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Arch

An arch is a curved structural element in architecture that spans an opening, such as a doorway, window, or bridge, and distributes the weight of the material above it to its supports, primarily through compression forces rather than bending.^[1] This design allows for larger and more stable openings compared to straight lintels, enabling greater spans and heights in buildings while providing both functional support and aesthetic appeal.^[2] The origins of the arch trace back to ancient civilizations, with decorative forms appearing as early as the 4th millennium BCE, though structural load-bearing arches emerged around the 2nd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia for applications like underground drainage systems made of bricks.^[3] Early examples also appear in Egyptian tombs and vaults, but the form was not widely used for monumental architecture until the Etruscans and Romans refined it into a systematic engineering solution starting in the 6th century BCE.^[4] The Romans perfected the true arch—constructed from wedge-shaped voussoirs meeting at a keystone—applying it extensively in bridges, aqueducts, and iconic structures like the Colosseum and the Pantheon, whose massive concrete dome is supported by the rotunda's walls incorporating relieving arches, demonstrating its capacity to transform bending moments into efficient compression.^[5]^[1]^[6] Following the Roman era, the arch evolved through various styles and cultures, influencing Byzantine, Islamic, Gothic, Renaissance, and modern architecture.^[7] In the Byzantine period, architects like those who built the Hagia Sophia in the 6th century CE incorporated arches with pendentives to support expansive domes, achieving a 32-meter span at the base.^[5] The Gothic style, emerging in 12th-century Europe, introduced the pointed arch, which directed thrusts more vertically to allow taller structures like cathedrals with ribbed vaults, originating from Middle Eastern influences and enabling heights previously unimaginable.^[8] During the Renaissance, architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi revived classical arches in designs like the dome of the Florence Cathedral (completed 1436, 45.5-meter diameter), blending Roman techniques with innovative scaffolding.^[5]^[9] Arches come in diverse types, each suited to specific structural and stylistic needs, including the semicircular Roman arch for even load distribution, the pointed Gothic arch for height, the corbelled arch (a precursor using stepped stones), and the parabolic or catenary arch in modern engineering for optimal compression.^[1] Beyond their engineering role, arches have served symbolic purposes, such as in triumphal arches commemorating victories since the Roman Republic, and continue to inspire contemporary designs in materials like steel and concrete, underscoring their enduring legacy in spanning physical and imaginative spaces.^[10]^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Terminology

An arch is a curved structural element used in architecture and engineering to span an opening, such as a doorway, window, or bridge, while primarily transferring loads through compression to supports at each end.^[11] This design allows arches to distribute weight efficiently without relying on tensile strength, making them suitable for materials like stone or masonry that perform well under compressive forces.^[12] The term "arch" derives from the Latin arcus, meaning "bow" or "curve," which entered English via Old French arche in the Middle Ages, reflecting its bowed shape.^[13] In contrast to a lintel, which is a straight horizontal beam spanning an opening and prone to bending stresses that induce tension, a true arch relies on its curvature to channel forces into compression along its components, enabling it to support greater loads over wider spans.^[14] Key terminology describes the components and features of an arch. A voussoir is a wedge-shaped stone or block that forms the arch's curved body, with its wider top edge contributing to the compressive interlocking.^[15] The keystone is the central voussoir at the apex, which locks the structure together once installed.^[16] The springer refers to the lowest voussoir on each side, where the curve begins to rise from the vertical support.^[15] An impost is the projecting block or course on a pier or wall that receives the arch's thrust at the springing line, the horizontal level where the arch starts.^[17] The extrados denotes the outer curve or face of the arch, while the intrados is the inner curve, often visible as the soffit in openings.^[18]

