhibition and cyberbullying, as observed in longitudinal studies of adolescents and young adults.^[27] Situational stressors, including power imbalances, competition, and anonymity, often provoke verbal aggression by heightening emotional arousal and reducing inhibitions. In competitive or hierarchical settings, such as workplaces with clear power disparities, individuals may resort to verbal hostility to assert dominance or cope with frustration. Anonymity, particularly online, exacerbates this through the online disinhibition effect, where the lack of face-to-face cues leads to more frequent and intense verbal aggression, such as flaming or cyberbullying, as described in seminal work from 2004.^[58] These triggers interact with environmental contexts to sustain aggressive verbal exchanges. Societal factors like economic stress and inequality are associated with elevated verbal hostility, as financial hardships strain interpersonal dynamics and amplify conflict due to resource scarcity and heightened tension in households. Broader inequality exacerbates this, with low socioeconomic status linked to greater aggression and hostility in daily interactions, including verbal forms, due to chronic stress and limited coping resources.^[59] Environmental cues in crowded or high-conflict settings can intensify verbal aggression by increasing arousal and reducing self-control. In densely populated or noisy environments, individuals experience heightened irritation, leading to more frequent verbal outbursts; workplace studies confirm that poor psychosocial climates, such as those under tight deadlines, foster verbal aggression through escalated conflicts and stress.^[60] These cues act as immediate precipitants, particularly when combined with underlying stressors.

Effects and Consequences

Individual Psychological Impacts

Exposure to verbal aggression can lead to significant psychological distress in victims, including elevated levels of anxiety, depression, and diminished self-esteem. Studies indicate that individuals subjected to emotional abuse, a form encompassing verbal aggression, exhibit higher mean scores on depression scales (M = 11.18 compared to 5.54 in non-exposed groups) and anxiety measures (M = 9.74 versus 5.43), reflecting a moderate positive correlation (r = .387 for depression, r = .355 for anxiety, both p < .01).^[61] Verbal abuse specifically erodes self-worth, with college students reporting feelings of worthlessness and unjust blame that connect to broader psychopathology, such as irritability and depressive mood.^[62] Chronic exposure to verbal aggression often manifests in PTSD-like symptoms, including intrusive thoughts, avoidance, and hyperarousal. A 2015 study of 150 men exposed to intimate partner emotional abuse found a strong positive correlation between abuse severity and PTSD symptoms (r = 0.843, p ≤ 0.01), with unmarried participants showing higher mean PTSD scores (M = 65.63, SD = 18.538) than married ones (M = 44.15, SD = 13.422).^[63] Cognitively, verbal aggression distorts self-perception and fosters rumination, contributing to a sense of learned helplessness. Harsh parenting involving verbal aggression positively associates with adolescent depression (β = 0.47, p < 0.001), mediated by rumination (indirect effect = 0.27, accounting for 57.45% of the total effect), which reinforces negative cognitive patterns akin to learned helplessness.^[64] Physiologically, victims experience elevated stress responses, including cortisol spikes that exacerbate mental health issues. Women exposed to intimate partner violence, including verbal forms, demonstrate heightened cortisol reactivity to acute stressors compared to non-exposed controls, correlating with reduced quality of life.^[65] Additionally, verbal aggression contributes to sleep disturbances, such as insomnia and nightmares, which predict depression in intimate partner violence victims and impair emotional regulation.^[66] For perpetrators, verbal aggression may provide short-term emotional release but often leads to long-term guilt and cycles of escalated aggression. Such patterns are linked to antisocial personality traits, where chronic disregard for others' rights manifests in impulsive verbal hostility without remorse.^[67] Children and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the psychological impacts of verbal aggression. In children, exposure increases the risk of low mental well-being in adulthood by 64%, comparable to physical abuse (52% increase), and alters neurobiological development, potentially causing developmental delays in executive function and emotional regulation as shown in 2020s neuroimaging research.^[68]^[69] Among the elderly, verbal mistreatment correlates with declines in mental health, including heightened distress and social withdrawal, underscoring their susceptibility due to age-related vulnerabilities.^[70] Verbal aggression in close dyadic relationships, such as marriages, erodes trust and leads to communication breakdowns by fostering patterns of negativity and defensiveness that hinder open dialogue.