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Vog

Vog, short for volcanic smog, is a visible atmospheric haze composed of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas and fine sulfate aerosol particles, primarily sulfuric acid and other sulfate compounds, that forms when volcanic emissions react with oxygen, sunlight, moisture, and dust in the air.^[1] This pollution typically arises from active volcanoes, such as Kīlauea on Hawaiʻi Island, where SO₂ emissions from vents or lava flows interact chemically over minutes to days, creating aerosols that dominate farther from the source while SO₂ concentrations remain higher near vents.^[1]^[2] The dispersion of vog depends on factors like emission volume, wind speed, and direction; in Hawaiʻi, prevailing trade winds from the northeast carry it southwestward across the islands during 80–95% of the time from May to September, sometimes traveling hundreds of kilometers and affecting regions far from the eruption site.^[1] Notable examples include vog plumes from Kīlauea observed in satellite imagery, forming swirling patterns known as von Kármán vortices under specific wind conditions, as seen in February 2015.^[2] While vog is most associated with Hawaiian volcanoes, similar smog can occur at other sites with significant SO₂ emissions, such as during eruptions in Iceland or Indonesia, though the term "vog" originated in Hawaiʻi.^[1] Health effects of vog primarily stem from SO₂ irritating the eyes, skin, nose, throat, and lungs, leading to symptoms like coughing, shortness of breath, headaches, sore throat, and exacerbated respiratory conditions such as asthma.^[3] Sensitive groups—including children, the elderly, pregnant individuals, and those with preexisting respiratory or cardiac issues—face heightened risks, with fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) in vog potentially contributing to long-term cardiovascular and respiratory problems, though ongoing studies continue to assess chronic low-level exposure.^[1] Additionally, vog's acidic aerosols can corrode infrastructure and leach metals like lead from roofing or plumbing into water supplies, posing indirect health threats.^[3] Monitoring vog involves real-time networks operated by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Health and the National Park Service, tracking SO₂ and PM₂.₅ levels at stations across the islands to issue air quality advisories.^[1] Protective measures include staying indoors with windows closed during high concentrations, using HEPA air filters, remaining hydrated, and limiting outdoor exertion; authorities recommend avoiding N95 respirators for general use due to potential discomfort in humid conditions, instead advising medical consultation for persistent symptoms.^[1] Reduced visibility from vog also increases hazards for aviation, maritime, and road travel in affected areas.^[3]

Definition and Formation

Description

Vog, short for volcanic smog, is a form of air pollution characterized by a visible haze produced when volcanic emissions react with atmospheric components.^[4] It consists primarily of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas and fine aerosol particles, including sulfuric acid and other sulfate compounds, formed through photochemical reactions.^[1] Unlike direct volcanic gas plumes, which are immediate emissions from eruptive vents, vog develops as secondary pollutants farther downwind from the source volcano.^[4] The formation process begins with the release of SO₂ and other gases during volcanic activity, which then mix with oxygen, sunlight, and atmospheric moisture to generate tiny sulfate aerosol particles.^[5] These reactions typically occur in the presence of ultraviolet light, leading to the creation of a suspension of acidic droplets and particles that scatter light and form the haze.^[4] Vog concentrations depend on factors such as emission rates, distance from the volcano, and meteorological conditions, with higher levels often observed closer to the source.^[1] Physically, vog appears as a diffuse, hazy layer in the atmosphere, often persisting in areas with calm or light winds where dispersion is limited.^[6] It can be transported over significant distances by prevailing winds, such as trade winds, potentially affecting regions far from the volcanic origin.^[7] This mobility distinguishes vog from localized volcanic ashfall, allowing it to impact broader areas under stable atmospheric conditions.^[8]

Chemical Composition and Processes

Vog consists primarily of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas emitted from volcanic vents, along with aerosols formed through atmospheric reactions of these gases.^[1] Near the emission source, SO₂ dominates the gas phase, while farther downwind, it converts into sulfate aerosols that become the main component of the haze.^[1] Trace gases, including hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and hydrogen chloride (HCl), occur in minor amounts alongside ultrafine particulates.^[9] The formation of vog aerosols centers on the oxidation of SO₂, which reacts with atmospheric oxygen, water vapor, and sunlight to produce sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).^[1] This photochemical process, often catalyzed by hydroxyl radicals under ultraviolet light, yields sub-micron aerosols responsible for the visible haze; these particles are primarily in the fine particulate matter (PM_{2.5}) size fraction (less than 2.5 \mu m in aerodynamic diameter), with the accumulation mode peaking around 0.2-0.3 \mu m. The overall simplified reaction is:

$2\text{SO}_2 + \text{O}_2 + 2\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow 2\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4

Further reactions may involve neutralization by ambient ammonia, forming ammonium bisulfate or sulfate salts. Hydration in humid air and exposure to sunlight enhance the oxidation rate, with conversion of SO₂ to H₂SO₄ occurring over minutes to days depending on meteorological conditions.^[1] The resulting acid droplets exhibit low pH values, typically ranging from 2 to 3, which imparts significant corrosiveness to vog. These small, hygroscopic particles remain suspended in the boundary layer, influenced by trade winds and inversion layers that limit vertical dispersion.^[1]