Structural Mechanics

The structural mechanics of an arch relies on its ability to distribute loads primarily through axial compression along the curved path of the structure, rather than bending as in a straight beam. Vertical loads applied to the arch are transferred downward and outward, resolving into compressive forces that follow the arch's geometry; these forces generate a horizontal thrust component at the supports, which must be resisted by abutments or ties to maintain equilibrium, while vertical reactions handle the net downward load. This compression-dominant action enables arches to achieve greater spans with reduced material usage, as the curvature efficiently redirects forces away from tensile stresses.^[19]^[20] Central to the arch's integrity is the keystone, the wedge-shaped block at the crown that interlocks the surrounding voussoirs under compression. By receiving the load from above and distributing it symmetrically to the adjacent stones, the keystone prevents radial separation and outward spreading, effectively locking the entire assembly and averting collapse during and after construction. Without the keystone, the voussoirs would displace under load, as the structure depends on this final element to complete the compressive ring.^[21] Stability in arches is assessed through the thrust line, the trajectory of the resultant compressive force passing through the structure from load to supports. For the arch to remain stable, the thrust line must remain fully contained within the masonry cross-section under all applied loads; deviations outside this boundary indicate potential hinging or failure mechanisms, underscoring the critical role of geometric proportions—such as rise, span, and thickness—in ensuring the line's confinement and thus overall equilibrium.^[11] In analyzing a two-hinged arch, the horizontal thrust H is derived from static equilibrium by considering moment balance, particularly at the crown where bending moment is minimized. For a symmetric arch under uniform loading, the bending moment at any section is given by M_x = M_{x0} - H y, where M_{x0} is the moment at section x treating the arch as a simply supported beam, and y is the height from the springing line. At the crown, y = h (the rise) and M = 0, yielding

H = \frac{M_\max}{h}

, with

M_\max

as the maximum beam moment at the center. This relation highlights how the thrust counteracts beam-like bending to enforce pure compression.^[22]

Funicular Principles

Funicular shapes represent the ideal geometric form for arches designed to withstand loads primarily through axial compression, minimizing or eliminating bending moments. These shapes are derived from the inverted profile of a hanging chain or cable under its own weight, known as a catenary, which naturally assumes a configuration where internal forces align with the curve's tangent, ensuring pure tension in the chain or pure compression in the inverted arch.^[11]^[23] This principle allows funicular arches under uniform loading to distribute forces efficiently along their length without transverse shear or moment stresses, optimizing material use in compression-only structures like masonry.^[24] The mathematical foundation of the funicular shape for self-weight loading is the catenary curve, described by the equation

y = a \cosh\left(\frac{x}{a}\right),

where y is the vertical coordinate, x is the horizontal coordinate, a is a constant determined by the linear density of the chain or arch material and gravitational acceleration, and \cosh denotes the hyperbolic cosine function.^[25] For arches subjected to uniformly distributed loads along their horizontal span—such as those from a bridge deck—the catenary approximates a parabola, providing a simpler geometric form for practical design while closely maintaining the funicular properties over typical span-to-rise ratios.^[26]^[27] In contrast, non-funicular arches deviate from this optimal shape, resulting in bending moments and shear forces that induce tensile stresses, which are undesirable in brittle materials like stone.^[28] To mitigate these effects in non-ideal geometries, engineers incorporate ties to resist outward thrusts or hinges to allow rotation and relieve moments, transforming the structure into a more stable configuration.^[26] Funicular designs, by aligning the arch axis with the line of thrust, avoid such reinforcements entirely under the specified loading.^[29] The application of funicular principles to structural analysis gained early prominence in bridge and dome design through Giovanni Poleni's 1748 study of the cracked dome at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, where he employed the inverted catenary analogy—building on Robert Hooke's earlier insight—to verify the structure's safety by ensuring the thrust line remained within the masonry profile.^[23]^[30] This method demonstrated that domes and arches could be assessed for stability without advanced calculations, influencing subsequent graphic statics techniques in engineering.^[31]

Types and Shapes

Semicircular Arches

The semicircular arch, also known as the Roman arch, is defined by its geometry as a 180-degree curve forming a perfect semicircle, where the rise equals half the span and the intrados traces a half-circle profile.^[32] This configuration results in uniform voussoir sizes and shapes, as each wedge-shaped block follows the consistent radial curvature without variation in dimensions.^[33] The primary advantages of semicircular arches lie in their simplicity for masonry construction, as the uniform voussoirs allow for straightforward cutting, placement, and assembly using basic centering techniques.^[34] They also provide aesthetic symmetry through their balanced, rounded form, while efficiently distributing compressive loads along the curve to the supports.^[33] This structural efficiency makes them suitable for spanning moderate to long distances in compression-dominant materials like stone or brick.^[33] A key limitation is the high horizontal thrust generated at the springers, which pushes outward on the abutments and requires robust, thick piers or buttresses to counteract spreading and prevent collapse.^[35] Without adequate restraint, this thrust can lead to instability, particularly in taller or wider applications, often necessitating heavier support structures that increase material demands.^[32] Semicircular arches were prominently used in Roman aqueducts, such as those in Segovia, where the geometry enabled precise load transfer from the water channel to multi-tiered piers, allowing stable elevation over varied terrain without mortar in some cases.^[32] In early Islamic mosques, like the Great Mosque of Damascus (modified 705–715 CE), they structurally supported expansive hypostyle halls with uniform arcades that distributed roof loads evenly across columns.^[36]

