Video assistant referee
Video assistant referee (VAR) is a match official protocol in association football whereby a video assistant referee, supported by assistant video assistant referees, reviews video footage to assist the on-field referee solely for clear and obvious errors or serious missed incidents in four key areas: goals and whether they should be awarded or disallowed, penalty decisions, direct red card events, and cases of mistaken identity.[1] The system, formalized by the International Football Association Board (IFAB) in 2018 laws of the game, limits interventions to maintain referee authority while aiming to enhance decision accuracy through technological review.[2] First trialed in non-competitive and lower-stakes matches around 2012-2016, VAR entered competitive use in leagues such as the Dutch Eredivisie and Australian A-League before its high-profile debut at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where it overturned decisions in notable instances like a disallowed goal in the France versus Australia opener.[3] Empirical analyses indicate VAR has empirically raised refereeing accuracy rates from pre-implementation baselines of 82-92% to 96-98% across major competitions, reducing critical errors in reviewed incidents.[4][5] Despite these gains, VAR has sparked persistent controversies over its causal effects on game dynamics, including extended stoppages averaging additional minutes per match, heightened issuance of disciplinary cards post-intervention, and debates on whether "clear and obvious" thresholds introduce new subjective biases that undermine real-time flow and fan engagement.[6][7][8] Ongoing refinements, such as semi-automated offside technology integrations, seek to mitigate delays, though data reveals mixed outcomes on overall match performance variables like possession and shots.[9]Definition and Principles
Core Concept and Role
The Video Assistant Referee (VAR) serves as an off-field match official equipped with access to multiple camera angles and video replays to support the on-field referee's decision-making in association football. This system, governed by protocols established by the International Football Association Board (IFAB), limits intervention to rectifying clear and obvious errors or addressing serious missed incidents within four defined reviewable categories: incidents involving goals (including preceding offences), penalties, direct red cards, and mistaken identity of players.[1] The VAR team, typically comprising the VAR and two assistant VARs (AVARs), communicates potential issues to the referee via a private audio link, ensuring that only factual corrections—rather than subjective reinterpretations—are proposed.[2] Central to the VAR's role is the principle of minimum interference, maximum benefit, which prioritizes preserving the game's natural flow while enhancing decision accuracy on high-stakes calls that could alter match outcomes. Interventions occur only after the referee's initial on-field decision, with the VAR prompted to review footage if a reviewable error is suspected; however, the referee retains ultimate authority, either accepting the VAR's recommendation or conducting an on-field review (OFR) by viewing the replay on a pitchside monitor.[1] This structure aims to mitigate human error in real-time officiating, where unaided perception limits—such as obscured views or rapid action—can lead to inaccuracies, without supplanting the referee's judgment on matters like subjective fouls outside the protocol's scope.[10] Empirical evaluations of VAR implementation, including trials preceding its 2018 FIFA World Cup debut, indicate it reduces critical errors in targeted incidents by up to 95% in controlled settings, though its effectiveness depends on consistent application of the "clear and obvious" threshold to avoid over-correction.[1] The system's design reflects a causal focus on verifiable evidence from synchronized footage, countering optical illusions or positional biases inherent in live observation, yet it does not extend to non-reviewable elements like indirect free kicks or yellow cards unless tied to the core categories.[2]Objectives and Decision-Making Protocols
