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Zanthoxylum piperitum

Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. is a deciduous, aromatic shrub or small tree in the Rutaceae family, native to temperate regions of East Asia including China, Japan, and Korea.^[1] It typically grows to a height of 2–6 meters, featuring thorny branches, pinnately compound leaves with 5–9 ovate leaflets, and dioecious flowers that bloom in spring, producing small green berries that ripen to scarlet in autumn.^[2] The plant thrives in loamy, well-drained soils in full sun or partial shade and is hardy to USDA zones 5–9, tolerating temperatures down to -15°C.^[2] Commonly known as Japanese pepper, sanshō (Japanese), or chopi (Korean), Z. piperitum is widely cultivated for its culinary applications, particularly in Japanese cuisine.^[3] The young leaves and flower buds are used fresh as a spice to add a citrusy, numbing flavor to dishes such as hot pots, grilled eel, and yakitori, while the ground, dried pericarp of the fruit serves as a key ingredient in Japanese seven-spice blends (shichimi tōgarashi).^[4] The aromatic qualities derive from volatile oils rich in limonene and hydroxy-α-sanshool, which impart a tingling sensation on the tongue.^[4] Beyond its role in food, Z. piperitum has a long history in traditional medicine across Asia for treating digestive issues, parasites, and inflammation.^[2] Pharmacological studies confirm its antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties, attributed to bioactive compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, and lignans found in the fruits, leaves, and bark.^[5] Recent research highlights potential benefits in pain relief, mosquito repellency, and allergic inflammation, with extracts showing efficacy in inhibiting muscle contractions and modulating immune responses.^[6]^[7] The plant is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, indicating stable wild populations despite commercial harvesting.^[3]

Taxonomy and Names

Etymology and Common Names

The scientific name Zanthoxylum piperitum derives from ancient Greek and Latin roots. The genus name Zanthoxylum is a combination of "xanthos" (yellow) and "xylon" (wood), referring to the yellowish color of the wood in many species within the genus.^[8] The specific epithet "piperitum," the neuter form of the Latin adjective "piperitus," alludes to the plant's pepper-like fruits and their pungent flavor, stemming from the Latin word "piper" for pepper.^[8] In English, Z. piperitum is commonly known as Japanese pepper or Japanese prickly-ash, names that highlight its origin and the prickly texture of its stems.^[9] In Japan, it is called sanshō (山椒), literally meaning "mountain pepper," which evokes its traditional harvesting from wild mountain areas and its integral role in Japanese cuisine since at least the Heian period (794–1185 CE), where it was valued for its aromatic leaves (kinome) and berries in dishes like grilled eel (kabayaki).^[10] This name's adoption underscores the plant's cultural embedding in Japanese culinary and medicinal traditions, often symbolizing freshness and zest.^[11] In Korea, the plant is known as chopi (초피), a term derived from the Chinese "jiao" (椒) for pepper, reflecting historical linguistic exchanges across East Asia and its traditional use in Korean spice blends and herbal remedies.^[8] The name chopi emphasizes its status as a native flavoring agent, commonly incorporated into fermented pastes and teas for its numbing, citrusy qualities. Regional variants, such as the thornless cultivar Asakura zanshō in Japan, adapt these naming conventions to highlight cultivated forms.^[9]

Synonyms and Varieties

The accepted scientific name for this plant is Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC., established in de Candolle's Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824.^[1] A primary synonym is the basionym Fagara piperita L., published by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1759.^[1] Other heterotypic synonyms include Zanthoxylum ovalifoliolatum Nakai and Zanthoxylum piperitum var. hispidum (Hayashi) Konta, reflecting historical taxonomic revisions within the genus.^[1] Zanthoxylum piperitum is classified in the genus Zanthoxylum, which comprises approximately 250 species of trees, shrubs, and climbers, and belongs to the family Rutaceae, the rue or citrus family.^[12] Within this genus, it is closely related to species like Z. simulans (commonly known as Sichuan pepper), sharing similar aromatic properties and spiny characteristics but differing in fruit morphology and geographic distribution. According to current taxonomy, such as that accepted by Plants of the World Online (POWO), Z. piperitum has no accepted infraspecific taxa and is treated as monotypic.^[1] However, notable synonyms include the thornless form Z. piperitum var. inerme Makino (described in 1912), which lacks the prominent spines typical of the species,^[13] and Z. piperitum f. pubsescens (Nakai) W.T. Lee, characterized by hairy pubescence on its foliage and stems and referred to as "hairy chopi" in Korean nomenclature.^[14] These synonyms highlight morphological diversity within the species, often noted in East Asian floras.^[15]

