XII
XII is the Roman numeral that represents the integer twelve (12), constructed additively from the symbols X (denoting 10) and two instances of I (each denoting 1), yielding X + I + I = 12.[1][2][3] Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome in the 8th or 9th century BCE as a numeral system based on seven basic symbols (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) used for counting, recording dates, and basic arithmetic.[4][5] The symbol XII exemplifies the additive principle in this system, where values are summed from left to right unless a subtractive notation applies (as in IX for 9), and it has been employed historically in inscriptions on monuments, legal documents, and coinage to denote quantities or ordinal positions.[5][6] Today, XII retains ceremonial and stylistic uses despite the dominance of Hindu-Arabic numerals in everyday mathematics and science. Common applications include numbering the hours on analog clock faces (where XII marks 12 o'clock), sequencing chapters or volumes in books, and indicating the 12th position in lists such as the 12th century (spanning 1101–1200 CE).[6][7] It also appears in formal nomenclature for monarchs and popes—like Pope Pius XII (reigned 1939–1958)—as well as in naming ships, sports events, and cultural references to emphasize tradition or elegance.[8]Numerals and time
Roman numeral XII
The Roman numeral XII represents the number 12 in the ancient Roman numeral system, formed by the additive combination of X (denoting 10) followed by two instances of I (each denoting 1), resulting in a total value of 10 + 1 + 1 = 12.[9][10] This construction adheres to the standard rules of Roman numerals, which primarily use addition for values under 10 in this context, without employing subtractive notation such as IX for 9.[11][12] Originating in ancient Rome around the 8th to 9th century BCE, the Roman numeral system, including symbols like XII, was developed for practical purposes such as counting, record-keeping, and dating in daily and official contexts throughout the Roman Empire.[4][13] This numeral corresponds directly to the Arabic numeral 12, which in general mathematics serves as a base for duodecimal systems and angular measurements like 360 degrees divided into 12 parts.[14] In contemporary applications, XII commonly appears at the 12 o'clock position on analog clock faces to indicate the top of the hour, a tradition rooted in the Roman division of the day into 12 hours.[15] It is also used for numbering book chapters, outlines in legal documents, and sequential elements in formal publications, preserving an aesthetic and historical formality in modern typography.[16]December
December is the twelfth and final month of the Gregorian calendar, which has been in use since 1582, and it is traditionally labeled with the Roman numeral XII. The month consists of 31 days and occupies the position immediately following November and preceding January. In the Northern Hemisphere, December marks the onset of winter, culminating in the winter solstice around December 21, the shortest day of the year when the Earth's tilt positions the North Pole farthest from the Sun.[17][18] The name "December" originates from the Latin Decembris mensis, derived from decem meaning "ten," reflecting its original status as the tenth month in the ancient Roman calendar established by Romulus around 753 BCE, which began with March and spanned only 10 months. King Numa Pompilius reformed the calendar around 713 BCE by adding January and February at the year's end, yet December remained the tenth month since the year still started in March; it shifted to the twelfth position in 153 BCE when the Roman Senate moved the start of the civil year to January 1. Julius Caesar's Julian calendar reform in 46 BCE further standardized the 12-month, 365-day solar year with leap days but did not alter December's position.[19][18][20] December holds significant cultural and religious importance across various traditions. In Christianity, Christmas on December 25 celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, a date formalized by the early Church in the 4th century CE, possibly to align with existing Roman winter festivals. The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, commemorating the rededication of the Second Temple, begins on the 25th of Kislev and often falls in December, lasting eight nights with the lighting of the menorah. Kwanzaa, an African American and pan-African cultural celebration introduced in 1966, runs from December 26 to January 1, emphasizing seven principles of community and heritage through daily candle-lighting and feasts. Historically, the Roman festival of Saturnalia, honoring the god Saturn, was observed from December 17 to 23, featuring public banquets, gift-giving, and role reversals between masters and slaves, influencing later holiday customs.[21][22][23]Historical eras
12th century