The primary objective of the video assistant referee (VAR) system is to assist the on-field referee in correcting clear and obvious errors or identifying serious missed incidents within specific match-changing situations, thereby enhancing the accuracy of final decisions without supplanting the referee's authority.[1] This intervention is strictly limited to ensure that VAR supports rather than disrupts the game's flow, prioritizing factual verification over subjective reinterpretation of routine calls.[1] Guiding principles include minimum interference, whereby VAR intervenes only when a clear and obvious error is evident, respecting the referee's initial on-field decision unless it demonstrably deviates from the Laws of the Game.[1] Another core tenet is accuracy over speed, with no imposed time limits on reviews to allow thorough examination of footage, though prolonged delays are avoided to maintain game momentum.[1] The referee retains ultimate decision-making authority, receiving recommendations from the VAR team but finalizing outcomes independently, often after an on-field review (OFR) at a pitchside monitor if deemed necessary.[1] VAR reviews apply exclusively to four categories of incidents:- Goal/no goal decisions, including any offences or offside positions leading to the goal;
- Penalty/no penalty decisions, encompassing related offences;
- Direct red card incidents (excluding second yellow cards);
- Mistaken identity, such as incorrectly cautioning or sending off the wrong player.[1]
Technical Implementation
Review Procedures and Check Categories
The video assistant referee (VAR) system employs a structured protocol governed by the International Football Association Board (IFAB), emphasizing minimum interference-maximum benefit to correct only clear and obvious errors or serious missed incidents without unduly disrupting gameplay.[1] This principle requires the on-field referee to make an initial decision based on real-time observation, with VAR intervention limited to specific match-altering situations; the referee retains sole authority to initiate any review, accepting or rejecting VAR recommendations.[1] Reviews prioritize accuracy over speed, with no fixed time limits, though play is stopped only when necessary in neutral zones to facilitate assessment.[1] VAR conducts an automatic check—a preliminary inspection—of all incidents falling within defined categories using multiple camera angles and synchronized replays, remaining silent unless a potential error is identified.[1] The four primary reviewable categories are:- Goal/no goal: Including preceding incidents such as fouls, offside positions, ball out of play, or encroachment by non-participating players.[1]
- Penalty/no penalty: Encompassing the location of offenses (inside/outside the penalty area), handball, fouls, and goalkeeper movement or encroachment.[1]
- Direct red card: Covering violent conduct, serious foul play, or denying an obvious goal-scoring opportunity (DOGSO), but excluding decisions based on a second yellow card.[1]
- Mistaken identity: Correcting sanctions applied to the wrong player, applicable to both red cards and cautions.[1]
Equipment, Camera Systems, and Operational Setup
The Video Assistant Referee (VAR) system employs two primary configurations certified by FIFA: full VAR setups, which support at least four cameras with no upper limit, and VAR Light systems, restricted to a maximum of eight cameras for cost-effective implementation in lower-tier or resource-limited environments.[11] Full VAR requires dedicated positions for a replay operator (RO) to handle footage synchronization, whereas VAR Light relies on the VAR performing this function without a separate RO, necessitating additional training for operators.[11] Camera systems utilize high-definition feeds from multiple angles around the pitch, integrated with broadcast signals for comprehensive coverage; slow-motion replay is mandatory for factual assessments like contact points, while normal speed suffices for evaluating subjective elements such as foul intensity.[1] In high-profile events like the 2022 FIFA World Cup, setups expanded to 42 broadcast cameras, including eight super slow-motion and four ultra slow-motion units, supplemented by semi-automated offside technology feeds.[10] Operational setup occurs in a secure Video Operation Room (VOR), typically located near or within the stadium for full VAR or in a neutral site for VAR Light, housing the VAR, one or more assistant VARs (AVARs), and ROs as needed.[11] The VAR maintains independent access to replay controls for TV footage, connected via the match officials' communication system, which uses button-activated audio links to the on-field referee to minimize disruptions.[1] AVARs support by monitoring live play, offside positions, or field events; for example, in the 2022 World Cup VOR, AVAR1 tracked the main camera feed, AVAR2 handled offside checks via specialized stations, and AVAR3 coordinated replays with three ROs.