Description

Morphology

Zanthoxylum piperitum is a deciduous shrub or small tree with a compact, dense, and rounded growth habit, typically reaching 2.5–4.5 m in height and width.^[16]^[17] The stems are armed with pairs of flat spines, measuring 8–13 mm long, positioned at each node, contributing to its prickly appearance.^[16]^[17] The bark is aromatic and supports the plant's overall spiny structure.^[18] The leaves are alternate and pinnately compound, measuring 7.5–15 cm in length, with 11–23 oval to ovate leaflets that are stalkless, toothed, and occasionally bear prickles on the midrib.^[16]^[17] Each leaflet is 2–4 cm long, glossy dark green, and emits a strong peppery aroma when crushed.^[16]^[18] In autumn, the leaflets turn yellow before falling.^[18] The plant is dioecious, producing small, yellowish-green flowers in clusters or panicles 2.5–5 cm long, typically from April to early summer.^[16]^[19]^[18] The fruits are tiny, reddish berries that split open in autumn to reveal black seeds, often dotted with glands.^[16]^[17]^[18]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Zanthoxylum piperitum is dioecious, meaning individual plants bear either male or female flowers, necessitating both sexes in proximity for successful seed production through cross-pollination.^[20] Pollination is primarily facilitated by insects attracted to the small, yellow-green flowers.^[21] Flowering occurs in spring, typically from April to May, with clusters of inconspicuous blooms appearing before the leaves fully expand.^[22] Female flowers develop into scarlet berries that ripen in autumn, around October, releasing black seeds.^[23] Seeds are primarily dispersed by birds and other frugivorous animals that consume the fleshy fruits.^[24] As a perennial deciduous shrub, Z. piperitum follows an annual cycle of active growth in spring and summer, followed by leaf drop and dormancy during winter. In addition to sexual reproduction, the plant can propagate asexually through root suckers, which emerge from the base and can be separated for propagation in late winter.^[25] This vegetative method allows for clonal expansion, particularly in cultivation.^[26]

Distribution and Habitat

Native Range

Zanthoxylum piperitum is native to East Asia, encompassing Japan from Hokkaido to Kyushu, the southern Korean Peninsula, and eastern China.^[20]^[9] It occurs throughout Honshu, Shikoku, and other regions of Japan, as well as northern areas of the Chinese mainland.^[16] In its native locales, the plant is commonly found in mountainous forests, scrub, and woodland edges of Japan and Korea.^[20]^[27] It has been introduced to parts of Europe and North America, where it is cultivated for ornamental purposes.^[24]^[16]

Ecological Preferences

Zanthoxylum piperitum thrives in temperate climates, particularly those with continental influences featuring distinct seasons, and is hardy in USDA zones 5 to 9. It exhibits strong tolerance to cold temperatures, surviving occasional winter lows down to -23°C in zone 6 conditions, though it performs best with protection from extreme winds in exposed sites. Native to regions such as Japan and Korea, the plant favors areas with moderate summer warmth to promote healthy wood ripening and overall vigor.^[16]^[28]^[23] In its natural habitat, Z. piperitum commonly occurs in mixed forests, woodland edges, scrub, hedges, and rocky slopes within hilly or mountainous terrains. It adapts well to partial shade or dappled light under forest canopies but can also endure full sun exposure. This versatility allows it to occupy transitional zones between open areas and denser vegetation, contributing to its presence in diverse temperate woodland ecosystems.^[29]^[25]^[23]^[30] The species prefers loamy, well-drained soils that retain some moisture without becoming waterlogged, showing tolerance for poor or nutrient-variable substrates. It grows effectively in a range of soil textures, including sandy, loamy, and clay types, with a pH tolerance spanning mildly acidic (around 5.1) to neutral and slightly alkaline conditions. Prolonged waterlogging is detrimental, as the plant is sensitive to root saturation, underscoring its adaptation to drier, aerated environments.^[2]^[18]^[31]^[27]