Pointed Arches

The pointed arch, also known as an ogival arch, is formed by two curved segments that converge at a sharp apex, enabling a flexible rise-to-span ratio that can be adjusted based on design needs.^[33] This geometry contrasts with semicircular arches by allowing the crown to rise higher relative to the span, typically through the use of circular arcs with centers positioned at or near the springing line.^[37] A primary advantage of the pointed arch is its reduced horizontal thrust compared to rounded forms, which directs more load vertically and permits spanning greater heights with reduced material thickness.^[38] This efficiency arises from the arch's ability to minimize lateral forces on supports, making it suitable for tall structures where buttress demands would otherwise be excessive.^[39] Consequently, pointed arches facilitate lighter construction while maintaining stability under vertical loads.^[11] In terms of structural behavior, the pointed arch redirects compressive forces predominantly downward, thereby minimizing stress concentrations at the abutments and enhancing overall load distribution.^[37] The steeper angle at the apex funnels thrust lines more vertically through the arch's profile, reducing the horizontal component that could otherwise cause outward spreading of supports.^[38] This vertical bias in force transmission is particularly effective in masonry, where material strength is higher in compression than tension.^[11] Variations of the pointed arch include the equilateral and drop types, each defined by distinct geometric proportions. The equilateral arch features two centers located at the springing points with radii equal to the full span, resulting in a rise approximately 0.866 times the span for a balanced, isosceles form.^[33] In contrast, the drop arch employs radii shorter than the span, with centers raised above the spring line, yielding a lower rise-to-span ratio often around 0.5 to 0.75 for more subdued profiles.^[33] General guidelines suggest rises of 1.5 to 2 times the half-span for optimal thrust management in these variations, depending on the specific arc configuration.^[38] The pointed arch's design innovations were notably employed in Gothic architecture to support expansive vaults.^[37]

Parabolic Arches

A parabolic arch is defined by the geometric equation y = \frac{4h}{l^2} x (l - x), where h represents the rise of the arch, l is the span, and x is the horizontal distance from one support (0 ≤ x ≤ l), resulting in a smooth, upward-curving profile that reaches the maximum height h at the crown (x = l/2).^[40] This form derives from moment equilibrium principles, where the arch axis is shaped to align with the inverted bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam under uniform loading, ensuring the line of thrust passes through the centroid and minimizes secondary stresses.^[40] The primary advantage of parabolic arches lies in their ability to produce minimal bending moments and shear forces when subjected to uniform vertical loads, as the geometry allows loads to be carried predominantly through axial compression rather than flexure.^[40] This efficiency makes them particularly suitable for applications like bridges, where uniform dead and live loads are common, enabling lighter structural members and more economical designs compared to straight-beam alternatives.^[40] However, parabolic arches exhibit limitations under point loads or non-uniform load distributions, as deviations from the ideal funicular shape introduce significant bending moments and require additional reinforcement to manage induced stresses.^[40] In such cases, the structure's performance degrades, potentially leading to higher material demands or the need for hybrid designs. In engineering practice, the horizontal thrust H in a parabolic arch under uniform load w per unit length is calculated as H = \frac{w l^2}{8h}, providing a direct method to determine support reactions and ensure stability.^[40] This formula underscores the inverse relationship between rise and thrust, guiding designers to optimize proportions for load-bearing capacity. Parabolic arches approximate the funicular catenary for uniform horizontal load projections, offering a practical simplification for vertical load scenarios.^[40]