Geographical Occurrence

Primary Sites in Hawaii

Kīlauea volcano on the Island of Hawaiʻi serves as the primary source of vog, with continuous sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions originating from its summit caldera, particularly Halemaʻumaʻu crater, and intermittently from its east and southwest rift zones.^[10] These emissions have persisted since the onset of nearly continuous eruptive activity in 1983, producing vog that predominantly affects the southwestern side of the island, including communities along the Kona coast, under prevailing northeast trade wind conditions.^[7] The trade winds typically direct the vog plume southwestward, trapping it along the leeward coast due to daytime onshore breezes and nighttime offshore flows influenced by the island's topography.^[11] Mauna Loa, the larger shield volcano on the same island, contributes to vog formation more intermittently, primarily during its eruptive episodes, such as the 2022 summit eruption, which generated significant SO₂ plumes impacting leeward areas including the Kona coast and extending beyond the island.^[12] Unlike Kīlauea's steady output, Mauna Loa's vog impacts are episodic and depend on eruption intensity, with gases dispersing to affect broader regions when combined with variable winds. Mauna Loa's contributions are lower outside eruptions but can reach up to approximately 250,000 metric tons per day during intense eruptive phases, as observed in the 2022 summit eruption.^[13] Seasonal and meteorological patterns further influence vog distribution across Hawaiʻi Island. Persistent trade winds, which dominate much of the year, channel vog toward the southwest and west coasts, concentrating it in low-lying areas.^[1] However, during Kona low-pressure systems—characterized by southwesterly winds that occur several times annually—vog can spread island-wide, affecting even windward regions like Hilo and potentially neighboring islands.^[14] Kīlauea's SO₂ emission rates typically range from 200 to 1,000 metric tons per day during quiescent or low-level eruptive periods, though they can exceed 10,000 tons per day during heightened activity, resulting in vog plumes that extend up to 100 miles downwind depending on wind speed and direction.^[10] Mauna Loa's contributions are lower outside eruptions but can reach up to approximately 250,000 metric tons per day during intense eruptive phases, as observed in the 2022 summit eruption. Vog monitoring in Hawaiʻi began in the 1970s with the U.S. Geological Survey's establishment of SO₂ measurement networks at Kīlauea, providing a historical baseline that documented elevated emissions starting in 1979.^[15] Emission peaks occurred during the prolonged 1983–2018 eruptive phase, when daily SO₂ outputs often surpassed 2,000 tons, leading to widespread and persistent vog coverage across the island's leeward zones.^[16]

Occurrences Outside Hawaii

Although the term "vog" (short for volcanic smog) was coined in Hawaii during the late 20th century to describe haze formed from volcanic sulfur dioxide (SO₂) reacting with atmospheric moisture, analogous phenomena occur at other volcanoes worldwide and are often termed volcanic haze, acid rain aerosols, or simply volcanic smog.^[17]^[18] These events are facilitated by persistent volcanic degassing in tropical or subtropical climates, where high humidity promotes the rapid oxidation of SO₂ into sulfuric acid aerosols that scatter light and form visible haze, similar in chemical composition to Hawaiian vog.^[19]^[20] In the Philippines, Taal Volcano has produced vog episodes during phreatic eruptions from 2020 to 2024, with SO₂ plumes reaching up to 14,000 tonnes per day and affecting air quality in nearby Batangas province, where the haze caused respiratory irritation akin to health effects observed in Hawaii. In June 2024, Taal emitted thick smoke leading to vog and haze observed over the volcano and in Batangas province.^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24] At Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano during its 2010 eruption, sulfate aerosols derived from SO₂ emissions formed widespread volcanic haze that dispersed across Europe, contributing to atmospheric cooling and reduced visibility, though the phenomenon was not called vog.^[25]^[26] New Zealand's Whakaari/White Island experienced a rare vog event on November 9, 2021, when SO₂-rich gases mixed with sea fog and trade winds to create hazy smog over the eastern Bay of Plenty, prompting health advisories for vulnerable populations.^[27]^[28] On Vanuatu's Yasur volcano, continuous Strombolian activity and SO₂ emissions since at least 1774 have generated volcanic smog in the surrounding tropical environment of Tanna Island, with acid aerosols impacting local vegetation and air quality, though the term vog is not commonly used.^[29]^[19]^[30]

Comparisons with Similar Phenomena

Vog Versus Industrial Smog

Vog and industrial smog differ fundamentally in their origins, with vog arising from natural volcanic activity and industrial smog stemming from human-induced fossil fuel combustion. Vog forms when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas is emitted from active volcanoes, such as Kīlauea in Hawaii, and subsequently reacts with atmospheric oxygen, moisture, sunlight, and dust to produce secondary pollutants. In contrast, classical industrial smog, also known as sulfurous or London-type smog, originates from anthropogenic sources like the burning of high-sulfur coal in factories and power plants, releasing primary pollutants such as SO₂ and fine particulates (soot and fly ash).^[1]^[31] The chemical compositions of vog and industrial smog highlight both similarities and distinct natures. Vog is primarily composed of sulfate aerosols—tiny particles of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and other sulfate compounds—derived from the oxidation of volcanic SO₂, with residual SO₂ gas prominent near emission vents but diminishing downwind as aerosols dominate. Industrial smog similarly features SO₂ that oxidizes to form H₂SO₄ aerosols, along with soot, fly ash, and sulfates like calcium sulfate, though it lacks the purely volcanic context of vog. A separate type, photochemical smog (Los Angeles-type), involves different pollutants like ground-level ozone (O₃) from reactions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight, as well as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), but vog does not produce these ozone or hydrocarbon-based compounds.^[1]^[31] Environmental persistence varies significantly between the two, influenced by meteorological factors. Vog disperses relatively quickly with prevailing winds, such as Hawaii's trade winds, which carry it southwestward and limit its duration to hours or days depending on eruption intensity and wind speed; it rarely persists beyond localized downwind areas due to this dynamic advection. Industrial smog can linger when trapped by temperature inversions—a layer of warm air overlying cooler surface air that suppresses vertical mixing and confines pollutants near the ground, sometimes for days until the inversion breaks, particularly in humid, cool conditions favoring SO₂ oxidation.^[1]^[32] In terms of scale and occurrence, vog remains episodic and geographically confined to volcanic hotspots, affecting communities intermittently based on eruptive activity and wind patterns, such as downwind regions of the Island of Hawaiʻi. Industrial smog, by comparison, was historically chronic in industrial areas with coal use, such as 19th-20th century London, but has declined with regulations; photochemical smog remains pervasive in modern urban-industrial corridors worldwide, sustained by vehicle and energy emissions, leading to year-round elevated pollution in megacities.^[1]^[31]