^[71] Longitudinal studies of newlyweds have shown that prior verbal aggression significantly predicts escalations to physical aggression, further destabilizing the partnership and contributing to emotional detachment. In marriages characterized by high verbal aggression, couples experience lower marital quality over time, with bidirectional links between aggressive behaviors like love withdrawal and reduced satisfaction, contributing to increased risk of separation or divorce. Within social networks, verbal aggression often isolates victims by damaging their reputations and social standing, as seen in relational bullying where derogatory comments and exclusionary tactics lead to withdrawal from group interactions.^[72] This isolation reinforces aggressive norms in peer groups, such as school cliques, where verbal attacks normalize hostility and perpetuate cycles of victimization among bystanders who fear similar targeting.^[73] At the institutional level, verbal aggression diminishes team productivity by creating environments of distrust and reduced collaboration. Such behaviors also trigger legal ramifications, including harassment claims, amplified by the post-2010s #MeToo movement, which heightened awareness and reporting of verbal abuse as a form of workplace mistreatment under frameworks like the EEOC's harassment guidelines.^[74]^[75] On a societal scale, the normalization of verbal aggression in media and politics has contributed to polarized discourse, particularly through social media echo chambers that amplify toxic interactions and foster ideological hostility. In rare cases, mild verbal challenges, when framed assertively rather than aggressively, can strengthen relational bonds by encouraging constructive feedback and mutual growth, though this requires careful calibration to avoid escalation.^[76]

Contexts and Applications

In Romantic and Family Relationships

In romantic relationships, verbal aggression often manifests through jealousy-induced attacks, where one partner uses insults, accusations, or threats to express possessiveness, escalating conflicts and contributing to cycles of emotional harm.^[77] Such behaviors are linked to pathological jealousy, which serves as a major source of dissatisfaction, manifesting in verbal conflicts and aggressive outbursts that undermine trust and intimacy.^[78] A prominent example is the demand-withdraw pattern identified in John Gottman's 1990s research on marital interactions, where one partner demands change while the other withdraws, often incorporating verbal aggression like criticism or contempt, particularly in couples experiencing violence.^[79] Surveys indicate high prevalence, with nearly half of U.S. adults reporting lifetime experiences of psychological aggression, including verbal forms such as yelling or name-calling, in intimate partnerships.^[80] Within family settings, parent-child verbal aggression frequently leads to modeling effects, where children internalize and replicate aggressive communication styles observed from same-sex parents, fostering long-term patterns of hostility.^[81] This exposure during childhood correlates with increased psychopathology in adulthood, including anxiety and depressive symptoms, as harsh verbal interactions erode emotional security.^[82] Sibling rivalry often escalates into verbal aggression, such as mocking or belittling, which can intensify over time if unchecked, transforming typical conflicts into repeated patterns of antagonism that strain family bonds.^[83] In cases of elder abuse, verbal belittling—through insults, name-calling, or undermining dignity—serves as a common tactic to exert control, resulting in emotional distress and isolation for older family members.^[70] Gender differences in verbal aggression vary by context: in romantic relationships, meta-analyses reveal small but consistent patterns where women report slightly higher perpetration of verbal acts like swearing or ridicule, though overall use shows no large disparities.^[84] In family dynamics, aggression tends to be bidirectional, with 2020s research indicating that fathers direct more verbal hostility toward daughters, while mothers target sons more frequently, reflecting gendered relational roles rather than unilateral male dominance.^[85] Long-term patterns of verbal aggression often involve intergenerational transmission, where exposure to parental verbal hostility during childhood predicts similar behaviors in adult romantic and familial interactions, as evidenced by prospective longitudinal studies tracking families over decades.^[86] Interventions through family therapy emphasize verbal de-escalation techniques, such as teaching "I" statements and active listening in approaches like the Gottman Method, which help break cycles by fostering empathy and reducing escalatory criticism within the home.^[87] Cultural variations influence the acceptance of verbal aggression, particularly in traditional families employing authoritarian parenting styles, where harsh verbal discipline like scolding or shaming is more normalized in collectivist societies such as those in East Asia, potentially heightening children's risk for internalizing aggression as a relational norm.^[88] In contrast, individualistic cultures may view such practices as more detrimental, associating them with poorer emotional outcomes, though cross-cultural evidence underscores authoritarian styles' consistent link to elevated child aggression across contexts.^[89]