Ecology

Interactions with Wildlife

Zanthoxylum piperitum serves as a host plant for the larvae of the swallowtail butterfly Papilio xuthus, an indigenous species in Japan that has also established populations in Hawaii. The butterfly's females lay eggs on the plant's leaves, where the emerging caterpillars feed on the foliage, using it for both nourishment and shelter during their development into pupae. This interaction highlights the plant's role in supporting lepidopteran biodiversity within its native East Asian ecosystems.^[32] The plant's small, red fruits are attractive to frugivorous birds, which consume the pericarp and ingest the seeds, facilitating seed dispersal as the birds excrete viable seeds away from the parent plant. This ornithochorous dispersal mechanism contributes to the species' propagation across forested and woodland habitats. Additionally, the seeds may persist in soil seed banks, enhancing long-term recruitment.^[24] The stems and branches of Z. piperitum bear paired, flat spines that act as a physical defense against herbivory. These spines deter browsing by larger mammals, such as feral ungulates and rodents, by impeding access to leaves and young shoots, thereby reducing damage and providing a competitive edge over less defended vegetation in shared habitats. While the chemical compounds in the leaves and fruits also exhibit feeding deterrent properties against certain mammals, the spines serve as a primary mechanical barrier.^[24]

Environmental Role

As a shrub adapted to light woodland conditions, Z. piperitum occurs in the understory layer of temperate forests.^[2] The plant plays a role in carbon sequestration within temperate woodlands, contributing to soil conservation and atmospheric carbon storage through biomass accumulation and root-mediated carbon inputs. Studies highlight its potential in carbon farming systems for mitigating global warming effects.^[33]^[2] In non-native regions like North America, Z. piperitum shows low invasive potential, with no widespread establishment reported, though its bird-dispersed seeds warrant monitoring in introduced areas.^[24]^[2]

Cultivation

Propagation Methods

Zanthoxylum piperitum is commonly propagated through seeds, which exhibit dormancy requiring cold stratification to achieve satisfactory germination. Stored seeds benefit from up to 3 months of cold stratification at approximately 4°C in a moist medium such as sand or vermiculite, potentially aided by scarification to weaken the seed coat. Following stratification, seeds are sown in spring in a well-drained potting mix within a greenhouse or cold frame, with germination typically occurring in late spring but possibly delayed up to 12 months.^[34]^[25] Vegetative propagation methods are also effective for Z. piperitum, particularly for maintaining desirable traits in cultivars. Root cuttings, taken as 3 cm segments in summer and planted horizontally in pots under greenhouse conditions, yield a good success rate. Layering, including air layering techniques applied in summer, promotes root development while the stem remains attached to the parent plant, achieving high rooting success comparable to related species like Z. armatum with up to 90% survival when treated with auxins such as NAA.^[34]^[35] Grafting is employed for commercial production of hybrids, such as the thornless budō sanshō variety, where scions are grafted onto hardy rootstocks to enhance vigor and fruit yield. This method allows for earlier harvesting, with grafted seedlings bearing fruit after about 10 years when planted in suitable field conditions.^[36]^[37]

Growing Conditions and Care

Zanthoxylum piperitum thrives in full sun to partial shade, with optimal growth in well-drained, fertile loamy soils that retain moderate moisture.^[18]^[20] Plants should be spaced 2-3 meters apart to allow for their compact, spreading habit reaching up to 4.5 meters in height and width.^[16] In Japan, the primary production area is Wakayama Prefecture, which accounts for approximately 80% of the nation's sansho crop, benefiting from the region's temperate climate and suitable hilly terrains.^[38] Watering requirements are moderate; plants prefer consistent soil moisture without waterlogging, especially during establishment and fruit development.^[39] Annual applications of compost or organic fertilizer in spring support nutrient needs, promoting vigorous growth and fruit yield while maintaining soil structure.^[20] Pruning is recommended after flowering to shape the plant for easier harvest, remove thorny stems if desired, and encourage bushy form; light trimming prevents overcrowding and improves air circulation.^[18] The species is hardy to USDA zones 5-9, tolerating temperatures down to -15°C with minimal winter protection in suitable climates.^[20] It exhibits resistance to most common pests and diseases, though monitoring for scale insects is advised, as they can occasionally infest stems and leaves in humid conditions.^[39] Prompt removal of affected parts or insecticidal soap applications effectively manage any outbreaks. Propagation can be achieved via seeds sown in spring, but established plants require little ongoing intervention beyond basic care.