Vog Versus Other Volcanic Pollutants

Vog, or volcanic smog, differs fundamentally from other volcanic pollutants in its formation and characteristics, primarily arising as a secondary aerosol product rather than a direct emission from volcanic activity. While direct volcanic emissions such as ash, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas, and fumes from lava or vents are released immediately from the volcano, vog forms downwind through atmospheric reactions involving sunlight, oxygen, and moisture.^[4]^[33] In contrast to volcanic ash, which consists of fragmented silicate rock particles ejected during explosive eruptions and typically measuring less than 2 mm in diameter, vog comprises fine chemical aerosols, predominantly sulfuric acid droplets and sulfate compounds, that are much smaller—often in the respirable PM₂.₅ size range. Volcanic ash is abrasive, capable of causing mechanical damage to equipment and respiratory tissues through physical abrasion, whereas vog's hazards stem from its chemical acidity and ability to penetrate deep into the lungs without such particulate coarseness.^[34]^[35] Unlike pure SO₂ gas, which is a colorless, pungent irritant emitted directly from volcanic vents and primarily affects the upper respiratory tract through immediate gas-phase irritation, vog represents the hydrated and oxidized derivative of SO₂, forming a visible haze that contributes to acid rain and prolonged exposure risks via aerosol deposition. SO₂ concentrations are highest near the emission source, dissipating rapidly, while vog persists and disperses over wider areas due to its particulate nature.^[36]^[37] Lava fumes, encompassing direct emissions of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) from fumaroles or lava flows, differ from vog in their localized, untransformed release and composition, often producing steam plumes or "laze" when lava contacts seawater, without the secondary photochemical processing that defines vog. These fumes pose acute, proximity-based risks from highly soluble acid gases, whereas vog's transformation occurs regionally, emphasizing SO₂-derived sulfates over halogens.^[9]^[38] Vog frequently co-occurs with ash during explosive volcanic events, where the two can mix to exacerbate air quality issues, but vog predominates in non-eruptive, passive degassing scenarios, such as those at Kīlauea summit vents, highlighting its distinction as a chronic rather than episodic pollutant.^[34]^[39]

Human and Environmental Impacts

Health Effects on Humans

Vog, composed primarily of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas and fine sulfate aerosol particles, poses significant respiratory risks to humans by irritating the airways and lungs. Inhalation of these components can trigger coughing, shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest tightness, even in healthy individuals during episodes of elevated exposure. These effects are particularly pronounced in vog's fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅), which penetrates deep into the lungs and exacerbates pre-existing conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), leading to increased severity of symptoms and potential asthma attacks.^[40]^[41]^[42] Ocular and dermal effects from vog exposure stem from the irritant properties of SO₂ and the acidic nature of sulfate aerosols. Eye irritation manifests as watering, redness, and discomfort, while skin contact can cause itching, dryness, or rashes due to the low pH of vog droplets. These symptoms typically resolve upon reducing exposure but can persist in prolonged or high-concentration scenarios.^[43]^[42] Vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, infants, pregnant individuals, and those with pre-existing respiratory or cardiovascular conditions, experience heightened sensitivity to vog. For instance, asthmatics may suffer bronchoconstriction at lower exposure levels, while long-term low-level exposure has been associated with risks such as chronic bronchitis and worsened lung function. Recent studies (as of 2022) have linked chronic vog exposure to elevated blood pressure and reduced learning outcomes in students, such as lower standardized test scores. Healthy adults can also develop symptoms during intense vog events, though recovery is generally faster.^[41]^[43]^[44]^[45] Health impacts intensify with SO₂ concentrations; levels exceeding 1 ppm (15-minute average) can cause immediate respiratory symptoms in the general population, while sensitive groups may react at 0.21 ppm or higher, prompting advisories to limit outdoor activity. Vog contributes to elevated Air Quality Index (AQI) readings, often reaching "unhealthy" categories (AQI 101–150) that signal risks for sensitive groups and broader effects at higher thresholds.^[46]^[1] Case studies from Hawaii illustrate these risks; during the 2008 escalation of Kīlauea Volcano activity, which raised SO₂ emissions significantly, emergency department visits for asthma and COPD increased notably on high-vog days compared to low-exposure periods, with elevated relative risks in certain age and racial subgroups. A 2012 population-based survey near Kīlauea further linked vog exposure to higher odds of symptoms like cough (odds ratio 8.18), shortness of breath (odds ratio 3.53), and eye irritation (odds ratio 40.22), alongside measurable increases in blood pressure among exposed residents.^[47]^[42]

Ecological and Agricultural Consequences

Vog's acidic deposition, primarily from sulfuric acid aerosols and acid rain, causes significant damage to vegetation in Hawaii, particularly in downwind areas like the Kaʻū District. This leads to foliar injury, including leaf necrosis—characterized by brown spots and blights—and chlorosis, where leaves yellow due to impaired nutrient uptake. Reduced photosynthesis occurs as volcanic particles block sunlight and acidic conditions disrupt stomatal function, stunting growth in sensitive species. Crops such as papaya exhibit spotting and defoliation, while young macadamia trees suffer necrosis on new growth, with overall yields declining under prolonged exposure to SO₂ levels above 0.3 ppm.^[48]^[49] Agricultural consequences are pronounced in Hawaii's Big Island, where vog has forced farmers to adopt tolerant varieties or relocate operations. Vegetable crops like broccoli and lettuce show rapid wilting and reduced marketability, while orchard fruits and commercial flowers, including protea, experience up to 43% income loss from blemished produce. These impacts contribute to an ongoing economic toll on Hawaii's agriculture sector, prompting federal disaster assistance declarations since 2008.^[48] Ecologically, vog exacerbates soil and water acidification through increased sulfur deposition in rainfall, lowering pH levels to 4.0 or below and altering nutrient availability in native Hawaiian ecosystems. This favors invasive grasses over endemic plants like ʻōhiʻa lehua, which close stomata to cope but suffer long-term stress, disrupting forest understories and biodiversity. Surface waters, including streams and coastal areas near vents, become more acidic, potentially harming aquatic habitats by mobilizing toxins and reducing habitat suitability for sensitive species.^[50]^[48] Wildlife faces indirect and direct threats from vog, with limited direct studies available. Pollutants can harm reproductive success and survival in sensitive species within Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park through mechanisms like habitat acidification and bioaccumulation in food chains, affecting higher trophic levels such as native birds and fish.^[50]^[1]