Other Geometric Forms

Elliptical arches are characterized by a flattened curve defined by the equation \frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1, where a and b represent the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively, allowing for two foci and a varying radius that provides both aesthetic elegance and precise control over thrust distribution under applied loads.^[41] This geometry enables the horizontal thrust component H to maintain compressive stresses throughout the structure, with dead load distribution varying as p = p_0 (b/y)^3, becoming more intense near the supports where the ordinate y decreases, thus optimizing load-bearing for specific architectural spans.^[41] Compared to circular forms, elliptical arches reduce the overall rise while aligning the pressure line more closely with the curve, minimizing bending moments for non-uniform loading conditions.^[41] Segmental arches form a circular arc spanning less than 180 degrees, facilitating flatter profiles with rise-to-span ratios as low as 1:10 in traditional masonry or 1:17 in reinforced concrete designs, ideal for broader openings where height is constrained.^[42] The voussoirs in these arches are wedge-shaped blocks with angles adjusted to the reduced curvature, ensuring a continuous ring that transfers loads through compression while accommodating the shallower geometry.^[42] This configuration demands robust abutments to resist the elevated outward forces inherent in the design. The corbelled arch is a false arch formed by successive corbeling of stones or bricks in a series of small horizontal overhangs, creating a stepped approximation of a curved profile. It relies on compressive forces and shear resistance between units rather than true wedging action, and was used in prehistoric and ancient structures such as the tombs at Mycenae.^[1] Multifoil and trefoil arches feature interlaced lobes—typically three or more overlapping foils in trefoil or multifoil variants—creating decorative profiles that guide compression paths along stylized curves without compromising structural integrity in load-bearing applications.^[43] These forms maintain the arch's reliance on compressive forces, with the cusped lobes distributing thrust aesthetically while preserving stability in traditional masonry contexts.^[44] In comparative thrust analysis, segmental arches achieve lower rises than semicircular counterparts but generate proportionally greater horizontal forces, as evidenced by force diagrams showing intensified lateral thrust lines, necessitating stronger lateral restraints to prevent spreading.^[45] Elliptical arches similarly balance reduced vertical rise with moderated horizontal components through their variable curvature, offering a middle ground in thrust management for hybrid load scenarios.^[41]

Arrangements and Configurations

Solid and Structural Arrangements

Arches in structural engineering are arranged in buildings either as single-span or multi-span configurations, each influencing load distribution and overall stability. In single-span arrangements, the arch operates independently between two abutments, relying solely on their resistance to horizontal thrusts without intermediate supports, which simplifies analysis but limits span lengths with span lengths often ranging from 10 to 50 meters in traditional masonry constructions, though longer spans are possible with advanced design.^[46] Multi-span arrangements, by contrast, consist of multiple arches connected via piers, where spans are not fully independent; adjacent arches interact through pier deformations and load sharing, leading to cumulative effects that can amplify stresses under uneven loading.^[46] This interaction requires piers to be robustly designed to transfer vertical loads while resisting differential settlements, enhancing the bridge's capacity to handle traffic or seismic forces compared to isolated single spans.^[46] Extended arch systems, such as barrel and groin vaults, adapt arch principles for roofing large enclosed spaces by creating continuous curved surfaces. A barrel vault forms by extending a single arch longitudinally into a semi-cylindrical tunnel-like structure, functioning as an unbroken series of arches that distributes thrust uniformly along its length but demands continuous buttressing to counter lateral forces.^[47] Groin vaults, meanwhile, arise from the intersection of two or more barrel vaults at right angles, forming diagonal edges (groins) that concentrate thrusts at the corners, allowing coverage of rectangular plans with greater rigidity and reduced material compared to a single barrel vault spanning the same area.^[47] These configurations enable expansive, unobstructed interiors, as seen in Roman basilicas, where the groin vault's orthogonal thrusts facilitate window placement along walls without compromising structural integrity.^[47] Arches are further classified by spandrel solidity, which affects weight and efficiency in load-bearing. Solid (or filled) spandrel arches feature a continuous mass of material, such as masonry or earth fill, above the arch ring up to the deck level, providing inherent stability through added weight that helps contain thrusts but increases overall dead load and foundation demands.^[48] Open-spandrel arches, conversely, leave the space above the arch ring exposed, supported by slender columns or piers rising to the deck, which significantly reduces self-weight, allowing longer spans and lighter superstructures while maintaining compressive strength in the arch itself.^[48] This classification prioritizes weight reduction in modern applications, where open spandrels minimize material use and seismic vulnerability without sacrificing the arch's funicular efficiency.^[48] Stability in arch arrangements, particularly multi-span series, hinges on abutment design to counteract cumulative horizontal thrusts that build across connected spans. Abutments must be dimensioned to keep the thrust line within their middle third, preventing tensile stresses or overturning; for flatter arches, this requires greater thickness, often 1.35 times the horizontal thrust component plus vertical offsets.^[49] In series configurations, piers act as intermediate abutments, but end abutments bear the net cumulative thrust from all spans, necessitating bedrock anchoring or wing walls to dissipate forces and avoid progressive failure under asymmetric loads.^[49] Proper battering or flaring of abutments further enhances resistance, ensuring the structure's longevity by confining deformations to elastic limits.^[49]