In Educational, Athletic, and Professional Settings

In educational settings, verbal aggression commonly occurs through teacher-student interactions, such as derogatory comments or yelling, and peer bullying, including name-calling and teasing. Direct verbal aggression represents the most prevalent form of aggression in schools across all grade levels, with perpetrators often experiencing negative social and emotional outcomes while victims face heightened risks of psychological distress.^[90] Reviews from 2018 indicate that such aggression peaks during middle school years, coinciding with developmental shifts in social dynamics and identity formation, where relational and verbal forms intensify among adolescents.^[90] Victims of this aggression frequently exhibit decreased academic performance, including lower grades and increased school avoidance, as the associated anxiety and low self-worth disrupt concentration and engagement.^[90]^[91] In athletic contexts, verbal aggression appears as coach-athlete exchanges, such as harsh criticism or motivational shouting, and teammate conflicts involving trash-talking. Sports psychology studies from the 2000s highlight that trash-talking can serve dual roles: when perceived as playful or strategic, it may enhance motivation and performance by increasing arousal and focus in competitive scenarios; however, aggressive or personal insults often lead to demotivation, reduced self-efficacy, and impaired athletic output.^[92]^[93] For instance, case studies of coach verbal aggression demonstrate that frequent belittling erodes athletes' confidence, prompting withdrawal from training or games, whereas context-appropriate verbal challenges can foster resilience if balanced with positive reinforcement.^[92] Professional environments witness verbal aggression in forms like workplace harassment from colleagues or superiors, and escalations in customer service interactions, where irate clients direct insults at employees. Such aggression, including yelling or demeaning remarks, contributes to a hostile psychosocial climate, impairing employee performance and elevating risks of burnout and mental health issues.^[94] Post-2020, the rise of virtual meetings has amplified these incidents, with "Zoom rage"—outbursts of verbal hostility during remote calls—reported in professional interactions, often exacerbated by digital miscommunication and screen fatigue. Customer verbal abuse in service roles, such as retail or call centers, frequently escalates from complaints to personal attacks, leading to emotional exhaustion among frontline workers.^[95] Emerging digital extensions of verbal aggression include cyber forms in educational forums, like online class discussions, and professional social media, such as LinkedIn or industry groups, where anonymous posting enables toxic comments and harassment. A 2025 study on online platform toxicity identifies verbal aggression as a core component of digital divisiveness, prevalent in educational contexts through peer shaming in virtual learning environments and in professional networks via targeted critiques that undermine careers.^[96] AI-moderated systems, employing natural language processing to detect and flag toxic language, have shown promise in reducing such aggression in moderated forums, though challenges persist in contextual nuance and bias in algorithmic enforcement.^[96] Mitigation strategies in these settings emphasize structured interventions to curb verbal aggression. In schools, anti-bullying programs incorporating staff training on recognition and response have demonstrated effectiveness, reducing verbal incidents through empathy-building curricula and clear reporting protocols.^[97] Athletic organizations implement coach education on motivational communication, drawing from 2000s guidelines to distinguish constructive feedback from abusive language. In workplaces, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) training addresses verbal harassment by fostering inclusive norms and conflict resolution skills, with programs reporting decreased escalations in customer service via de-escalation techniques and policy enforcement.^[98] For online spaces, AI tools integrated with human oversight enhance moderation in educational and professional platforms.^[96]

References

[1]
Verbal aggressiveness: An interpersonal model and measure
A rationale is developed for studying verbal aggression apart from other types of aggression, and several studies developing a Verbal Aggressiveness Scale are ...