Monitoring and Management

Detection and Forecasting Methods

Detection of vog primarily relies on ground-based monitoring networks operated by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), which measure sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions and particulate matter using ultraviolet (UV) spectrometers and particle counters.^[51] These instruments, such as the FLYSPEC array of 10 UV spectrometers employing differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), provide real-time SO₂ emission rates from Kīlauea Volcano's summit, with data transmitted to HVO for analysis.^[11] Ambient air sensors at fixed sites also quantify SO₂ concentrations and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅), key components of vog, to assess local air quality impacts.^[52] Remote sensing techniques complement ground observations by capturing broader plume dynamics. Satellites like NASA's Aura, equipped with the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), detect total columnar SO₂ in volcanic plumes, enabling qualitative validation of emission patterns and dispersion over Hawaii.^[53] Aircraft flyovers, often using helicopter-borne UV spectrometers, conduct traverse measurements across plumes to independently verify SO₂ emission rates, particularly during elevated activity at Kīlauea.^[54] Forecasting vog dispersion integrates meteorological data with dispersion models to predict concentrations hours to days in advance. The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model, adapted as the Vog model, simulates SO₂ and sulfate aerosol transport using high-resolution wind fields from the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, producing 60-hour forecasts updated twice daily.^[11] The USGS and partners disseminate these predictions through the Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Dashboard (IVHHN), which incorporates real-time wind data, emission rates, and plume trajectories for public access.^[55] Vog impacts are quantified using adapted air quality indices that translate model outputs into hazard levels. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Air Quality Index (AQI) is applied to SO₂ and PM₂.₅ concentrations, categorizing vog severity with color-coded alerts (e.g., yellow for moderate, red for unhealthy) to guide community responses.^[11] Real-time applications like the IVHHN dashboard provide interactive maps and historical data, enhancing accessibility for monitoring SO₂ and PM₂.₅ across the Hawaiian Islands.^[52] Recent advancements since 2015 have improved forecast accuracy through refined DOAS techniques and integration of additional satellite data, such as from TROPOMI, for better plume height estimation and chemistry simulation in HYSPLIT-based models.^[56] These enhancements, tested during events like the 2022 Mauna Loa eruption, support more reliable episode predictions by coupling dynamic emission inputs from HVO with ensemble meteorological forecasts.^[56]

Mitigation Strategies and Public Health Responses

Mitigation strategies for vog primarily focus on reducing human exposure to sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas and fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅), which form the haze. Personal protective measures include staying indoors during elevated vog levels, closing windows and doors to seal gaps, and using portable air cleaners equipped with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and activated carbon for acid gases to lower indoor concentrations of SO₂ and PM₂.₅. Individuals are advised to limit strenuous outdoor activities, remain hydrated to help clear respiratory passages, and avoid smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke, as these exacerbate irritation from vog. For eye and respiratory discomfort, rinsing eyes with saline solution and using over-the-counter remedies can provide relief, though consultation with healthcare providers is recommended for persistent symptoms. N95 respirators offer limited protection against vog's aerosol components like sulfuric acid droplets but are ineffective against SO₂ gas and are not suitable for children, those with facial hair, or individuals with respiratory conditions due to fit issues and breathing resistance.^[57]^[1]^[43] Public health responses in Hawaii emphasize community-level actions tailored to vulnerable populations, such as children and those with preexisting conditions. Schools follow color-coded action plans based on real-time SO₂, PM₂.₅, and ashfall monitoring, which may involve shifting activities indoors to designated "sensitive" rooms with enhanced ventilation or air filtration, particularly in non-air-conditioned buildings where outdoor air infiltrates easily. The Hawaii Department of Education collaborates with health officials to evaluate affected students using standardized protocols, prioritizing respiratory and cardiac-sensitive individuals. Alert systems, including the Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Dashboard, provide real-time air quality data, forecasts, and notifications via websites and partnerships with local agencies, enabling timely public advisories to minimize exposure. Vog can reduce visibility to less than a few miles in affected areas, potentially disrupting aviation, though specific flight diversions are managed case-by-case based on safety assessments by the Federal Aviation Administration.^[58]^[52]^[59] Engineering solutions to mitigate secondary vog pollution include emission controls at industrial sources, such as SO₂ caps imposed on Hawaii's Big Island power plants under the state's Regional Haze Federal Implementation Plan, which limit annual emissions to 3,550 tons combined to curb sulfate aerosol formation. While vegetation barriers are not widely implemented specifically for vog dispersion due to the haze's regional transport by trade winds, protective measures like greenhouses or plant shielding help safeguard agriculture from acid deposition. These strategies complement personal actions by addressing broader atmospheric contributions to vog persistence.^[60]^[49] Policy frameworks in Hawaii include the establishment of the Hawaii Vog Authority in 1990 to coordinate information sharing and response efforts among agencies, followed by legislative proposals like House Bill 318 in 2011 to form a dedicated volcanic activity task force addressing vog's socioeconomic impacts. At the international level, the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN) provides guidelines emphasizing preparedness, such as maintaining emergency kits, monitoring forecasts, and prioritizing sensitive groups like pregnant women, infants, and those with asthma or cardiovascular disease. The World Health Organization recommends similar protective actions during volcanic events, including evacuation planning and access to medications, to prevent acute health episodes. Effectiveness of these measures is evidenced by community surveys showing widespread adoption of indoor staying and activity limits, which reduce reported symptoms like eye irritation and breathing difficulties, though challenges persist in non-air-conditioned environments and during prolonged emissions.^[17]^[61]^[43]^[62]^[63]