Hinged and Tied Arches

Hinged arches incorporate joints that allow rotation, enabling them to accommodate structural movements such as thermal expansion or foundation settlements while distributing loads more predictably. These designs contrast with rigid arches by introducing degrees of freedom at the hinges, which reduce the structure's statical indeterminacy and simplify analysis. In structural mechanics, the thrust line in hinged arches must pass through the hinge points to maintain equilibrium without inducing excessive moments. Three-hinged arches feature hinges at the two supports and at the crown, resulting in a statically determinate structure where internal forces can be resolved using equilibrium equations alone. This configuration eliminates redundancy, making it ideal for precise calculation of reactions under various loading conditions; for instance, the vertical reaction at support A for a point load P at a distance b from A on a span of length l is given by V_A = P \frac{l - b}{l},^[50] which is the same as for a simply supported beam and independent of the rise. The central hinge allows the arch to deform without significant bending moments, particularly beneficial in scenarios with unsymmetrical loads or seismic activity. Two-hinged arches have hinges only at the supports, rendering them statically indeterminate to the first degree, while fixed arches lack hinges entirely and are indeterminate to the third degree. In two-hinged and fixed arches, temperature changes and support settlements induce additional moments, as the lack of a crown hinge constrains rotational freedom and can lead to stress concentrations if not accounted for in design. These effects are analyzed using methods like the flexibility approach, where compatibility conditions ensure that deformations align with the imposed constraints. Tied arches incorporate horizontal ties, such as rods, chains, or cables, that connect the arch ribs to counterbalance the outward thrust at the abutments, effectively converting the structure into a self-contained system. This tie absorbs the horizontal component of the thrust, preventing it from being transferred to the supports and allowing for spans where traditional abutments might be impractical, as seen in hybrid designs resembling suspension bridges. In tied arch configurations, the tie's tension directly opposes the arch's tendency to spread, maintaining stability under live loads. The primary advantages of hinged and tied arches lie in their ability to handle movements in long-span applications without cracking or excessive deformation, offering greater flexibility than fixed arches while ensuring load distribution efficiency. This makes them suitable for environments with variable temperatures or uneven settlements, reducing maintenance needs over time.

False and Composite Arches

False arches, also known as corbel arches, are constructed by progressively projecting successive courses of stone or brick from each side of an opening until they meet at the center, forming a stepped approximation of a curved shape topped by a capstone.^[51]^[52] Unlike true arches, which rely on compressive forces along a continuous curve, false arches depend on cantilevering and shear resistance between horizontal layers, resulting in tensile stresses on the undersides of the projecting elements.^[53] Composite arches involve the integration of multiple materials or construction methods to form a hybrid structure, such as timber frameworks combined with masonry facings to provide both temporary support and permanent load-bearing capacity.^[54] In traditional building practices, timber centering serves as the inner support during masonry placement, with the outer facing of stone or brick creating the visible arch form once the temporary elements are removed.^[55] Relieving arches are concealed within walls to redirect loads away from openings, such as over lintels or flat spans, thereby distributing weight to adjacent structural elements without exposing the curved form.^[56] These hidden features enhance stability by diverting vertical forces to thicker wall sections or piers, minimizing stress concentrations in the visible facade.^[57] A key limitation of false and composite arches is their reduced capacity to span wide openings, as the cantilevered projections in corbel designs and the reliance on material interfaces in hybrids can lead to tension failure under increasing loads, necessitating thicker sections or additional reinforcement for larger distances.^[53]