[2]
Verbal Hostility - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Verbal hostility is defined as the use of language and verbal communication intended to inflict mental stress, often manifesting as aggression, threats, ...
[3]
Physical, Verbal, and Relational Aggression: The Role of Anger ...
Aggression is defined as an act performed with an intention to harm other people (Anderson & Bushman, Citation2002). The most common form of aggressive behavior ...
[4]
(PDF) Verbal Aggression - ResearchGate
The articles contained in this special issue focus on verbal aggression. The studies delve into the trait and state antecedents to aggressive language use.
[5]
[PDF] The Dimensionality of the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale
Infante and Wigley's (1986) Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) is a widely accepted and frequently used measure of trait verbal aggression.
[6]
The Psychological Impact of Verbal Abuse: A Scientific Literature ...
Jun 4, 2025 · Studies show chronic exposure to verbal aggression can lead to structural and functional changes in the brain, particularly in the prefrontal ...
[7]
Verbal, physical and relational aggression: individual differences in ...
Feb 13, 2024 · Verbal, physical and relational aggression: individual differences in emotion and cognitive regulation strategies | Current Psychology.
[8]
9.1 Defining Aggression – Principles of Social Psychology
Nonphysical aggression includes verbal aggression (yelling, screaming, swearing, and name calling) and relational or social aggression, which is defined as ...
[9]
[PDF] Who Watches Verbally Aggressive Shows?
Verbal aggression was defined as insults (in- cluding swearing, bleeping, and name calling), verbal threats and hostile commands, arguments, and yelling ...
[10]
(PDF) The dimensionality of the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale
Aug 6, 2025 · This establishes the difference between verbal aggression (the act of using aggressive language on person) and verbal aggressiveness (a person's ...
[11]
From Physical Aggression to Verbal Behavior: Language Evolution ...
The tension between these two seemingly opposing forces gets resolved/alleviated by a tendency to replace physical aggression with verbal aggression and with ...
[12]
Relational Aggression - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Relational aggression is defined as a form of aggression that does not involve direct confrontation and may include behaviors such as exclusion, spreading ...
[13]
Forms of Emotional and Verbal Abuse You May Be Overlooking
Apr 3, 2017 · Emotional abuse is behavior that's derogating, controlling, punishing, or manipulative. · Verbal abuse is the most common form of emotional abuse ...
[14]
Verbal and Emotional Abuse: What's the Difference?
Feb 7, 2021 · Verbal abuse is the use of language to hurt another person while emotional abuse primarily uses emotion instead of language to achieve this.
[15]
The Role of Verbal Aggression in Cyberbullying Perpetration ... - MDPI
This manuscript examined the role trait verbal aggression plays in cyberbullying victimization and perpetration in adolescence.
[16]
FREUD AND AGGRESSION - PsychStory
Jan 7, 2025 · Freud saw psychoanalysis as a structured form of catharsis, providing patients with the opportunity to access and release repressed aggressive ...Missing: 1920s | Show results with:1920s
[17]
[PDF] THE PSYCHOANALYTIC CONCEPT OF AGGRESSION
observe that when Freud (1920) actually intro- duced the concept of aggression as an instinctual drive, he remained true to his earlier conviction that ...Missing: catharsis | Show results with:catharsis
[18]
Chapter 3 – Sigmund Freud – Multicultural Personality Theory
The energy associated with the death instinct is aggressive, but Freud never gave names to either the death instinct or its associated aggressive energy.
[19]
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - Simply Psychology
Sep 28, 2023 · The frustration aggression hypothesis proposes that frustration leads to aggression, with aggression being an outcome of blocked goals.
[20]
The Real Scoop on a Famous Study of Human Aggression
Jun 18, 2021 · Why and How Psychologists Study Aggression. After WW II there was some interest in why the same species kills its own at such an alarming rate, ...