Historical and Recent Developments

Key Historical Episodes

The 1950 eruption of Mauna Loa marked one of the earliest documented instances of widespread volcanic haze in Hawaii, predating systematic monitoring efforts. On June 1, 1950, fissures opened along the volcano's Southwest Rift Zone, producing high-volume lava flows that reached the ocean within hours and generated a persistent haze extending across the Pacific for days.^[64]^[65] This "mystery haze," as it was termed at the time, reduced visibility in Honolulu and was initially debated among geologists, with some attributing it to Mauna Loa's non-explosive nature despite evidence linking it to sulfur-rich emissions reacting with atmospheric moisture.^[66] Lacking modern gas measurement tools, observations relied on visual reports and basic atmospheric sampling, highlighting the pre-monitoring era's challenges in understanding such phenomena. The prolonged 1983–2018 eruption of Kīlauea at the Puʻu ʻŌʻō vent on the East Rift Zone produced continuous vog, affecting tens of thousands of residents on Hawaii Island through chronic exposure to sulfur dioxide and sulfate aerosols.^[67] This 35-year event, the longest in Kīlauea's recorded history, emitted between 1,800 and 10,000 metric tons of SO₂ daily during peak periods from 2000 to 2010, leading to hazy conditions that drifted downwind toward populated areas like Hilo and Kailua-Kona.^[7] The term "vog," short for volcanic smog, gained prominence in official documentation around this time, first appearing in a 1997 U.S. Geological Survey fact sheet to describe the localized air pollution.^[67] These emissions impacted an estimated 50,000 residents in downwind communities, causing respiratory issues and prompting early public health advisories, though detailed tracking was limited until later expansions in observation networks.^[68] A notable escalation occurred during the 2008 Kīlauea summit eruption, when SO₂ emissions peaked at approximately 2,000–4,000 tons per day from a new vent in Halemaʻumaʻu crater, exacerbating vog across the island.^[33] This event, starting in March 2008, produced a persistent gas plume that combined with trade winds to blanket much of Hawaii Island, reducing air quality and visibility while affecting agriculture and tourism in broader regions.^[69] Prior averages of 120 tons per day from 1997–2007 surged dramatically, underscoring the volcano's variable output and its capacity for widespread environmental disruption.^[59] As a global analog, the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines generated local vog-like haze from sulfate aerosols formed by over 20 million tons of SO₂ injected into the atmosphere, contributing to immediate air quality degradation in Central Luzon.^[70] While renowned for stratospheric aerosols causing about 0.5°C of global cooling over two years, the event also produced ground-level noxious gas clouds and ash fallout that mirrored Hawaiian vog in respiratory hazards for nearby populations.^[71] These historical episodes collectively drove advancements in volcanic monitoring; the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory expanded gas measurement programs in the late 1970s and 1980s, initiating routine SO₂ and CO₂ tracking at Kīlauea in 1979 to better forecast and mitigate such impacts.^[72]^[73]

Events from 2020 to 2025

From 2020 to 2022, Kīlauea volcano in Hawaii experienced prolonged summit unrest and eruptions centered at Halemaʻumaʻu crater, leading to significant vog production that periodically affected downwind areas including Maui.^[74] The December 2020 to May 2021 eruption phase involved episodic fountaining and lava lake activity, with sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions averaging 1,000 to 3,000 tonnes per day, contributing to vog plumes that drifted eastward and occasionally westward under varying wind conditions.^[75] A subsequent eruption from September to December 2021 saw initial SO₂ rates of 1,000 to 2,000 tonnes per day, decreasing to background levels of around 1,200 to 1,500 tonnes per day by early 2022, with vog formation enhanced by atmospheric reactions of the gas.^[75] These events prompted air quality advisories across the Hawaiian Islands, as trade winds carried vog to leeward communities.^[76] In November 2022, Mauna Loa volcano erupted for the first time since 1984, initiating in its summit caldera and migrating to the Northeast Rift Zone, producing substantial SO₂ emissions that formed vog impacting Hilo on the windward side of Hawaii Island.^[77] The eruption, lasting until December 13, released gases that, under southeasterly winds, led to vog concentrations causing respiratory irritation in Hilo, particularly for individuals with preexisting conditions.^[12] Monitoring by the Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Network highlighted elevated sulfate aerosol levels in the area, with public health responses including mask recommendations and syndromic surveillance for related illnesses.^[12] In 2024, Taal volcano in the Philippines underwent multiple phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions, generating vog that affected nearby regions including Manila, approximately 50 kilometers away.^[78] In April 2024, three short-lived phreatic events occurred, expelling steam and ash plumes up to 1,500 meters high, accompanied by vog from SO₂ and other gases, prompting evacuations in the high-risk Permanent Danger Zone around the volcano.^[79] Further activity in October 2024 included a minor phreatic eruption with a 900-meter plume and visible vog, while a phreatomagmatic event in December 2024 intensified gas emissions, leading to additional evacuations and air quality alerts extending toward Manila under prevailing winds.^[80] The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology maintained Alert Level 1 throughout, emphasizing vog's role in regional health risks.^[78] Kīlauea's Halemaʻumaʻu activity persisted into 2024-2025 with episodic eruptions, including a notable sequence starting in December 2024 that produced intermittent fountaining and lava flows within the crater.^[76] Episode 36, commencing on November 9, 2025, at 11:15 a.m. HST, featured intense fountaining from north and south vents reaching up to 1,200 feet high, with effusion rates exceeding 600 cubic yards per second and a total lava volume of approximately 11 million cubic yards—marking one of the highest short-duration outputs in recent episodes.^[76] The event, lasting under five hours before pausing, generated ashfall and Pele's hair deposits, triggering vog warnings for the Kaʻū District due to light trade winds directing plumes southwestward, where SO₂ emissions remained at 1,200 to 1,500 tonnes per day post-episode.^[76] As of November 17, 2025, the eruption continues with ongoing summit inflation and vent glow, with models indicating a possible Episode 37 between November 21 and 25.^[76] Overall trends from 2020 to 2025 indicate sustained vog exposure in Hawaii linked to Kīlauea's frequent eruptive episodes, with wind patterns—particularly the absence of strong trade winds during winter—influencing broader dispersion across islands, though SO₂ emissions have trended lower than pre-2020 peaks.^[52] This ongoing activity has heightened reliance on forecasting tools to predict vog plumes during events.^[52]

