ASA
The American Sociological Association (ASA) is a nonprofit professional organization founded in 1905 to advance sociology as a discipline through research, teaching, and public engagement.[1] It serves as the largest membership body for sociologists in the United States, encompassing over 9,000 active members who produce peer-reviewed journals, organize annual conferences, and influence policy discussions on social structures and inequalities.[2][3] The ASA has played a central role in establishing sociology's institutional presence, including the development of key journals like the American Sociological Review and standards for ethical research practices that emphasize empirical rigor.[1] Notable achievements include fostering interdisciplinary collaborations and recognizing contributions through awards that highlight advancements in understanding social phenomena, such as inequality and organizational behavior.[3] However, the association has encountered controversies, including resistance to open science initiatives that could enhance replicability, with internal surveys revealing low rates of data and code sharing in its flagship publications.[4][5] Critics have highlighted a defining characteristic of the ASA and the broader field it represents: a pervasive left-wing ideological bias, which manifests in disproportionate representation of liberal viewpoints among members and leadership, potentially prioritizing activism and policy advocacy over neutral empirical analysis.[6][7] This skew aligns with patterns observed in academia, where mainstream sociological output often reflects institutional pressures favoring progressive narratives, sometimes at the expense of dissenting or conservative perspectives grounded in causal evidence. Such tendencies have drawn scrutiny for eroding the discipline's claim to scientific objectivity, as evidenced by surveys showing near-total dominance of left-leaning ideologies in sociology departments.[8][9]Standards and Measurements
American Standards Association
The American Standards Association (ASA) was the principal U.S. organization for coordinating voluntary consensus standards development from 1928 to 1966.[10] It originated from the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC), established on October 19, 1918, by five engineering societies—including the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and others—along with three U.S. government departments: the Departments of War, Navy, and Commerce—to address wartime needs for unified engineering specifications and reduce inefficiencies from conflicting standards.[11][12] The ASA's core role involved accrediting procedures for standards-developing organizations (SDOs), overseeing the consensus process to ensure broad stakeholder input from industry, government, and consumers, and minimizing duplication or variance in proposed standards across sectors like manufacturing, electrical engineering, and safety codes.[13][14] By 1921, under its predecessor, it had approved its first safety code, and by the 1950s, it facilitated hundreds of standards, including early pipe thread specifications in 1919 and contributions to international harmonization.[15] The organization operated as a nonprofit federation, funding through membership dues from trade associations, businesses, and government entities, without directly authoring standards itself but acting as a neutral coordinator to promote interoperability and economic efficiency.[16][17] In fields like photography, the ASA developed the arithmetic film speed rating system (e.g., ASA 100 denoting twice the sensitivity of ASA 50), which provided a linear scale for measuring emulsion sensitivity to light, influencing global practices until its integration into ISO standards.[18] The ASA also engaged in acoustics and other technical areas, supporting empirical testing and data-driven refinements to standards based on practical performance metrics rather than arbitrary conventions.[19] Facing evolving needs for international representation, the ASA reorganized in 1966 as the American Standards Institute before adopting its current name, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), in 1969, marking a shift toward enhanced global coordination without altering its foundational consensus model.[10] This evolution reflected causal pressures from post-World War II trade expansion and technological interdependence, prioritizing verifiable interoperability over fragmented national efforts.[20]ASA Film Speed Rating
The ASA film speed rating system, developed by the American Standards Association (now known as ANSI), provided a numerical measure of photographic film's sensitivity to light, with higher numbers indicating greater sensitivity and thus "faster" film requiring less exposure time or light intensity for proper image formation.[21] The scale employed an arithmetic progression, where a doubling of the ASA value—such as from 100 to 200—corresponded to a one-stop increase in sensitivity, meaning the film could capture images at half the light level or shutter speed.[22] This system originated in the early 1940s as an evolution from earlier methods like the Weston ratings, standardizing film speeds primarily for use in the United States to guide photographers in selecting emulsions based on lighting conditions and desired grain or detail levels.[22] Determination of an ASA rating involved exposing film to a controlled light source and measuring the exposure needed to achieve a specific density in the negative, typically 0.1 above fog level for the effective speed, ensuring reproducibility across manufacturers like Kodak and Ilford.[18] Common ASA values ranged from low-speed films around 25 (fine-grained, suitable for bright daylight and high resolution) to high-speed options up to 1000 or more (coarser grain, for low-light or action photography), though practical limits depended on emulsion technology available at the time. The ASA PH2.5 standard, formalized in documents like PH2.5-1960, specified testing protocols under tungsten illumination for black-and-white films and daylight equivalents for color, prioritizing empirical exposure data over theoretical models.[23] By the 1970s, the ASA system faced obsolescence due to the need for international harmonization; it merged with the European DIN logarithmic scale (where each 3° increment equaled one stop) to form the ISO film speed standard in 1974 under ISO 6 for black-and-white and ISO 2240 for color films.[23][18] Numerically, ASA values aligned directly with the arithmetic component of ISO (e.g., ASA 100 equated to ISO 100/21°), facilitating a seamless transition without altering manufacturer ratings, though some photographers continued using ASA terminology on cameras into the digital era for familiarity.[21] This shift emphasized global consistency in an industry increasingly driven by multinational production, while preserving the core principle of light sensitivity as a verifiable physical property rather than subjective assessment.[23]Medicine and Health
Acetylsalicylic Acid
Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), commonly known as aspirin, is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) derived from salicylic acid, used primarily for its analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic effects.[24] It was first synthesized in a stable, pure form on August 10, 1897, by Felix Hoffmann, a chemist at Bayer AG in Germany, who acetylated salicylic acid using acetic anhydride to reduce its gastric irritancy compared to salicylic acid alone.[25] [26] Bayer marketed it as Aspirin in 1899, with the name deriving from "a" for acetyl and "spir" from Spiraea ulmaria, the plant source of salicylic acid historically used for pain relief dating back millennia.[27] Although Charles Frédéric Gerhardt produced an impure version in 1853 by reacting sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride, Hoffmann's method enabled commercial viability.[26] Chemically, ASA is 2-acetoxybenzoic acid with the molecular formula C₉H₈O₄, appearing as a white, crystalline powder that hydrolyzes in aqueous solutions to salicylic acid and acetic acid.[28] Its synthesis involves esterification of salicylic acid, a process scalable for pharmaceutical production.[26] The primary mechanism of action involves irreversible acetylation of cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2), inhibiting the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins and thromboxane A2, which underlie inflammation, pain, fever, and platelet aggregation.[29] [30] This was elucidated by pharmacologist John Vane in 1971, earning him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982.[29] At low doses (e.g., 75-162 mg daily), ASA selectively suppresses thromboxane in platelets due to their inability to regenerate COX-1, providing antiplatelet effects lasting days, whereas higher doses (325-650 mg) target both COX isoforms for broader anti-inflammatory action.[31] Medically, ASA relieves mild to moderate pain (e.g., headaches, dental pain), reduces fever, and treats inflammatory conditions like arthritis at doses of 2.4-3.6 g daily in divided doses.[28] Low-dose regimens prevent cardiovascular events in high-risk patients by inhibiting thrombus formation, as evidenced by trials showing reduced myocardial infarction and stroke incidence.[32] It is contraindicated in children under 16 for viral infections due to Reye's syndrome risk, a rare but potentially fatal encephalopathy linked to ASA use.[33] Adverse effects include gastrointestinal irritation, ulceration, and bleeding due to reduced protective prostaglandins in the stomach mucosa, with risks amplified by concurrent NSAIDs, alcohol, or high doses exceeding 3 g daily.[34] [28] Therapeutic salicylate levels are 150-300 mcg/mL, with toxicity above 300 mcg/mL manifesting as tinnitus, hyperventilation, metabolic acidosis, and seizures; overdose requires alkalinization to enhance excretion.[28] Hypersensitivity reactions, including asthma exacerbation in aspirin-sensitive individuals (affecting ~10% of asthmatics), stem from lipoxygenase pathway shunting post-COX inhibition.[28] Long-term use demands monitoring for hemorrhagic stroke risk, though net benefits outweigh harms in secondary cardiovascular prevention per clinical guidelines.[35]American Society of Anesthesiologists
The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) is a professional medical association dedicated to advancing the practice of anesthesiology through education, research, advocacy, and the establishment of standards. Originally founded on October 12, 1905, as the Long Island Society of Anesthetists by nine physicians in response to the need for organized discussion on anesthesia challenges, it evolved through renamings: to the New York Society of Anesthetists in 1911 and finally to the American Society of Anesthesiologists on April 12, 1945, reflecting its national scope.[36][37][38] With headquarters in Schaumburg, Illinois, the ASA reported 59,553 members as of 2024, encompassing active physicians, residents, medical students, and international affiliates, making it one of the largest anesthesiology organizations globally.[39][40] Its core mission focuses on elevating standards in anesthesiology, promoting patient safety, and supporting physician anesthesiologists in perioperative care, critical care, and pain management.[41][42] The ASA conducts annual scientific meetings, such as ANESTHESIOLOGY 2025 scheduled for October 10-14 in San Antonio, Texas, to facilitate knowledge exchange among over 14,000 professionals. It develops evidence-based practice guidelines, standards, and advisories on topics like basic anesthetic monitoring and postoperative care, influencing clinical protocols nationwide.[43][44] The organization publishes Anesthesiology, a leading peer-reviewed journal disseminating research since 1940, alongside the ASA Monitor for clinical updates and advocacy news.[45][46] Through lobbying and policy engagement, the ASA advocates for reimbursement reforms and regulatory protections for anesthesiologists, emphasizing their role in reducing perioperative risks.[41]ASA Physical Status Classification System
The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Physical Status (PS) Classification System evaluates a patient's preoperative health based on the severity of systemic comorbidities, independent of the planned surgical procedure.[47] Introduced in 1941 by a committee including Meyer Saklad, Emery Rovenstine, and Ivan Taylor, it was modified and formally adopted by the ASA in 1963, with a sixth category added later and updates including disease examples in 2019 to improve consistency.[48][47] The system's primary aim is to standardize communication of pre-anesthesia medical risks among healthcare providers, rather than to predict perioperative mortality or morbidity, which requires integration with factors like surgical complexity and patient age.[47][49]| ASA PS Class | Definition | Illustrative Examples |
|---|---|---|
| ASA I | Normal healthy patient | Fit, nonobese, nonsmoking individual with no or minimal medical history.[47][49] |
| ASA II | Patient with mild systemic disease | Controlled hypertension, mild asthma, or diabetes without end-organ damage; no substantive functional limitations.[47][49] |
| ASA III | Patient with severe systemic disease | Stable angina pectoris, symptomatic chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or poorly controlled diabetes with complications; limits activity but not incapacitating.[47][49] |
| ASA IV | Patient with severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life | Recent myocardial infarction, ongoing chemotherapy, or New York Heart Association class IV heart failure; requires frequent monitoring.[47][49] |
| ASA V | Moribund patient not expected to survive 24 hours with or without operation | Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm with shock, massive trauma with critical instability, or decompensated heart failure unresponsive to treatment.[47][49] |
| ASA VI | Declared brain-dead patient whose organs are being removed for donor purposes | Organ procurement in a brain-dead donor.[47][49] |