[21]
Albert Bandura's experiments on aggression modeling in children
After observing the aggressive model, boys tend to exhibit more physical aggression than girls, whereas no gender difference is found for verbal aggression.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[22]
[PDF] What Are Argumentative and Aggressive Communication?
There are two destructive traits in Infante's model of aggressive communi- cation, hostility and verbal aggressiveness. First, we will describe hostility ...
[23]
The Relationship of Argumentativeness to Verbal Aggression
Aug 5, 2025 · Aggressive communicational traits such as verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness, coincide on a person's behavior as has been verified in ...
[24]
Online aggression: The influences of anonymity and social modeling.
Jun 16, 2014 · We investigate how the online atmosphere of anonymity and social modeling affects the degree to which an individual displays verbal aggression ...
[25]
An Examination of Verbal Aggression in Politically-Motivated Digital ...
Jul 1, 2021 · This paper examines verbal aggression online in the political discourse of Congo-Brazzaville Facebook users.
[26]
The Association Between Social Media Addiction and Aggressive ...
These studies highlight SMA as a risk factor for heightened aggressive behavior. Generally, social media use is considered a contributor for youth violence ( ...
[27]
Frustration–aggression hypothesis reconsidered - Wiley Online Library
Jun 7, 2023 · One of the oldest scientific theories of human aggression is the frustration–aggression hypothesis, advanced in 1939.
[28]
Frustration-aggression hypothesis: examination and reformulation
Examines the Dollard et al. (1939) frustration-aggression hypothesis. The original formulation's main proposition is limited to interference with an ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
What Is Bandura's Social Learning Theory? 3 Examples
May 17, 2021 · According to the SLT, “aggressive behaviors are learned through reinforcement and the imitation of aggressive models” (Gross, 2020, p. 489).
[30]
Social Learning Theory of Aggression | Journal of Communication
It is the principled resort to aggression that is of greatest social concern but most ignored in psychological theorizing and research.
[31]
(PDF) A Social Learning Understanding of Violence - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · The main interest of this article is to understand violence and aggression from the perspective of Bandura's social learning theory.
[32]
Towards a theory of interpersonal accommodation through language
16 Communication Accommodation Theory · H. GilesTania Ogay. Sociology. 2006 ... verbal aggression as a function of attacker, target, and order of attack.
[33]
“Where Are You From?” Language Attitudes and (Non ...
Dec 28, 2023 · Communication Accommodation Theory. CAT seeks to explain and predict how ... Others involved acts of verbal aggression. For example, I11 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Argumentativeness and Verbal Aggressiveness: A Review of Recent ...
Infante, D. A., & Wigley, C. J. ... Conversational sensitivity as a correlate of trait verbal aggressiveness and the predisposition to verbally praise others.<|separator|>
[35]
(PDF) Are mindful people less aggressive? The role of emotion ...
May 11, 2022 · The present study examined the association between mindfulness and aggression through potential mediating effects of several emotion regulation ...
[36]
A network analysis of anger and emotion regulation - PubMed
Nov 17, 2023 · This study aimed to investigate the interrelations between emotion regulation strategies and different types of anger using network analysis.Missing: models 2020s
[37]
Effects of self-compassion on aggression and its psychological ...
Nov 16, 2024 · Our research illuminated the intricate relationship between self-compassion, perceived stress, and aggression.
[38]
The dimensionality of the verbal aggressiveness scale
Abstract. Infante and Wigley's (1986) Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) is a widely accepted and frequently used measure of trait verbal aggression.
[39]
Argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness: Testing for ...
Jun 2, 2009 · The results indicated that: (a) the two—factor solution of the Argumentativeness Scale and the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale was a reasonable ...
[40]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03637759409376336
[41]
Cortisol and Oxytocin Could Predict Covert Aggression in Some ...
Jul 27, 2021 · Considering that this type of aggression is usually left unmanaged, there is a serious risk for unpredictable violence [8]. Regarding these ...
[42]
The Relationship Between Resting Heart Rate Variability, Hostility ...