References

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Frequently Asked Questions About Volcanic Smog (vog) - USGS.gov
Vog is a hazy mixture of SO 2 gas and aerosols (tiny particles or droplets) which are primarily sulfuric acid and other sulfate (SO 4 ) compounds.1. What Is ``vog''? How Is... · 3. What Health Effects Are... · Protective Actions When Vog...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Mar 8, 2015 · Vog is scientifically defined as “a visible haze comprised of gas and an aerosol of tiny particles and acidic droplets, created when sulfur dioxide and other ...
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What health hazards are posed by vog (volcanic smog)? - USGS.gov
Vog poses a health hazard by aggravating preexisting respiratory ailments. Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) gas can irritate skin and the tissues and mucous membranes.
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What is "vog"? How is it related to sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions?
Vog (volcanic smog) is a visible haze comprised of gas and an aerosol of tiny particles and acidic droplets created when sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and other gases ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Volcanic Smog - Ready Marine Corps
Volcanic Smog (VOG) is created when sulfur dioxide gas and other pollutants emitted from volcanic activity interact chemically with atmospheric moisture, ...Missing: formation | Show results with:formation
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Jan 18, 2022 · Vog, the hazy mixture of sulfur dioxide gas and aerosols, which can affect broad areas downwind of volcanic eruptions, moved back into the air — ...
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Volcanic Air Pollution over the Island of Hawai'i Emissions ...
Vog is trapped under an inversion layer that is usually 1,500–2,000 m high and is carried from its source by prevailing trade winds from the northeast, around ...
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What is Volcanic smog and how bad is it? - ABC10
May 8, 2018 · Trade winds are helping push most of the vog out to the ocean. If winds were light, vog could be stagnant and pose a greater threat to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Volcanic Gas Hazards from Kīlauea Volcano
May 26, 2017 · Vog is a hazy mixture of SO2 gas and aerosols, which are primarily composed of sulfuric acid droplets and other sulfate (SO4) compounds.
[10]
How much sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas does Kīlauea emit? - USGS.gov
Kīlauea typically emits between 500 and 14,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) per day during periods of sustained eruption.
[11]
Observing and Forecasting Vog Dispersion from Kīlauea Volcano ...
Oct 1, 2015 · A program to measure and forecast the dispersion of hazardous volcanic emissions from the Kīlauea volcano in Hawaii is described.Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[12]
Mauna Loa eruption - Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Dashboard
At approximately 11:30 pm on November 27, an eruption began in Moku'āweoweo, the summit caldera of Mauna Loa volcano.
[13]
Vog Blankets Entire State Following Mauna Loa Eruption
Dec 7, 2022 · This week's air has been heavy with winds from the south, bringing the Big Island's vog throughout the Hawaiian Islands chain, even as far as 250 miles away ...Hawaii's Smog, Or ``vog.''... · Health And Vog · Hawaii's Trade WindsMissing: contributions | Show results with:contributions
[14]
Kona Low over Hawaii - NASA Earth Observatory
A persistent low-pressure system, known as a “Kona Low,” brought several days of high winds, heavy rains, and even blizzard conditions to parts of the Hawaiian ...Missing: vog contributions<|separator|>
[15]
Sulfur dioxide emission rates from Hawaiian volcanoes, 2018-2022
Dec 27, 2023 · Measurement of sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission rates is a critical aspect of monitoring and studying active volcanoes. Changes in emission ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[16]
Civil Geeks: Feeling The Vog? This Tool Can Help You Deal
Aug 26, 2016 · Vog Is Not Your Friend. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has been measuring sulfur dioxide emissions at Kilauea since the 1970s, well before the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
[PDF] so2 and co2 emission rates at kilauea volcano, 1979-1984
Nov 12, 2016 · average daily SO₂ emission rate from 1979 through 1982 was. 170±50 t/d; from 1983-1984, the average daily emission rate had increased to 260±90 ...Missing: vog | Show results with:vog
[18]
1991 Vog and Laze Seminar Abstracts - University of Hawaii at Hilo
The volcanic haze, or "vog" as it is called locally, has been a source of concern to local residents, particularly in West Hawaii, for many years. This concern ...
[19]
Old newspaper clipping puts birth of term 'vog' in the 1960s
Apr 20, 2011 · Question: Many years ago a good friend shared with me that he is the person who is credited with coining the term “vog” (volcanic smog).Missing: 1990s | Show results with:1990s
[20]
Sulphur dioxide emission rates from Yasur volcano, Vanuatu ...
Oct 23, 2007 · We report here sulphur dioxide flux measurements, obtained on Yasur, using ultraviolet spectroscopy, from April 2004 to November 2005.Missing: smog vog
[21]
[PDF] Atmospheric evolution of volcanic smog ("vog") from Kılauea
... sulfuric acid,18 and the subsequent neutralization of the sulfuric acid by ambient. 88 ammonia to form ammonium sulfate salts19,20: 89. SO2 (g) + ox → H2SO4 (p).
[22]
Light volcanic smog or vog observed over Taal volcano, says ...
Jan 10, 2024 · The latest SO2 measurement was at 10,933 tonnes/day on 08 January 2024," the agency said. As of November 2023, Taal Volcano remains under Alert ...
[23]
Taal - Global Volcanism Program - Smithsonian Institution
Strong sulfur dioxide plumes were detected during the last third of April; none were detected in May or June, a few were scattered in July, about half the days ...
[24]
Sulfur Spews from Taal - NASA Earth Observatory
Jan 13, 2020 · In January 2020, the volcano in the Philippines spewed lava and emitted hazardous amounts of volcanic ash fall and gases.Missing: vog 2020-2023<|separator|>
[25]