Chemical Composition

Active Compounds

Zanthoxylum piperitum contains several bioactive compounds, with sanshools being prominent alkylamides responsible for the characteristic numbing sensation experienced in culinary applications. The primary sanshool is hydroxy-α-sanshool, found predominantly in the fruits and leaves, alongside hydroxy-β-sanshool, α-sanshool, β-sanshool, γ-sanshool, and δ-sanshool. In dried pericarps, hydroxy-α-sanshool concentrations range from 13.7 to 23.8 mg/g dry weight, while hydroxy-β-sanshool is present at 2.7 to 7.9 mg/g dry weight; these levels vary by maturation stage, with hydroxy-α-sanshool increasing as fruits develop.^[40] Aromatic essential oils contribute to the plant's volatile profile, with limonene and geraniol identified as key components, particularly in leaves and fruits. Limonene is a major monoterpene hydrocarbon in leaf essential oils, comprising up to 37.9% in some analyses, though its abundance fluctuates seasonally and by region. Geraniol, an alcohol, appears in leaf and fruit oils at levels around 11.0% in ripe fruit extracts.^[41]^[42] Seeds of Z. piperitum are rich in serotonin derivatives, specifically glucosides such as N,N-dimethylserotonin 5-O-β-glucoside and N-methylserotonin 5-O-β-glucoside, concentrated in immature seeds at approximately 0.29% and 0.15% w/w, respectively.^[43] The plant also harbors alkaloids and flavonoids, with the latter including quercitrin, hyperin, afzelin, quercetin, and kaempferol primarily in leaves; concentrations of these and alkaloids differ across plant parts, influenced by growth conditions and extraction methods.

Phytochemical Properties

The sanshools, particularly hydroxy-α-sanshool, in Zanthoxylum piperitum activate transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) ion channels in sensory neurons, leading to tingling paresthesia sensations.^[44]^[45] This activation involves modulation of potassium channels and excitation of mechanoreceptors, distinguishing the plant's neurophysiological effects from typical irritants.^[46] Flavonoids such as quercitrin and hyperoside contribute to the antioxidant properties of Z. piperitum extracts, scavenging free radicals with IC<sub>50</sub> values of 18 μM and 16 μM, respectively, in DPPH assays.^[47] Methylene chloride extracts from seeds of Z. piperitum demonstrate antimicrobial effects against Gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia coli, with minimum inhibitory concentrations around 0.5 mg/mL.^[48] Anti-inflammatory mechanisms involve inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme expression, reducing pro-inflammatory mediators like prostaglandin E2 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated models.^[49] This suppression occurs at concentrations of 50-200 μg/mL, correlating with decreased nitric oxide and cytokine production.^[50] Phytochemical content, including essential oils, varies with environmental factors such as season.^[51] Recent research post-2023 reveals gaps in comprehensive toxicity profiling, with limited data on long-term genotoxicity and subchronic effects beyond preliminary safety assessments.^[40]^[52]