The 12th century, spanning 1101 to 1200 CE and denoted in Roman numerals as the XII century, marked a pivotal era in the High Middle Ages, characterized by significant political, military, cultural, and intellectual advancements across Europe and beyond. This period saw the consolidation of feudal structures, where lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty, forming the backbone of medieval society and enabling greater agricultural productivity through the three-field system and heavy plow innovations. Trade flourished with the revival of long-distance commerce, as Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa established maritime routes to the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world, fostering urban growth and the emergence of merchant guilds that challenged traditional feudal hierarchies.[24][25] Key military and political events defined the century, including the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, which continued to reshape the island's governance through centralized administration under kings like Henry I (r. 1100-1135) and the subsequent civil war known as The Anarchy (1135-1153), a conflict between King Stephen and Empress Matilda that led to widespread castle-building and feudal fragmentation before the stable Angevin dynasty under Henry II (r. 1154-1189). The Crusades were central, with the Second Crusade (1147-1149), preached by Bernard of Clairvaux and led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, aiming to recapture Edessa but ultimately failing due to logistical challenges and defeats like the Battle of Mount Cadmus, though it spurred European military organization and cultural exchanges. The Third Crusade (1189-1192), triggered by Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187, involved Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, Philip II of France, and Richard I of England; despite Barbarossa's death en route and rivalries among leaders, it secured a truce allowing Christian pilgrims access to the Holy City.[26][27][28] Intellectually, the century witnessed the rise of universities, institutions that formalized higher learning beyond monastic schools; the University of Oxford emerged around 1096 from teaching gatherings of scholars, evolving into a center for theology and law by the mid-12th century, while the University of Paris was established circa 1150, promoting scholasticism through dialectical methods, building on the work of earlier scholars like Peter Abelard.[29][30] Culturally, Gothic architecture revolutionized building design, originating with Abbot Suger's reconstruction of the Basilica of Saint-Denis (dedicated 1144), which introduced ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and flying buttresses to create taller, light-filled spaces symbolizing divine illumination, influencing cathedrals like Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1163). Notable figures included Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204), who as Duchess of Aquitaine, Queen of France (1137-1152), and Queen of England (1154-1189) wielded influence through diplomacy, patronage of troubadour poetry, and participation in the Second Crusade, shaping Anglo-French politics. Frederick I Barbarossa (1122-1190), Holy Roman Emperor from 1155, sought to revive imperial authority by subduing Italian communes and leading the Third Crusade, though his efforts highlighted tensions between secular and papal power. In Asia, Temüjin, later known as Genghis Khan, was born circa 1162, setting the stage for Mongol unification in the following century.[31][32][33]Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, conventionally designated as Dynasty XII in Egyptological numbering, ruled from approximately 1991 to 1802 BC, marking a pinnacle of stability and expansion during the Middle Kingdom. Founded by Amenemhat I, who seized power amid the waning Eleventh Dynasty and established a new capital at Itjtawy near Memphis, the dynasty comprised eight rulers who centralized authority, reformed administration, and fostered economic prosperity through enhanced trade networks with Nubia and the Levant. This era saw the suppression of provincial nomarchs, streamlining governance and reducing regional autonomy, which contributed to internal cohesion and resource allocation for ambitious projects.[34][35] The dynasty's rulers included Amenemhat I (r. c. 1991–1962 BC), who initiated military and administrative consolidation; his son Senusret I (r. c. 1971–1926 BC), noted for temple constructions at Karnak; Amenemhat II (r. c. 1929–1895 BC); Senusret II (r. c. 1897–1878 BC); Senusret III (r. c. 1878–1841 BC), renowned for territorial expansions; Amenemhat III (r. c. 1842–1797 BC), whose long reign emphasized monumental architecture; Amenemhat IV (r. c. 1798–1790 BC); and the dynasty's conclusion under Queen Sobekneferu (r. c. 1789–1786 BC), the first confirmed female pharaoh. Senusret III's campaigns into Nubia established a chain of fortresses south of the Second Cataract, securing trade routes for gold, ebony, and ivory, while expeditions to the Levant facilitated exchanges of timber, lapis lazuli, and luxury goods, bolstering Egypt's economy. Administrative reforms under these rulers, including land surveys and bureaucratic oversight documented in papyri from Lahun, optimized agricultural output and taxation, underpinning the dynasty's wealth.