[10] Monitoring equipment includes upper screens for primary live feeds and quad-split displays for multi-angle incident reviews, ensuring the VAR team can isolate and analyze potential errors in goals, penalties, direct red cards, or mistaken identity without time constraints, prioritizing accuracy.[10] For on-field reviews, the referee accesses a pitchside monitor displaying VAR-curated clips, with only authorized personnel permitted in the VOR to maintain integrity.[1] FIFA's Quality Programme for VAR Technology, established in 2022, mandates certification for all systems, testing aspects like camera synchronization, replay latency, and integration with optional VOR cameras, with full compliance required by mid-2024 for VAR Light transitions.[11] This framework ensures operational reliability across competitions, though implementation varies by organizer approval under IFAB protocols.[1]On-Field and Off-Field Review Processes
The video assistant referee (VAR) system employs distinct on-field and off-field processes to assist the match referee in reviewing decisions, adhering to protocols established by the International Football Association Board (IFAB). Off-field reviews occur in a video operation room (VOR), where the VAR team—comprising the VAR, assistant VARs (AVAR1 for offside analysis and AVAR2 for general support), and a replay operator—continuously monitors the match via multiple camera feeds.[1] This team automatically conducts a "check" for all reviewable incidents, limited to four categories: goal/no goal, penalty/no penalty, direct red/yellow-red card, and mistaken identity.[1] Using various angles and speeds (normal for assessing foul intensity, slow-motion for factual elements), the VAR identifies potential clear and obvious errors or serious missed incidents, then communicates findings to the on-field referee via headset only if intervention is warranted under the minimum interference principle.[1][12] In off-field-only interventions, the referee may overturn a decision based solely on the VAR's verbal recommendation without viewing footage, typically for objective matters like offside positions or clear factual errors, ensuring the referee retains final authority.[1][12] The VAR team avoids unnecessary interruptions, remaining silent if no error is evident, and prioritizes accuracy over speed, with no fixed time limits for checks.[1] Communication follows a structured protocol: the VAR states "possible clear and obvious error" or "possible serious missed incident," describes the issue, and provides supporting evidence upon request.[1] On-field reviews (OFRs) involve the referee personally examining selected footage on a pitchside monitor in a designated referee review area (RRA), typically located near the halfway line for visibility.[1] Triggered by a VAR recommendation or the referee's own initiative upon suspicion of an error, the process begins with the referee signaling play to stop (if ongoing) in a neutral area and displaying the "TV signal" to indicate review.[1] The VAR supplies replay clips, which the referee views independently before returning to the field to announce the final decision, potentially altering disciplinary sanctions or restarting play accordingly.[1] OFRs are mandatory for subjective judgments, such as the intensity of fouls or player interference in offside scenarios, to uphold the referee's primary responsibility.[1][12] Once play restarts after certain decisions (e.g., free kicks or throw-ins), reviews are generally precluded except for mistaken identity or specific violent conduct, preventing post-facto disruptions.[1] Throughout both processes, the on-field referee's judgment prevails, with VAR serving as an assistive tool rather than an override mechanism; players and coaches cannot influence or request reviews.[1] These procedures, standardized since VAR's integration into the Laws of the Game in 2018/19, aim to correct material errors while preserving game flow.[2]Historical Development
Origins and Initial Trials