Uses

Culinary Applications

Zanthoxylum piperitum plays a prominent role in East Asian gastronomy, valued for its aromatic leaves and fruits that deliver a distinctive citrusy, tangy flavor with a mild numbing sensation. In Japan, the young spring leaves, called kinome, are used fresh or lightly processed to add a vibrant, green herbaceous note to dishes, while the mature fruits' pericarp husks are harvested, toasted, dried, and ground into kona-zanshō powder for a zesty, lemon-like spice. This numbing quality arises from sanshools present in the plant. In Korea, the species is known as chopi, with similar applications for both leaves and fruits, often dried for broader use.^[53]^[54]^[8] Japanese cuisine prominently features these elements in seasonal preparations. Kona-zanshō powder is traditionally sprinkled over grilled freshwater eel (unagi kabayaki) to cut through the dish's fatty richness with its astringent freshness. Kinome-ae, a classic spring salad, combines blanched bamboo shoots with a paste of ground kinome leaves blended with mild miso, offering a balanced sweet-salty profile that evokes early-season renewal. The leaves also garnish soups, sashimi, and stir-fries, while the powder seasons grilled meats and rice bowls, emphasizing the plant's versatility in washoku.^[55]^[56]^[57] In Korean cooking, ground chopi fruits enhance hearty soups such as chueo-tang (loach soup), where they provide a spicy, aromatic lift to the broth. The leaves appear in pickled forms like jangajji or chopped into sauces for seafood and vegetables, and they feature in traditional kimchi variants, contributing a pre-chili-era pungency and citrus depth. Both fresh and dried preparations underscore the plant's cross-cultural appeal for elevating fermented, grilled, and soupy fare.^[8]^[58]

Medicinal and Traditional Uses

In Japanese folk medicine, Zanthoxylum piperitum has been employed to aid digestion and alleviate gastrointestinal discomfort, with extracts from its fruits, seeds, or bark used to stimulate appetite and reduce bloating or indigestion.^[5] The plant also features in ceremonial toso rice wine, a traditional New Year beverage infused with its components to promote health and ward off illness during rituals.^[59] Additionally, it has been applied for pain relief, including bone-related issues that may encompass toothaches, due to its numbing properties attributed to compounds like sanshools.^[5] In Korean traditional medicine, Z. piperitum serves as a diuretic and remedy for digestive disorders, with its leaves and fruits prepared in decoctions to support gastrointestinal health and cardiovascular function by inhibiting cholesterol esterification.^[60] It is also utilized as an analgesic for toothaches, leveraging its tingling sensation for symptomatic relief.^[61] Modern pharmacological studies through 2025 have validated some traditional uses, particularly anti-obesity effects observed in animal models, where ethanol extracts suppressed fat accumulation in adipocytes and reduced body weight gain in high-fat diet-induced obese mice by downregulating adipogenic genes such as PPARγ and C/ebpα.^[62] Recent research (2023–2025) has further explored anti-inflammatory properties, including attenuation of monosodium urate crystal-induced inflammation in gout models and preclinical efficacy against joint inflammation in collagen-induced arthritis.^[63]^[49] Additional studies highlight potential antitumor effects and support for metabolic health, such as gut balance and immune modulation.^[64]^[65] However, human clinical trials remain limited across these applications, with ongoing need for safety and efficacy confirmation.^[5]

Other Practical Uses

In Japan, the hard, durable wood of Zanthoxylum piperitum is traditionally used to craft surikogi pestles, which are paired with suribachi mortars for grinding spices and preparing pastes; the gnarled texture of the wood contributes to its effectiveness and longevity in these utensils.^[2] In Korea, bark extracts of Z. piperitum have been employed traditionally as an ichthyotoxic agent to stun or poison fish, such as the weather loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus), though efficacy varies by extraction method, with methanol extracts showing the strongest activity due to compounds like L-asarinin.^[66] The plant is valued ornamentally for its aromatic foliage, compact growth habit reaching up to 2 meters, and small reddish peppercorn-like fruits, making it suitable for woodland gardens, hedges, or as an indoor bonsai specimen that responds well to pruning and wiring.^[2]^[39] Its spiny stems add textural interest in landscape plantings, and it serves a minor role in erosion control through hedge formations in suitable climates.