[35][36][37] Architecturally, the dynasty revived pyramid building on a grand scale, with Senusret I's complex at Lisht featuring a mud-brick pyramid encased in limestone, and Amenemhat III's structures at Dahshur and Hawara exemplifying advanced engineering. The Hawara complex included a vast mortuary temple, later dubbed the "Labyrinth" by Herodotus for its intricate layout of over 3,000 rooms, serving ritual and administrative functions. Culturally, the period flourished in literature, exemplified by The Story of Sinuhe, a narrative of exile and return set during Senusret I's reign, which highlights themes of loyalty and Egyptian superiority, preserved in Middle Kingdom papyri. These achievements underscored the Twelfth Dynasty's role as the zenith of Middle Kingdom prosperity, influencing subsequent eras through enduring models of governance, art, and international engagement.[34][38]Royalty and popes
Louis XII of France
Louis XII (1462–1515), also known as Louis of Orléans before his accession, was the twelfth king of France in the traditional numbering of the Valois dynasty. Born on 27 June 1462 as the son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Cleves, he inherited the duchy of Orléans and a longstanding claim to the Duchy of Milan through his great-grandmother Valentina Visconti. Imprisoned for 21 years by his cousin King Louis XI after a rebellion in 1465, he was released in 1489 and became a key figure at the court of Charles VIII. Upon Charles VIII's death without heirs on 7 April 1498, Louis succeeded as king, marking the end of the direct Valois line and the start of the Orléans branch. During his reign from 1498 to 1515, Louis XII pursued ambitious foreign policies while implementing domestic reforms that earned him the title "Father of the People" from the Estates General at Tours in 1506. To secure the union with Brittany, he obtained a papal annulment of his first marriage to Joan of France in December 1498 and wed the widowed Anne of Brittany on 8 January 1499, reinforcing France's hold on the duchy through their joint rule. His key domestic initiatives included judicial reforms to streamline legal procedures and ensure fairer trials, as well as tax reductions, particularly lowering the taille—the primary direct tax—through fiscal reforms in 1504 and 1508 that improved collection efficiency while easing burdens on peasants and the nobility. These measures restored economic stability after the Hundred Years' War and fostered civil peace, contributing to his widespread popularity.[39][40][41] Louis XII's foreign engagements centered on the Italian Wars, where he sought to expand French influence in Italy based on his Milanese claim. In 1499, allied with Venice and the Republic of Florence, he swiftly conquered Milan, entering the city on 11 September after the surrender of Ludovico Sforza. Expanding further, he and Ferdinand II of Aragon jointly invaded the Kingdom of Naples in 1501, proclaiming himself King Louis III of Naples; however, the alliance fractured, and Spain seized full control by 1504. Subsequent campaigns saw fluctuating fortunes: French forces recaptured Milan in 1506 and won battles like Agnadello in 1509, but defeats at Novara (1513) and the Battle of the Spurs forced withdrawals, with Milan ultimately lost to the Swiss and Spanish by 1515. These wars, spanning 1499–1513, drained resources but exposed France to Italian Renaissance culture.[42] As a patron of the arts, Louis XII supported French and Flemish artists while fostering cultural ties with Italy during his conquests. He commissioned illuminated manuscripts, such as the Hours of Louis XII by Jean Bourdichon around 1498–1508, and admired Italian masters, referring to Leonardo da Vinci as "our painter and good friend" in a 1506 document following the Milan campaign, though da Vinci's permanent relocation to France occurred under his successor. His initiatives, including architectural projects at Blois and Amboise, helped introduce Renaissance styles to French court art. Upon his death on 1 January 1515 from gout at Blois, Louis was succeeded by his cousin Francis I, leaving a legacy of internal prosperity and administrative modernization overshadowed by costly Italian failures, yet remembered for his just rule and cultural contributions.[43][44][39]Charles XII of Sweden
Charles XII (1682–1718), the twelfth king in the Swedish line of monarchs named Charles, ascended to the throne in 1697 at the age of fifteen following the death of his father, Charles XI, and ruled until his death in 1718.[45] His reign was dominated by the Great Northern War (1700–1721), in which Sweden faced a coalition of Denmark-Norway, Saxony-Poland-Lithuania, and Russia, all seeking to dismantle Swedish dominance in the Baltic region.[46] Charles swiftly defeated Denmark in 1700, forcing it out of the alliance through the Treaty of Travendal, then turned to Poland, deposing Augustus II and installing Stanisław Leszczyński as king by 1706.