The concept of the video assistant referee (VAR) emerged in the early 2010s as part of the Royal Netherlands Football Association's (KNVB) Refereeing 2.0 project, aimed at enhancing referee decision-making through technological assistance to address perceptual limitations in high-speed play.[13] Initial development focused on integrating video review to verify subjective calls, with mock simulations conducted in the Netherlands to test feasibility without disrupting match flow.[14] Offline trials began during the 2012–13 Eredivisie season, where video footage was reviewed post-match to evaluate potential error rates in decisions such as goals, penalties, red cards, and mistaken identity.[15] These non-intrusive tests provided data on review accuracy but did not influence live outcomes, allowing developers to refine protocols for minimal game interruption. The International Football Association Board (IFAB), responsible for the Laws of the Game, approved experimental live trials in its 2016 annual meeting, setting criteria for limited interventions on clear and obvious errors.[16] The first live VAR trial occurred in a July 2016 preseason friendly between PSV Eindhoven and FC Eindhoven in the Netherlands, followed shortly by its debut in an international friendly between Italy and France on September 1, 2016, where it assisted in reviewing a potential penalty.[17] In competitive fixtures, VAR was first used on September 21, 2016, during a KNVB Cup match between Ajax and Willem II, marking the initial application in a professional, non-exhibition context.[16] These early trials, confined to select Dutch competitions and internationals, demonstrated potential for reducing referee errors by up to 10–15% in reviewed incidents, though they highlighted challenges like review duration averaging 60–90 seconds.[18] IFAB monitored outcomes closely, requiring evidence of consistent accuracy before broader authorization.Key Adoption Milestones and Global Rollout
The concept of video assistant referee (VAR) emerged from trials initiated by the International Football Association Board (IFAB) in 2016, with initial live experiments conducted in friendly matches, such as the June 2016 international friendly between France and Italy.[14] Early competitive implementations followed in 2017, when Australia's A-League became the first top-flight domestic league to adopt VAR for its regular season matches.[19] Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States introduced VAR in its 2017 season, starting with competitive fixtures after a demonstration at the 2017 All-Star Game on August 2.[3] IFAB formally approved VAR for use in official competitions on March 3, 2018, enabling its integration into the Laws of the Game.[16] This paved the way for its debut in a major FIFA tournament at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, where VAR was employed across all 64 matches, reviewing 440 incidents and overturning 20 on-field decisions.[17] European leagues accelerated adoption shortly thereafter: Germany's Bundesliga and Italy's Serie A implemented VAR in their 2017-18 seasons, followed by Spain's La Liga and France's Ligue 1 in 2018-19.[20] The English Premier League joined in the 2019-20 season after unanimous club approval in November 2018, marking a significant expansion in one of the world's most prominent domestic competitions.[16] VAR's global rollout extended to continental and international events, including the UEFA Champions League from the 2018-19 season onward.[14] By 2022, it had been adopted in over 100 competitions worldwide, encompassing major leagues in Asia (e.g., J-League), South America (e.g., Brasileirão), and Africa, though implementation varied by federation resources and regulatory approval.[21] Lower-tier and regional leagues, such as those in Eastern Europe and parts of South America, experienced delayed or partial rollouts due to infrastructural challenges, with full global standardization remaining uneven as of 2023.[13] FIFA's ongoing refinements, including semi-automated offside technology integrations, have supported broader dissemination in elite tournaments like the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[10]Evolution Through Major Events
The first operational use of VAR in a professional football match occurred on September 21, 2016, during the KNVB Cup tie between Ajax and Willem II in the Netherlands, where it assisted in reviewing potential offside and penalty incidents, establishing early procedural benchmarks for intervention only on clear errors.[20] This trial, part of IFAB's experimental phase, demonstrated feasibility but highlighted needs for standardized communication between on-field referees and video assistants, influencing subsequent guidelines. Following domestic cup tests, the Bundesliga became the first top-tier league to integrate VAR for the entire 2017/18 season, with its inaugural intervention on August 18, 2017, in the opening match between Borussia Dortmund and VfL Wolfsburg, awarding a penalty after review; this rollout reduced refereeing errors by approximately 10% in reviewed incidents but exposed inconsistencies in subjective calls like handballs, prompting IFAB to refine training protocols.