Jan 24, 2019 · This study examined how resting HRV is associated with trait measures of hostility, anger, and aggression, and was the first to examine how ...Missing: speech | Show results with:speech
[43]
Examining the feasibility and utility of heart rate variability on ...
Jul 4, 2024 · demonstrates continuous HRV data can be used to predict aggressive behavior 1–3 min before it occurs in minimally verbal and severely impacted ...
[44]
Aggression Detection in Social Media from Textual Data Using Deep ...
Verbal aggression detection on Twitter comments: Convolutional neural network for short-text sentiment analysis. Neural Comput. Appl. 2020, 32, 10809–10818 ...Aggression Detection In... · 3. Methodology · 4. Results
[45]
[PDF] Natural Language Processing and Sentiment Analysis for Verbal ...
To help resolve this issue, we created an aggression awareness tool called Tempr to discourage verbal aggression in gamers under the age of 18 and reward non- ...
[46]
Daily reports of intimate partner verbal aggression by self and partner
Oct 23, 2014 · The current study examines both partners' reports of verbal aggression to determine whether aggression reported by only one partner influences both partners' ...Missing: multi- | Show results with:multi-
[47]
A Multitrait–Multimethod Validity Assessment of the Verbal ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The multimethod data, however, show near zero correlations between self-reports and observed behavior and evidence of method variance. These ...
[48]
[PDF] HUMOR AS AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION
Infante et al. (1984) la- beled 10 communication behaviors as possible messages of verbal aggression: (a) character attacks,. (b) competence attacks, (c) ...
[49]
[PDF] The Pennsylvania State University - PSU-ETD
language as the symbol system that conveys verbal aggression. According to my definition, verbal aggression is also classified as a behavior. A behavior.
[50]
An Inductively Derived Typology of Verbal Aggression and Its ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Verbal aggression has been consistently found to be a destructive form of communication. A summary on the research concerning verbal ...
[51]
The relationship between cultural individualism-collectivism and ...
Mar 12, 2013 · This relation was evident in the principals' reports on 4th and 8th grade students' aggressive behavior for both physical and verbal aggression.
[52]
[PDF] A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Students' Exposure to Bullying ...
Cultural Variation in Aggressive Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of ... namely USA, and a highly collectivist Eastern nation, namely Japan. They ...
[53]
The Relationship Between Cultural Individualism-Collectivism and ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Collectivist societies may inhibit aggression (at least overt aggression) more than individualistic societies (for a review, see Chen & French, ...
[54]
(PDF) Intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Aggression
Oct 9, 2025 · The present study examined whether physical and verbal aggression in the family of origin were associated with similar patterns of aggression ...
[55]
Intergenerational Transmission of Peer Aggression - PMC - NIH
Jun 3, 2022 · Harsh parenting and offspring peer aggression may thus mutually influence each other. Of note, harsh parenting as well as G2 peer aggression are ...Missing: verbal | Show results with:verbal
[56]
Media Violence | Pediatrics | American Academy of Pediatrics
Nov 1, 2009 · Extensive research evidence indicates that media violence can contribute to aggressive behavior, desensitization to violence, nightmares, and ...
[57]
The Online Disinhibition Effect
Feb 25, 2009 · When people have the opportunity to separate their actions from their real world and identity, they feel less vulnerable about opening up.
[58]
Violence in the Great Recession - PMC - PubMed Central
For the main analyses, explicit codes were used to identify child abuse, elder abuse, and intimate partner violence in the hospital discharge data. However, ...Missing: verbal hostility
[59]
[PDF] How poverty affects people's decision-making processes - LSE
Feb 2, 2017 · ... aggression and hostility. As young as preschool age, large studies document that more aggressive behaviour is observed in children from low ...
[60]
Environmental Antecedents of Workplace Aggression (Chapter 2)
Preliminary studies indicate that poor violence climate is associated with negative emotions, verbal aggression, and even physical violence at work (Kessler, ...