[45] His most celebrated victory came at the Battle of Narva in November 1700, where a Swedish force of about 8,000 routed a Russian army of roughly 40,000 under Peter I, despite a blizzard aiding the Swedes, showcasing Charles's tactical brilliance and personal bravery as he led charges from the front. However, the tide turned disastrously at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, where Charles's invasion of Russia ended in a crushing defeat; outnumbered and wounded, he lost most of his army, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire with survivors while Sweden's position collapsed.[46] Known as an ascetic warrior-king, Charles embodied Spartan discipline, living frugally without luxury, abstaining from alcohol, and sharing the hardships of his troops, such as sleeping on bare boards or eating meager rations during campaigns. He never married, devoting his life entirely to military pursuits and governance, rising at dawn for drills and enduring extreme conditions, like fasting for five days during the harsh Russian winter of 1708–1709. Under his absolutist rule, inherited and expanded from his father, Charles centralized power, bypassing the regency council early on and treating the Swedish Senate as subordinates, symbolized by sending them a boot to signify they should "go fetch" his commands.[45] He implemented administrative measures, including a Council of Defence for military organization and strict disciplinary codes that prohibited looting and ensured payments to civilians, though these were strained by wartime demands like conscripting youths as young as fifteen and issuing devalued copper currency. Charles's death occurred on November 30, 1718, during the siege of Fredriksten fortress in Norway, when a projectile—likely an iron button or cartouche ball—struck him in the head while he inspected trenches, penetrating from left temple to right cheek.[47] Historical and forensic analyses, including autopsies from 1746, 1859, and 1917, support death by enemy fire from about 175 meters away, though assassination theories persist, suggesting possible betrayal by his own men due to the wound's trajectory and lack of lead residue.[47] His relentless focus on war accelerated Sweden's decline from great power status, culminating in the Treaty of Nystad (1721), which ceded Baltic provinces to Russia and left Sweden economically devastated, with over 100,000 subjects enslaved or lost and the nation burdened by heavy taxes and depopulation.[45] Despite early glories, Charles's absolutism and refusal of compromise transformed Sweden from an imperial force into a secondary power, reshaping Northern European geopolitics.[46]Alfonso XII of Spain
Alfonso XII (1857–1885) was the King of Spain who restored the Bourbon dynasty following the tumultuous First Spanish Republic (1873–1874). Born on November 28, 1857, in Madrid as the son of Queen Isabella II and her consort Francis of Assisi, he spent much of his early life in exile in France after his mother's abdication in 1870 amid revolutionary unrest. On December 29, 1874, he was proclaimed king by General Arsenio Martínez Campos in Sagunto, marking the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration and ending the period of instability known as the Sexenio Democrático (1868–1874).[48][49] During his reign from 1875 to 1885, Alfonso XII focused on stabilizing the nation through military and political measures. He oversaw the conclusion of the Third Carlist War in 1876, a conflict between liberal constitutionalists and Carlist absolutists that had ravaged Spain since 1872, thereby reunifying the country under a single monarch. In the colonies, his government negotiated the Pact of Zanjón in February 1878, which ended the Ten Years' War in Cuba (1868–1878) by granting limited reforms such as slavery abolition for future births and greater autonomy, though it failed to fully satisfy independence demands. Politically, the Constitution of 1876, drafted under Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, established a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, restricted suffrage, and a system of alternating power between Conservative and Liberal parties known as the turno pacífico, providing a framework for oligarchic stability that lasted until 1923.[49][50] On a personal level, Alfonso XII's life was marked by brief but politically significant marriages. He wed his cousin, Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, on January 23, 1878, in a union intended to bolster alliances, but she died of typhoid fever just six months later on June 23, 1878. He then married Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria on November 29, 1879; the couple had two daughters—Mercedes (1880–1904) and Maria Teresa (1882–1912)—and one son, Fernando (1884), who died in infancy, before the posthumous birth of their son, Alfonso XIII, in 1886.[48] Alfonso XII, the twelfth monarch bearing that name in Spanish history, succumbed to tuberculosis on November 25, 1885, at age 27 in El Pardo Palace near Madrid.[48] Known as "El Pacificador" (The Peacemaker) for his role in quelling civil strife and fostering national unity, Alfonso XII's short reign laid the groundwork for relative peace and constitutional governance in Spain, though underlying social and economic tensions persisted. His death prompted a regency under Maria Christina until Alfonso XIII's majority in 1902, during which the Restoration system continued to evolve.[48][49]Pope Pius XII
Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Pacelli on March 2, 1876, in Rome, served as the 260th pope of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City from his election on March 2, 1939, until his death on October 9, 1958.[51] As the twelfth pope to take the name Pius, he was a seasoned diplomat who had previously acted as papal nuncio to Germany from 1917 to 1929 and as Cardinal Secretary of State from 1930 to 1939 under Pope Pius XI.[52] In this role, Pacelli negotiated the Reichskonkordat, a treaty signed on July 20, 1933, between the Holy See and Nazi Germany to protect Catholic rights amid rising totalitarianism, though its effectiveness waned as the Nazis violated its terms.[53] During World War II, Pius XII maintained Vatican neutrality to facilitate humanitarian efforts, issuing his first encyclical, Summi Pontificatus, on October 20, 1939, which condemned racism, totalitarianism, and the invasion of Poland while emphasizing human unity under God.[54] He directed discreet aid to Jews through nuncios, religious orders, and Vatican networks, sheltering thousands in monasteries and convents; historian Michael Feldkamp estimates Pius personally saved at least 15,000 Jews via these channels.[55] His approach, however, drew controversy for perceived silence on the Holocaust, as he avoided explicit public denunciations to prevent reprisals against Catholics and Jews, a stance later criticized in scholarly works for potentially emboldening Nazi perpetrators.[56] Post-war, Pius advocated for human rights in addresses like his 1944 Christmas message, urging reconstruction based on justice and condemning ideologies that dehumanized individuals.[57] Pius XII's legacy includes defining the dogma of the Assumption of Mary—her bodily ascent into heaven—on November 1, 1950, in the apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus, affirming it as divinely revealed doctrine after consulting bishops worldwide.[58] His beatification process, initiated shortly after his death, advanced to declaring him Venerable on December 19, 2009, recognizing his heroic virtues, though it remains ongoing amid debates over his wartime record.[59]Pope Clement XII
Pope Clement XII, born Lorenzo Corsini on 7 April 1652 in Florence, hailed from the noble Corsini family, which traced its roots to the influential Strozzi lineage.[60] At the age of 78, he was elected pope on 12 July 1730 following a prolonged conclave, succeeding Benedict XIII amid the political maneuvering of European powers.[60] As the twelfth pope to bear the name Clement, his pontificate lasted until his death on 6 February 1740, marked by efforts to address the Papal States' severe financial distress inherited from previous administrations.[60] During his reign, Clement XII prioritized financial reforms to combat papal debt, demanding restitution from corrupt officials such as Cardinal Niccolò Coscia, who was fined heavily and imprisoned for ten years.[60] He revived the state lottery, which generated nearly 500,000 scudi annually, providing crucial revenue for the treasury.[60] Despite becoming totally blind in the second year of his pontificate (1732) and later being confined to bed due to gout, he continued to govern actively, often from his bedside.[60] In 1738, he issued the papal bull In Eminenti Apostolatus Specula on 28 April, the first formal condemnation of Freemasonry, excommunicating its members for promoting secrecy and potentially heretical doctrines.[61] Clement XII was a notable patron of the arts and architecture, commissioning projects that enhanced Rome's cultural landscape. He initiated the construction of the Trevi Fountain in 1732, designed by Nicola Salvi, which symbolized the restoration of the Aqua Virgo aqueduct and became one of the city's iconic landmarks.[62] His patronage extended to restoring the Arch of Constantine, paving Rome's streets, and widening the Corso; he also oversaw the façade of St. John Lateran Basilica and built a chapel dedicated to St. Andrew Corsini.[60] To expand public collections, he purchased a renowned assortment of ancient statues, inscriptions, and artifacts from Cardinal Alessandro Albani for 60,000 scudi in 1733, forming the basis of the Capitoline Museums, which opened to the public in 1734 as the world's first dedicated museum.[60] Additionally, he enriched the Vatican's holdings by acquiring valuable medals, vases, and manuscripts for its library.[63] His legacy endures through these cultural initiatives and moral reforms, including support for religious orders like the Passionists, as well as his firm stance against secret societies that influenced subsequent papal policies.[60] Despite physical frailties in his later years, Clement XII's emphasis on fiscal recovery and artistic splendor helped stabilize and beautify the Papal States during the early Enlightenment era.[60]Law and government
Law of the Twelve Tables