[22] The 2018 FIFA World Cup represented VAR's breakthrough in a global tournament, applied across 62 matches with interventions in 19 cases, including four penalties awarded and seven decisions overturned, elevating overall decision accuracy from a pre-tournament baseline of 95% to 99.3%.[23] While FIFA officials hailed it as ushering a "new era" for officiating by correcting high-stakes errors—such as penalties in France vs. Australia and Argentina vs. Nigeria—the system's debut also generated debate over interruptions, with critics noting prolonged stoppages in matches like Portugal vs. Spain, where multiple reviews altered the flow.[24] These events catalyzed post-tournament adjustments by IFAB, including expanded use of on-field reviews via pitchside monitors to enhance transparency and referee ownership, shifting from VAR-centric overrides to collaborative verification limited to "clear and obvious errors."[1] Subsequent league adoptions, such as the English Premier League's implementation for the 2019/20 season, tested these refinements amid initial operational challenges, where VAR overturned 109 of 2,400 checked incidents but drew scrutiny for inconsistent subjective interpretations, like red-card reviews, leading to mandatory enhanced referee-VAR synchronization training.[25] By 2022, technological evolution peaked at the FIFA World Cup in Qatar, integrating semi-automated offside technology (SAOT) with VAR—employing 12 tracking cameras and AI to generate real-time positional data—reducing offside review times from 70 seconds to under 30 in key calls, such as Japan's opener against Germany, thereby addressing prior delays while maintaining human oversight for final rulings.[26] This hybrid advancement, absent in 2018, reflected iterative responses to empirical feedback on efficiency, with FIFA reporting fewer disputes in tight offside scenarios across the tournament.[27]Usage Across Competitions
International and Continental Tournaments
VAR was introduced at the FIFA World Cup during the 2018 edition in Russia, marking its debut in a premier international tournament, where officials reviewed incidents involving goals, penalties, red cards, and mistaken identity using up to 33 cameras and four VAR personnel per match.[28] The system corrected 14 on-field decisions across 64 matches, including the first-ever World Cup penalty awarded via VAR in the France-Australia opener on June 16, 2018.[29] FIFA extended VAR to the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017 as a precursor trial and has mandated it for subsequent World Cups, such as 2022 in Qatar, alongside the FIFA Club World Cup, where full implementation includes semi-automated offside technology integration by 2025.[2] UEFA adopted VAR in the UEFA Champions League from the round of 16 knockout phase in February 2019, following trials in domestic leagues, before expanding it to all matches starting in the 2019-20 season across the competition's group and knockout stages.[30] The technology has since been standard in UEFA's continental events, including the UEFA Europa League from 2019-20 and the UEFA Nations League finals, with protocols emphasizing minimal interference to preserve game flow.[31] CONMEBOL implemented VAR for the 2019 Copa América in Brazil, where it overturned multiple goals—such as three disallowed for Brazil in their group draw against Venezuela on June 19—and averaged approximately two minutes per review across matches.[32][33] The system was also phased into Copa Libertadores from the quarterfinals in 2018, becoming fully operational in subsequent editions and South American qualifiers.[34] The AFC introduced VAR from the quarterfinal stage of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup in the UAE, applying it to the final four matches, before broader adoption in events like the AFC U-23 Asian Cup, where all 32 games used it starting in 2020 and fully in 2024.[35] CAF followed suit at the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations, deploying VAR from the quarterfinals onward, and expanded to all 52 matches for the 2021 tournament hosted in Cameroon in 2022, enhancing review consistency despite initial infrastructural challenges in African venues.[36][37]Domestic Leagues and Cups
Major domestic leagues adopted VAR following successful trials, with the Bundesliga and Serie A implementing it for the 2017–18 season.[38][39] La Liga and Ligue 1 followed in 2018–19, while the Premier League introduced VAR for the 2019–20 season.[40][41] Major League Soccer (MLS) became one of the earliest adopters among top domestic leagues, integrating VAR starting in 2017 after IFAB approval.[42]| League | Introduction Season |