Historical Development

Ancient Near East and Bronze Age

The earliest evidence of arch construction in the Ancient Near East appears in Sumerian Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE, where true arches were used in underground drainage systems built from burnt bricks laid in radial patterns. These structures, found at sites like Ur and Kish, demonstrate an early mastery of curved forms to manage water flow beneath buildings and streets, marking the first known application of the arch principle beyond simple corbelling.^[58]^[59] In the Aegean during the Late Bronze Age, Mycenaean builders employed corbelled arches—precursors to true arches—in elaborate tomb architecture, most notably the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, constructed circa 1350 BCE. This tholos tomb features a massive corbelled dome spanning over 14 meters in diameter, achieved by progressively overhanging courses of ashlar masonry that converge at the apex, creating a beehive-like interior. Such techniques allowed for monumental underground chambers without central supports, reflecting adaptations influenced by Near Eastern precedents.^[60]/05:_Art_of_the_Aegean_Civilizations/5.03:_Mycenaean_Art) Early arches in these regions were predominantly constructed from mudbricks, formed by mixing clay, sand, and water, then sun-dried or fired; reeds were woven into mats and layered between courses for reinforcement, improving tensile strength and resistance to seismic activity and erosion in the alluvial plains. This material choice was practical given the scarcity of stone, enabling rapid construction of durable spans in urban environments like Uruk and Babylon.^[58]^[61] The adoption of arches facilitated a pivotal shift from post-and-lintel systems, which relied on vertical posts and horizontal beams to limit spans to about 3-4 meters, to curved designs capable of bridging wider openings up to 6 meters or more without intermediate supports. This innovation enhanced architectural flexibility in Mesopotamia and the Aegean, supporting larger enclosures for temples, drains, and tombs while distributing loads more efficiently through compression. Early examples often approximated semicircular profiles, laying the groundwork for later refinements.^[59]^[62]

Classical Antiquity in Persia, Greece, and Rome

In the Achaemenid Empire during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, early precursors to the true arch emerged in utilitarian structures, particularly drainage systems at major sites like Persepolis and Susa. These included semicircular arched openings in underground drains and conduits designed to manage water flow beneath palaces and terraces, marking an initial adoption of arch-like forms for practical engineering needs rather than monumental display. Such features represented a synthesis of Mesopotamian and local Iranian building traditions, using stone voussoirs to create stable passages that prevented collapse under soil pressure. Greek architecture in the classical period (ca. 5th–4th centuries BCE) largely eschewed the true arch in favor of the trabeated system, relying on post-and-lintel construction with vertical columns supporting horizontal beams to achieve structural integrity and aesthetic harmony. This preference stemmed from a cultural emphasis on clarity, proportion, and optical refinements in temples and public buildings, where the arch was viewed as less geometrically pure and more associated with Eastern influences. However, rare examples of corbelled arches—formed by stepping inward courses of stone—appeared in Mycenaean-era beehive tombs (tholos tombs) from the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1600–1200 BCE), such as the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, where they created beehive-shaped domes up to 13 meters high over circular burial chambers. These corbelled forms, while innovative for their time, did not evolve into widespread true arches in later Greek design, remaining confined to funerary contexts.^[63]^[64] The Romans, building on Etruscan precedents from the 6th century BCE, achieved mastery of the true semicircular arch by the late Republic and early Empire (1st century BCE onward), integrating it extensively into infrastructure, civic buildings, and commemorative monuments to support expansive urban development. In aqueducts, multi-tiered arrangements of arches enabled efficient water transport over long distances and varied terrain; the Pont du Gard near Nîmes, constructed around 19 BCE, exemplifies this with its three superimposed levels of limestone arches rising 49 meters, the bottom tier spanning the Gardon River with a 24-meter-wide arch, and the top channel maintaining a precise 0.034% gradient for gravity-fed flow over 50 kilometers. Basilicas like the Basilica of Maxentius (begun 307 CE) employed arches to divide spacious interiors, with massive concrete cores of opus caementicium— a volcanic ash-based mortar binding aggregate—allowing for vast barrel vaults and reduced reliance on thick walls.^[65]^[66] Triumphal arches further showcased Roman innovation, serving as freestanding monuments to celebrate military victories while incorporating decorative elements from the classical orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and later Composite). The Arch of Constantine (312–315 CE) in Rome, standing 20 meters high with three portals flanked by Corinthian columns, reused spolia from earlier emperors' monuments and featured narrative reliefs of Constantine's triumph over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. These structures often combined brick-faced concrete cores for durability with marble veneers for grandeur, enabling multi-tiered facades and entablatures that superimposed orders in hierarchical sequences—heavier Doric at the base ascending to lighter Corinthian above—to convey imperial power and engineering prowess. By the 4th century CE, such advancements had transformed the arch from a structural tool into a symbol of Roman dominance across the empire.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Asia and India