[61]
Is Emotional Abuse As Harmful as Physical and/or Sexual ... - NIH
Dec 10, 2019 · This research study predicts that those who report emotional abuse will have higher sores for depression, anxiety, stress, and neuroticism personality.
[62]
Verbal Abuse Related to Self-Esteem Damage and Unjust Blame ...
Apr 4, 2019 · Verbal abuse that damages self-esteem and conveys unjust blame harms mental health and social interaction for college population.
[63]
https://doi.org/10.25255/jss.2015.4.2.877.885
[64]
Influential factors of depression: The impact of harsh parenting ...
Jan 26, 2024 · These behaviors can include physical aggression, verbal aggression, neglect, rejection, threats, and denial [6]. ... learned helplessness and ...Missing: distorted | Show results with:distorted
[65]
Increased Cortisol Response and Low Quality of Life in Women ...
Jun 26, 2022 · The aim of this study was to compare the quality of life and changes in cortisol response to an acute stressor between women exposed to IPV and non-exposed ...Abstract · Introduction · Methods · Discussion
[66]
Sleep Disturbances and Their Association With Mental Health ... - NIH
Sleep disturbances were prevalent among women experiencing intimate partner violence, with both insomnia and nightmares predicting the presence of depression.
[67]
Emotions Associated with Verbal Aggression Expression and ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Prior research has indicated that aggressive expression could leave an individual in a negative affect state, such as guilt and anxiety (Aloia & ...
[68]
Antisocial Personality Disorder - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Feb 29, 2024 · Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive and enduring pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others.Missing: guilt escalated
[69]
Verbal Abuse As Damaging As Physical Abuse To Children's Mental ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Verbal abuse increased by 64% a child's likelihood of low mental well-being as an adult, while physical abused increased odds by 52%, ...Missing: delays 2020s
[70]
Verbal Abuse in Childhood Rewires the Developing Brain
May 11, 2025 · New neuroscience research highlights how verbal abuse in childhood can alter brain development and increase the risk of mental health issues later in life.
[71]
Verbal Mistreatment in the Elderly - PMC - NIH
Conclusions. Verbal mistreatment is a serious and understudied form of elder abuse, which may be associated with decreases in both mental and physical health.
[72]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441930/
[73]
Identifying and Addressing Bullying - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Dec 13, 2023 · In social bullying, the bully aims to isolate, hurt, or control the victim emotionally, which can result in psychological and emotional sequelae ...Etiology · History And Physical · Treatment / Management
[74]
What Are the Different Types of Bullying? - Verywell Mind
In-person bullying is still more prevalent than cyberbullying but cyberbullying ... Gender differences in trajectories of relational aggression perpetration and ...Key Takeaways · 6 Types Of Bullying · Relational Bullying<|separator|>
[75]
Enforcement Guidance on Harassment in the Workplace
Apr 29, 2024 · This Commission-approved enforcement guidance presents a legal analysis of standards for harassment and employer liability applicable to claims ...
[76]
Sexual Harassment at Work in the Era of #MeToo
Apr 4, 2018 · Smaller shares see premature firings (34%) and false claims of sexual harassment or assault (31%) as major problems. In general, women are ...Missing: aggression | Show results with:aggression
[77]
How to Manage Aggressive Communication - Verywell Mind
Dec 4, 2023 · Unlike aggression, assertiveness can improve relationships and increase life satisfaction. Here are a few ways to tell the difference ...
[78]
Inducing jealousy and intimate partner violence among young adults
Jealousy induction was associated with experiences of partner violence after accounting for familial background, relationship and sociodemographic factors.
[79]
Pathological jealousy: Romantic relationship characteristics ...
Mar 15, 2015 · Jealousy is a major source of relationship dissatisfaction, manifesting as conflicts, separations, aggression, and violence, all of which are ...
[80]
[PDF] Demand-Withdraw Interaction in Couples With a Violent Husband
Alpha coefficients were high for the Verbal. Aggression (.77 to .88) and Violence (.62 to .88) subscales and relatively low for the Reasoning subscale (.50 to .