Aerosol radiative forcing from the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ...
Jul 24, 2014 · Sulfate aerosols from the volcanic eruptions are prognosed in CAM. Formation of sulfate from SO2 oxidation and aerosol removal through wet ...
[26]
Influences of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic plume on air ... - ACP
Aug 23, 2011 · With regard to the occurrence of ultrafine particles, it is concluded that their formation was triggered by high sulphuric acid concentrations ...Missing: sulfate | Show results with:sulfate
[27]
Volcano breath: a rare vog event in Aotearoa New Zealand | AJEM
Apr 2, 2022 · Whakaari/White Island in Aotearoa New Zealand, is the country's most active volcano. On 9 November 2021 a rare 'vog' episode occurred.
[28]
'Very rare' volcanic fog - VOG - rolls into the Bay of Plenty - Stuff
Nov 9, 2021 · Volcanic gases from Whakaari/White Island have combined with particular weather conditions and sea fog in the Bay of Plenty to create a ...
[29]
Yasur - Global Volcanism Program
Yasur, the southernmost active volcano in Vanuatu, has been erupting since at least 1774 with frequent Strombolian explosions and ash and gas plumes.Missing: smog vog
[30]
Environmental impacts on health from continuous volcanic activity at ...
Little immediate contamination of the environment was evident for areas affected by volcanic ash and gas on Tanna, with water fluoride concentrations being ...Missing: smog vog
[31]
7.6.1: Smog
### Summary of Smog (7.6.1: Smog - Chemistry LibreTexts)
[32]
Photochemical Smog - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It contains anthropogenic air pollutants, mainly ozone, nitric acid, and organic compounds, which are trapped near the ground by temperature inversion.
[33]
Sulfur Dioxide and Vog from Kilauea - NASA Earth Observatory
Apr 29, 2008 · Sulfur dioxide is a common volcanic pollutant, and it can pose health hazards, especially for people with preexisting breathing difficulties.
[34]
Impacts & Mitigation - Volcanic Ash, Gases & Vog - USGS.gov
Dec 11, 2022 · Volcanic ash is abrasive and mildly corrosive. Gases include water vapor, CO2, and sulfur. Vog is a hazy mixture of SO2 and acidic particles. ...
[35]
Questions about volcanic ash and other tephra from Kīlauea
Volcanic ash is a term for fine-grained material that is ejected during explosive volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash particles are smaller than 2 mm (0.08 inches ...
[36]
Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure
Volcanic Smog (vog) is produced from SO2 gas and is a hazard in Hawaii. Scientists monitor SO2 emission rates at Kīlauea volcano. In volcanic or other areas ...
[37]
[PDF] Frequently Asked Questions on Vog from Kīlauea Volcano - IVHHN
SO2 is a colorless, irritating gas that has an acrid odor like fireworks or a struck match. It is also emitted from other sources, such as fossil fuel power ...
[38]
Volcanic Gases - How Volcanoes Work
These subordinate gases can combine with hydrogen and water to produce numerous toxic compounds, such as HCl, HF, H2SO4, H2S, which are typical products of ...
[39]
Volcano | Hawaii County Civil Defense Agency
The particles scatter sunlight and cause the visible haze, known as vog (volcanic air pollution, from "volcanic smog"). ... Volcanic Ash (Tephra) and Pele's Hair.<|separator|>
[40]
Vog in Hawaii | American Lung Association
Mar 31, 2025 · SO2 levels in vog are greatest close to the volcano. SO2 irritates ... This reacts with water to form droplets of hydrochloric acid and even tiny ...
[41]
Health Effects of Volcanic Air Pollution | Volcanoes - CDC
Apr 22, 2024 · When a volcano erupts it can release harmful particles, including volcanic gases and ash, into the air. Important volcanic gases that may impact ...Volcanic Eruptions Can... · Volcanoes And Your Health · How To Protect Yourself
[42]
Adverse Health Effects Associated with Increased Activity at Kīlauea ...
Aug 28, 2013 · Vog exposure was significantly associated with increased odds of self-reported cough, phlegm, rhinorrhea, sore/dry throat, shortness of breath, sinus ...
[43]
Health impacts of volcanic gases - IVHHN
Jun 2, 2020 · Exposure to volcanic and geothermal gases may worsen symptoms for people who have pre-existing health conditions. Older adults may also be ...
[44]
[PDF] kilauea_vog_qa_1.pdf - Hawaii Department of Health
Vog is a term that refers to volcanic smog. It is the haze you may see in the air that is caused by a combination of weather, wind conditions and volcanic ...
[45]
[PDF] DOH Guidance on Short-term Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Advisory Levels
Jan 6, 2011 · Susceptible individuals may develop symptoms at or below the Warning limits. 3. Sensitive Groups = children and individuals with pre-existing ...Missing: thresholds | Show results with:thresholds
[46]
Acute health effects associated with exposure to volcanic air ...
In 2008, the Kilauea Volcano on the island of Hawai'i increased eruption activity and emissions of sulfurous volcanic air pollution called vog.
[47]
[PDF] Volcanic Emissions Injury to Plant Foliage - CTAHR
Aug 29, 2008 · This publication discusses the effects of the increased volcanic output on foliar injury to plants in Hawai'i, what can be done to moderate it, ...
[48]
Effects on Plants - Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Dashboard
Farmers and gardeners in the path of the pollutants (SO2 and acid rain) have reported significant damage to plants caused by the northeasterly and southeasterly ...Missing: smog ecological
[49]
UH study shows farmers lost nearly $28 million from Kīlauea eruption
Oct 22, 2018 · The eruption displaced more than 1,337 acres of arable land on Hawaiʻi Island, for total reported farm losses of $27.9 million. These losses ...
[50]
Park Air Profiles - Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park (U.S. National ...
Sep 30, 2024 · Vog also creates a haze that obscures visibility. Adding to the haze are marine aerosols, which can make it even harder to see far and clearly.
[51]
Monitoring Volcanic Gas in Hawaii - USGS.gov
HVO uses several methods to measure SO2 gas emissions at Kīlauea, and a part of HVO's gas monitoring and research program is to investigate which technique ...
[52]
Real-time and historic air quality data | IVHHN
Sulfur dioxide emissions from Kīlauea volcano have decreased substantially since the beginning of the 2008 Halema`uma`u eruption, resulting in less vog for the ...