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Szechuan pepper (sansho) from the plant genus Xanthoxylum piperitum is used as a spice because of the unique tingling paresthetic and numbing sensations ...Missing: sanshools | Show results with:sanshools
[48]
Total Phenolic, Flavonoid Contents, and Antioxidant Activities of ...
Mar 16, 2020 · And the least antioxidant capacity was shown by the seeds extract with IC50 values of 86.75 μg/mL and 94.49 μg/mL for wild and cultivated seeds, ...
[49]
Sanshools from Zanthoxylum genus and their antioxidant properties ...
Feb 4, 2024 · Hydroxy-β-sanshool isolated from Zanthoxylum piperitum (Japanese pepper) shortens the period of the circadian clock. Food Funct. 13, 9407 ...
[50]
[PDF] Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oils from Zanthoxylum piperitum ...
Z. piperitum A.P. DC. essential oil was the most effective against all pathogens tested except for Escherichia coli O157:H7, and the MIC values against B ...
[51]
Preclinical evaluation of Zanthoxylum piperitum Benn., traditional ...
Mar 25, 2022 · It has been known to induce detoxification; affect anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, and tyrosinase activity; inhibit osteosarcoma proliferation; ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
The Anti-inflammatory Mechanism of the Peel of Zanthoxylum ...
The findings of this study demonstrated that ZP inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokine and PGE2 and inhibited the increased levels of COX-2 and iNOS ...Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[53]
Seasonal variations in the content and composition of essential oil ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Seasonal variations in the profile and concentrations of essential oil in Zanthoxylum piperitum were investigated by gas chromatography-mass ...
[54]
[PDF] Safety Assessment of Zanthoxylum piperitum-Derived Ingredients as ...
Sep 28, 2023 · In the Calu-6 cell line, the IC50 value for Zanthoxylum piperitum extract was 470.4 ± 13.1 µg/ml. ... Antioxidative activity in the pericarp and ...<|separator|>
[55]
Biotechnological Phytocomplex of Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC ...
The botanical origin of Z. piperitum was confirmed by fingerprint analysis from Parco Tecnologico Padano, Lodi, Italy [31]. Young aerial parts from the Z ...
[56]
Classification of Japanese Pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum DC ... - NIH
Aug 3, 2022 · The Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum DC.) is an attractive plant that is highly palatable and benefits human health.
[57]
Sansho Leaves Information and Facts - Specialty Produce
In Japan, Sansho leaves are commonly added to seafood dishes, soups, and stir-fries. The leaves are also dried and ground into a powder for use as a spice. In ...
[58]
Unagi - grilled freshwater eel - Japan Guide
Sep 29, 2024 · Grilled unagi is almost always accompanied by a container of powdered sansho (Japanese pepper) which has a strong, astringent flavor that ...
[59]
Kinome-ae of bamboo shoots ｜ Our Regional Cuisines : MAFF
It is a dish of bamboo shoots dressed with Kinome (leaves of Japanese pepper) which are also in season in spring.<|separator|>
[60]
Sansho (Japanese pepper) - S&B Foods
Sansho is commonly used to flavor freshwater broiled eels (unagi) lightly sauced in Japan. It is also suitable for grilled meat, fried chicken, fried meals ...
[61]
Rediscovering temple food and kimchi - The Korea Times
Jun 13, 2024 · The Zanthoxylum piperitum is used for its strong flavor, which traditionally was used before the arrival of red chili pepper into Korea. For ...
[62]
Sansho Information and Facts - Specialty Produce
Beyond savory dishes, Sansho is infused into oils, liquors, and even desserts like custards and cakes. It is a featured ingredient in toso, a ceremonial Sansho- ...<|separator|>
[63]
Antinociceptive Activity of Zanthoxylum piperitum DC. Essential Oil
This study aimed to investigate the antinociceptive effect of ZP essential oil (ZPEO). The major component present in the essential oil was beta-phellandrene ( ...Missing: allelopathic | Show results with:allelopathic
[64]
Zanthoxylum piperitum reversed alveolar bone loss of periodontitis ...
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Zanthoxylum piperitum (ZP) has been used to prevent toothache in East Asia. Aim of study: In this study, we investigated the ...
[65]
Zanthoxylum Piperitum DC Ethanol Extract Suppresses Fat ...
This study was conducted to determine the anti-obesity effects of Zanthoxylum piperitum DC fruit ethanol extract (ZPE) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and obese mice ...
[66]
A Study on the Ichthyotoxic Constituents of Chopi(Zanthoxylum ...
To Study an ichthyotoxicity of Zanthoxylum piperitum DC (Chopi) against fish(Misgurnus anguillicaudatus), the bark of Chopi was extracted with water ...