[81]
About Intimate Partner Violence - CDC
May 16, 2024 · This page defines intimate partner violence, presents the latest data and describes outcomes.National Intimate Partner and · Prevention · View All Intimate Partner... · Stalking
[82]
The Relationship Between Parents' Verbal Aggression and Young ...
The data appear to support theory that suggests parents of the same sex as their children are stronger models for aggressive behavior (CitationBandura, 1986).
[83]
Parental verbal affection and verbal aggression in childhood ...
This cross-sectional study examined the effects of parental verbal aggression and affection during childhood on measures of psychopathology and wellbeing.
[84]
Sibling rivalry: When the fighting crosses the line - McGill University
Oct 19, 2018 · And sometimes those fights escalate to involve physical, verbal, and psychological aggression. Aggression between siblings is so common that ...
[85]
[PDF] Sex differences in verbal aggression use in romantic relationships
Abstract. Purpose – The current study aimed to investigate potential sex differences in the use of verbal aggression in romantic relationships.
[86]
The Gender Perspective on Parent-to-child Aggression
Dec 10, 2020 · Only paternal verbal and physical aggression was more common against daughters, and only maternal verbal and physical aggression was more common ...
[87]
Intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Aggression
The present study examined whether physical and verbal aggression in the family of origin were associated with similar patterns of aggression in young adult ...
[88]
V is for Violence - The Gottman Institute
Mar 4, 2024 · Therapy for Partner Aggression and Abuse – On-Demand · Seven ... couples therapy when Characterological Violence is present. But what ...
[89]
Cultural Differences in the Association of Harsh Parenting with ...
Oct 8, 2021 · It includes verbal aggression, such as yelling or name calling, and physical aggression, such as slapping, spanking, or beating up (Hinnant et ...
[90]
Parenting styles: An evidence-based, cross-cultural guide
Kids from authoritarian families are at somewhat higher risk for “externalizing symptoms” – such as aggression and defiance. In addition, these kids may develop ...
[91]
Direct verbal aggression in school settings: A review of the literature
2020, Violence and Gender. Adolescent Social Networks and Physical, Verbal, and Indirect Aggression in China: The Moderating Role of Gender. 2020, Frontiers ...Introduction · Verbal Aggression · References (113)
[92]
Verbal Aggression in the School Environment
Sep 12, 2024 · Verbal aggression undermines everyone's sense of safety and can seriously disrupt school connection and engagement, weakening student-teacher ...
[93]
Coach Verbal Aggression: A Case Study Examining Effects on ...
Trash talk and beyond: Aggressive communication in the context of sports. In T.A. Avtgis & A.S. Rancer (Eds.), Arguments, aggression, and conflict: New ...
[94]
The Effects of Verbal Insults on Motivation and Performance in a ...
EFFECTS OF TRASH TALK ON HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES. Preprint. Full-text ... Talking Smack: Verbal Aggression in Professional Wrestling. Article. Full-text ...
[95]
Impacts of workplace verbal aggression classified via text mining on ...
Feb 12, 2024 · We hypothesized that exposure to life-threatening verbal abuse, such as 'kill you', and verbal aggression that criticizes one's ability to work, ...
[96]
Workplace Violence Rises Post-Pandemic - RF Technologies
The APA research found incidents of verbal harassment and threatening behavior towards teachers from students rose from 33 percent during the pandemic to 80 ...
[97]
Reducing frontline employee directed verbal abuse: A multi-study ...
Customer verbal abuse (CVA) directed at frontline employees (FLE) remains a pervasive and escalating challenge for retail and service-based organizations, ...
[98]
https://www.embracingequity.org/post/why-organizations-should-explore-dei-workshops-and-training
[99]
School-Based Anti-Bullying Interventions Work! - StopBullying.gov
Sep 12, 2022 · Training for school staff on how to identify and respond to bullying experiences.Missing: verbal DEI
[100]
Why Organizations Should Explore DEI Workshops and Training
They cover what harassment is and how to spot and stop it. They educate participants about various forms of harassment. These include verbal abuse, bullying, ...