|---|---|
| Bundesliga | 2017–18 |
| Serie A | 2017–18 |
| MLS | 2017 |
| La Liga | 2018–19 |
| Ligue 1 | 2018–19 |
| Premier League | 2019–20 |
Regional and Lower-Tier Adaptations
In lower-tier leagues and regional competitions, full Video Assistant Referee (VAR) systems are frequently impractical due to high costs for equipment, trained personnel, and venue infrastructure, prompting adaptations like "VAR Light" protocols that utilize fewer cameras—typically four or more but optimized for efficiency—and streamlined review processes to reduce operational demands.[53][2] These systems, certified by FIFA for non-elite competitions, prioritize essential checks such as goals, penalties, red cards, and mistaken identity while minimizing delays, making them feasible for divisions lacking the resources of top-flight leagues.[53] A prominent adaptation is Football Video Support (FVS), a simplified VAR variant trialed by FIFA at the 2025 FIFA U-20 World Cup, where coaches can issue up to two challenges per match for on-field decisions, with referees reviewing footage only upon successful appeals to confirm errors.[54] This coach-involved model, akin to challenge systems in cricket and tennis, aims to enhance accountability and reduce unnecessary interruptions in youth and lower-tier games, though it risks overuse if not strictly limited, as evidenced by its testing to balance fairness against game flow.[55] FIFA has considered expanding FVS as a potential replacement for traditional VAR in resource-constrained settings, citing its lower infrastructural footprint.[56] In specific regional contexts, such as Spain's lower divisions (e.g., Primera RFEF), the Royal Spanish Football Federation approved a low-cost VAR system in July 2025, enabling coaches to request reviews of key incidents like goals and penalties via on-pitch monitors, with implementation deferred for evaluation to address affordability while maintaining review integrity.[57] Similarly, Spain's Liga F (women's top division, often adapted for broader lower-tier principles) introduced a "VAR-lite" in 2025, limiting teams to two challenges per game as a cost-effective alternative that empowers managers without full-time VAR crews.[58] These adaptations reflect broader challenges in adoption, including referee training deficits and inconsistent video quality in smaller venues, which can undermine accuracy without rigorous IFAB-compliant protocols.[1] Many grassroots and regional leagues worldwide, particularly in developing confederations like CONCACAF, opt out of VAR entirely, relying on traditional officiating due to persistent logistical barriers.[59][60]Empirical Evidence of Impact
Accuracy Improvements and Error Correction Rates
Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated that the Video Assistant Referee (VAR) system enhances the accuracy of on-field referees' decisions in key match incidents, including goals, penalty awards, direct red cards, and mistaken identity. A meta-analysis of referee performance across 13 men's national leagues found that VAR intervention increased decision accuracy from 92.1% to 98.3% for these critical areas.[5] Similarly, in controlled trials, VAR rectified 77.5% of the 89 critical errors identified in on-field decisions, elevating overall accuracy in reviewed categories from 93% to 98.9%.[61] UEFA data from high-level competitions, including the Champions League, indicate that referees achieve 97.49% accuracy without VAR assistance, rising to 99.60% when technology is utilized for verification.[62] This improvement stems from VAR's protocol limiting interventions to "clear and obvious errors," which occurs in approximately 8-10% of matches, primarily correcting subjective misjudgments under pressure. Independent peer-reviewed research corroborates these gains, attributing the uplift to multiple camera angles and slow-motion replay reducing perceptual biases in fast-paced scenarios.[63] Error correction rates remain high, with VAR overturning initial calls in over 50% of reviewed incidents across major leagues, though incorrect VAR recommendations are rare, comprising less than 1% of interventions in recent seasons. For instance, in the English Premier League through mid-2023/24, VAR correctly adjusted 57 decisions while maintaining a 96% overall referee accuracy rate.[64]| Source | Pre-VAR Accuracy (Key Decisions) | Post-VAR Accuracy (Key Decisions) | Error Correction Rate |
|---|---|---|---|
| Spitz et al. (2021), 13 leagues | 92.1% | 98.3% | N/A |
| FIFA/IFAB Trials (2020) | 93% | 98.9% | 77.5% of critical errors |
| UEFA (2025) | 97.49% | 99.60% | >50% of reviews |