[53]
Sulfur Dioxide Plume from Kilauea - NASA Earth Observatory
The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Aura satellite recorded the increase in sulfur dioxide rising out of Kilauea between March 20 and March 27, 2008 ...
[54]
Measuring SO2 emission rates at Kīlauea Volcano, Hawaii, using an ...
We compare measured emission rates from the fixed spectrometer array to independent road and helicopter-based traverse measurements and evaluate the ...
[55]
Vog and wind forecasts | IVHHN
The Interagency Vog Dashboard was developed to implement recommendations from a collaborative study between Dr Claire Horwell and the USGS, funded by the ...Missing: HVO | Show results with:HVO
[56]
VogCast: Model Volcanic Air Pollution & Mauna Loa Eruption
Nov 10, 2023 · In Hawai'i, forecasts of volcanic air pollution (vog) are used to provide early warning and help reduce negative impacts from vog exposure. In ...
[57]
Vog Protection - Hawaii Interagency Vog Information Dashboard
Individuals in 'sensitive groups,' such as people with pre-existing respiratory or other medical conditions, are expected to be at highest risk for potential ...Missing: thresholds | Show results with:thresholds
[58]
Information on vog for Schools | IVHHN
Schools need to be prepared to address vog-related exposures and take actions appropriate to protect children and staff.
[59]
Vog Hazards - University of Hawaii at Hilo
Vog is unpleasant to anyone, and can produce headaches as well as irritation to the lungs and eyes at higher concentrations.Missing: appearance persistence transport
[60]
[PDF] Hawaii State Implementation Plan and Progress Report for Regional ...
Aug 1, 2017 · The RH-FIP established a total combined SO2 emissions cap of 3,550 tons per year for three electric power plants in Hilo on the Big Island by ...
[61]
HB318.DOC - Hawaii State Legislature
Description: Establishes a volcanic activity task force to discuss the impact of Vog on the people of Hawaii and find ways to address these issues.
[62]
Volcanic eruptions - World Health Organization (WHO)
When volcanoes erupt they can spew hot, dangerous gases, ash, lava and rock that can cause disastrous loss of life and property, especially in heavily populated ...
[63]
Perceptions of volcanic air pollution and exposure reduction ...
Offshore, near South Point, an atmospheric eddy caused by Mauna Loa Volcano forces the plume northwards and the vog becomes trapped along the Kona (west) coast ...
[64]
1950 - Mauna Loa's Fastest High Volume Eruption - USGS.gov
On June 1, 1950, a fissure erupted high on Mauna Loa's Southwest Rift Zone, and within 3 hours, 'a'ā lava flows had crossed the main highway.
[65]
Strange Million-Mile Haze Hangs Over Pacific Third Straight Day
Strange Million-Mile Haze Hangs Over Pacific Third Straight Day; MILLION-MILE HAZE CLINGS IN PACIFIC Honolulu Visibility Cut Haze Linked to Mauna Loa. Share ...
[66]
Volcano Watch — The Mystery Haze of 1950: vog by another name ...
Apr 27, 2017 · According to mainland geologists, Mauna Loa could not have directly caused the haze because it was a "quiet" type of volcano, not explosive, ...
[67]
Fact Sheet, Volcanic Air Pollution--A Hazard in Hawai`i
The tiny sulfuric acid droplets in vog have the corrosive properties of dilute battery acid. When atmospheric moisture is abundant, these droplets combine with ...
[68]
Hawaii's silent danger: Volcanic smog, otherwise known as 'vog'
May 7, 2018 · In Hawaii they call it “vog,” short for volcanic smog. It's not a killer, in and of itself. But it has made tens of thousands sick over the years.
[69]
Using Volcanic Eruptions to Estimate the Health Costs of Particulates
Vog is essentially small particulate matter (sulphate aerosols) suspended in the air, akin to smog pollution in many cities. Vog represents one of the truly ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[70]
The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
Feb 28, 2005 · The eruption produced high-speed avalanches of hot ash and gas, giant mudflows, and a cloud of volcanic ash hundreds of miles across.
[71]
Global Effects of Mount Pinatubo - NASA Earth Observatory
Jun 14, 2001 · Pinatubo injected about 15 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, where it reacted with water to form a hazy layer of aerosol ...
[72]
[PDF] Chapter 1 The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory—A Natural ...
Regular measurements of volcanic gases, especially. SO2 and CO2, became part of HVO's monitoring program in the late 1970s. Initially, monitoring of gas ...
[73]
Monitoring - Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
Sep 11, 2017 · This gas monitoring is key to assessing volcanic air pollution (known locally as vog), which affects widespread areas downwind.
[74]
Advice for visitors to Hawaii | IVHHN
Vog creates the potential for airborne health hazards to residents and visitors, damages agricultural crops and other plants, and affects livestock. For more ...Can You Tell Me If I Should... · 2. Airnow Particle Data · 3. Current So And Pm...Missing: contributions | Show results with:contributions
[75]
Kīlauea - Volcano Updates | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Only the south vent is degassing this morning and sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas emissions remain at background levels, typically between 1,200 and 1,500 tonnes per ...Eruption Information · Webcams · Volcano Notification Service · MultimediaMissing: 2020-2022 | Show results with:2020-2022
[76]
Mauna Loa - Global Volcanism Program
Mauna Loa is a basaltic shield volcano that rises almost 9 km from the ocean floor in Hawaii. Flank eruptions typically occur from NE and SW rift zones.
[77]
Phreatic eruption, vog reported in Taal Volcano — PHIVOLCS
Oct 11, 2024 · A minor phreatic eruption and vog were observed over Taal Volcano on Thursday, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) said on Friday.
[78]
Phivolcs logs 3 'short-lived' phreatic eruptions at Taal volcano - News
Apr 20, 2024 · Phivolcs logs 3 'short-lived' phreatic eruptions at Taal volcano · When notified, immediately evacuate to safer grounds · Assist in evacuating ...
[79]
Taal Volcano erupts in phreatomagmatic event - Philstar.com
Dec 3, 2024 · Smoke was seen from Taal Volcano after a phreatomagmatic eruption at 5:58 a.m. on Dec. 3, 2024. Photos courtesy of Municipal Disaster Risk ...