The Law of the Twelve Tables, named for the twelve bronze tablets (XII in Roman numerals) on which it was inscribed, represents the earliest codified body of Roman law, enacted around 451–450 BCE during the early Roman Republic.[64] Amid the Struggle of the Orders, a conflict between patricians and plebeians over legal inequities, the plebeians demanded written laws to curb the arbitrary interpretations by patrician magistrates and priests.[65] In response, a commission of ten men (decemviri) was appointed in 451 BCE to draft the code, drawing inspiration from Greek legal traditions, including the laws of Solon in Athens; this group was later expanded to twelve to finalize the work.[66] The resulting statutes were ratified by the Centuriate Assembly in 449 BCE and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum, making the law accessible to all citizens and reducing reliance on oral customs.[64] The content of the Twelve Tables primarily addressed private law, encompassing civil procedure, property rights, family matters, debts, and certain criminal offenses, while blending customary practices with new regulations.[65] Tables I and II outlined judicial processes, such as summoning parties to trial and rules for legal representation; Table III regulated debt recovery, allowing creditors to bind debtors in servitude for unpaid loans but limiting the duration to thirty days.[66] Family law in Table IV reinforced paternal authority (patria potestas), including rights over children and guardianship for orphans, while Tables V and VI covered inheritance and property ownership, stipulating equal shares for sons and specifying procedures for wills.[64] Provisions on torts and crimes (Table VIII) imposed severe penalties, such as death for treason or nocturnal theft and fourfold restitution for stolen crops, reflecting a harsh but codified approach to justice influenced by earlier Greek models.[66] As the foundational written legislation of Rome, the Twelve Tables marked a pivotal shift from unwritten customs to a formalized legal system, empowering plebeians by ensuring transparency and equality under the law.[65] It served as the cornerstone for subsequent Roman jurisprudence, influencing imperial codes such as the Corpus Juris Civilis under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE, and its principles of procedural fairness and property rights echoed in Western legal traditions.[64] Although the original tablets were destroyed in 390 BCE during the Gallic sack of Rome, fragments survive through quotations in later works by Roman historians and jurists like Cicero and Gaius, allowing modern reconstruction.[66]Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified on June 15, 1804, reformed the procedures for electing the president and vice president by requiring electors in the Electoral College to cast separate ballots for each office, thereby addressing flaws in the original system established under Article II, Section 1, Clause 3.[67] This change superseded the prior method, in which each elector voted for two candidates without distinction between the roles, with the candidate receiving the most votes becoming president and the runner-up serving as vice president.[68] The amendment's adoption was driven by the chaotic outcome of the 1800 presidential election, marking a significant adjustment to the nation's electoral framework amid rising partisan divisions between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.[69] The catalyst for the Twelfth Amendment was the 1800 election, a bitterly contested race between incumbent Federalist President John Adams and Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson, with Aaron Burr as Jefferson's running mate.[69] Under the original constitutional provisions, Democratic-Republican electors cast their two votes for both Jefferson and Burr, resulting in a 73-73 electoral vote tie between the two, as intended to secure the presidency for Jefferson and the vice presidency for Burr.[70] However, the tie threw the decision to the House of Representatives, where Federalist influence prolonged the deadlock through 36 ballots over several days, fueled by rivalries and attempts to favor Burr or even deny the presidency to Jefferson.[69] Alexander Hamilton's intervention against Burr ultimately swayed enough Federalists to secure Jefferson's election on February 17, 1801, but the crisis exposed the vulnerability of the system to intra-party intrigue and partisan manipulation.[71] In response, the lame-duck Federalist-controlled Congress proposed the Twelfth Amendment on December 9, 1803, which was swiftly ratified by the necessary three-fourths of states within six months, reflecting broad consensus on the need for reform.[72] The amendment's core provisions mandate that electors meet in their states and vote separately by ballot for president and vice president, with at least one not being from the same state as the elector; these ballots are then certified and transmitted to the President of the Senate for counting in a joint session of Congress.[67] If no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes for president, the House of Representatives chooses from the top three candidates, voting by state delegation (one vote per state), requiring a quorum of two-thirds of the states and a majority for election; a similar process applies to the vice presidency in the Senate, selecting from the top two candidates.[68] Additionally, it prohibits anyone constitutionally ineligible for president from serving as vice president.[67] A superseded clause once specified that if the House failed to choose by March 4, the vice president would act as president, but this was replaced by the Twentieth Amendment.[67] The Twelfth Amendment profoundly shaped subsequent U.S. elections by preventing intra-party ties like that of 1800 and clarifying the Electoral College's role, thus stabilizing the separation of executive offices amid ongoing Federalist-Democratic-Republican rivalries.[70] It was first invoked in a contingent election during the 1824 presidential contest, where no candidate achieved an electoral majority among Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay; the House, applying the amendment's state-delegation voting, selected Adams as president despite Jackson's plurality of both popular and electoral votes.[73] The mechanism was used once more for the vice presidency in 1836, when the Senate chose Richard Mentor Johnson after an electoral tie. Overall, it has ensured orderly transitions in tied scenarios, reinforcing the constitutional balance without further major intra-party disruptions.[74]Arts and entertainment
XII (Neal McCoy album)
XII is the tenth studio album by American country singer Neal McCoy, released on March 6, 2012, through Blaster Records.[75] It marks McCoy's return to country music after a seven-year absence from the genre, following his 2005 release That's Life.[76] The album was co-produced by Blake Shelton, Miranda Lambert, and Brent Rowan, blending upbeat, fun-oriented tracks with more introspective ballads.[77] Titled with the Roman numeral XII to signify both its 12 tracks and McCoy's place in his discography, it showcases his signature energetic vocal style honed during his 1990s commercial peak with hits like the chart-topping "Wink."[78] The album features 12 original songs, emphasizing light-hearted themes of love, relationships, and everyday humor in a contemporary country framework.[79] Standout uptempo tracks include the lead single "A-OK," co-written by Brett Eldredge and Luke Laird, which celebrates positivity, and "Real Good Feel Good," highlighting McCoy's playful delivery.[80] Slower numbers like "Every Fire" explore heartbreak, while "Lucky Enough" and "That's You"—both co-written by McCoy—add personal touches to the collection.[81] Closing track "Van Gogh" offers a poignant reflection, though reviewers noted it as somewhat somber compared to the album's overall lively tone.[76] Critics praised XII as a solid comeback, appreciating its entertaining, novelty-infused songs that align with McCoy's live-performance persona.[76] AllMusic users rated it 6.3 out of 10, reflecting a mixed but generally positive fan response to its fun energy.[82] Commercially, the album achieved modest success, peaking at number 58 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart and reintroducing McCoy to radio with "A-OK" entering the Hot Country Songs chart after a lengthy absence.[83] Despite limited mainstream impact, it garnered appreciation from fans for recapturing McCoy's traditional country roots amid his evolving career.[84]XII (Brian Culbertson album)
XII is the twelfth studio album by American smooth jazz musician Brian Culbertson, released on July 20, 2010, through GRP Records.[85] The album features 12 tracks blending smooth jazz, R&B, and funk elements, with Culbertson handling production, keyboards, and multi-instrumentation including trombone and piano.[85] It marks a collaborative effort, showcasing guest appearances from prominent R&B and jazz artists such as Avant, Brian McKnight, Faith Evans, Kenny Lattimore, Ray Parker Jr., Earl Klugh, Chuck Brown, and The Floacist, alongside spoken word by Sinbad on one track.[85] The title XII, using the Roman numeral for 12, signifies Culbertson's twelfth release in his career, reflecting his progression from independent beginnings to mainstream jazz fusion.[86] The tracklist emphasizes Culbertson's signature keyboard-driven sound, evolving from his earlier R&B-influenced works toward a more polished jazz-R&B fusion with lush strings and rhythmic grooves.[85] Key tracks include the lead single "Skies Wide Open" featuring Avant, which became a hit on smooth jazz radio, and the instrumental "That's Life" with Earl Klugh, highlighting guitar-keyboard interplay.[85] Other notable songs are "Feelin' It" with Chuck Brown, incorporating go-go rhythms, and "Out on the Floor" featuring Brian McKnight's vocals over upbeat funk.[85] The full track listing is as follows:| Track | Title | Featured Artist |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Feelin' It | Chuck Brown |
| 2 | Another Love | Kenny Lattimore |
| 3 | It's Time | - |
| 4 | Out on the Floor | Brian McKnight |
| 5 | Waiting For You | - |
| 6 | Stay Wit It | - |
| 7 | Skies Wide Open | Avant |
| 8 | Forever | - |
| 9 | Don't U Know Me By Now | Faith Evans |
| 10 | That's Life | Earl Klugh |
| 11 | I Wanna Love You | Ray Parker Jr. |
| 12 | I Don't Know | The Floacist |