In ancient China, architectural traditions predominantly favored trabeated post-and-beam systems supported by dougong brackets, which distributed loads effectively without relying on true arches, reflecting a preference for wooden frameworks that enhanced seismic resilience in earthquake-prone regions.^[70] This approach persisted until the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), when wooden arch structures emerged, particularly in bridge designs such as timber-covered spans documented in historical texts like the History of the Han Dynasty.^[71] Stone arches remained limited in monumental buildings, appearing more commonly in utilitarian contexts like drainage systems or later bridges, due to the cultural and practical emphasis on timber as the primary material for flexibility and rapid construction.^[72] Cultural factors further reinforced this aversion to true arches in favor of trabeated wood construction; traditional Chinese aesthetics and engineering prioritized horizontal emphasis and modular bracketing to harmonize with natural landscapes and feng shui principles, viewing arched forms as less aligned with the symbolic balance of heaven and earth.^[73] Arches were not entirely absent but adapted regionally, often in southern timber bridge forms that wove curved elements for stability without dominating building typologies. In India, rock-cut architecture flourished in Buddhist complexes, exemplified by the chaitya halls of the Ajanta Caves, where semicircular arches formed the vaulted ceilings and facades of prayer halls dating to the 2nd century BCE.^[74] These monolithic excavations, carved directly into basalt cliffs, integrated arched elements to mimic wooden prototypes while providing expansive, column-supported interiors for communal worship, showcasing early mastery of curvilinear forms in sacred spaces. Southeast Asian architecture adapted these Indian influences, as seen in the Borobudur Temple complex in Java, constructed around the 9th century CE under the Sailendra dynasty, where arch-like niches and gateways blended Gupta-era motifs with local pyramidal stupa designs to symbolize the Buddhist path to enlightenment.^[75] This synthesis extended Indian semicircular arch aesthetics into terraced galleries and relief panels, creating a monumental landscape that emphasized vertical ascent over enclosed vaults.^[76]

Islamic and Medieval Periods

During the Islamic Golden Age, particularly under Umayyad rule from the 7th to 8th centuries, architects innovated arch forms that blended local traditions with structural efficiency, most notably the horseshoe arch and multifoil arch. The horseshoe arch, characterized by its rounded profile narrowing slightly at the top, originated in Visigothic architecture but was refined and popularized in Western Islamic structures, such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba, initiated in 786 CE by Abd al-Rahman I. This form allowed for graceful spans in hypostyle halls, supporting expansive prayer spaces while echoing pre-Islamic Iberian influences.^[77] Similarly, the multifoil arch, with its cusped, lobe-like edges creating intricate ornamental patterns, first appeared in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus around 706–715 CE, adorning the minaret and later influencing mosque designs across the Muslim world for its symbolic representation of unity and infinity.^[78] In later Islamic traditions, particularly during the Mughal Empire in India from the 16th to 17th centuries, the ogee arch emerged as a distinctive S-curved form, combining pointed and rounded elements for elegant, hierarchical emphasis in facades and gateways. Exemplified in the Taj Mahal complex, completed in 1653 CE under Shah Jahan, the entrance gate features a massive central ogee arch in red sandstone, framing the transition from the earthly realm to the paradisiacal garden and highlighting the fusion of Persian, Islamic, and Indian aesthetics.^[79] These innovations not only enhanced aesthetic complexity but also distributed loads effectively in monumental tombs and mosques. Byzantine architecture bridged classical and medieval developments through transitional techniques like pendentives, which enabled domes to rest over arched square bases. In the Hagia Sophia, rebuilt in 537 CE under Emperor Justinian I by architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, four massive pendentives—triangular curved segments—supported the central dome atop arches between piers, creating an expansive, luminous interior that symbolized imperial and divine authority in Constantinople.^[80] This engineering feat influenced subsequent Eastern Christian and Islamic dome constructions. In medieval Europe, Gothic architecture from the 12th to 15th centuries advanced arch usage for verticality and light, with the pointed arch playing a pivotal role in cathedrals like Chartres, reconstructed after a 1194 fire and completed around 1220 CE. The pointed arch's geometry directed thrusts downward more efficiently than semicircular forms, enabling slender piers, ribbed groin vaults for complex ceiling spans, and external flying buttresses to counter lateral forces, thus allowing vast glazed windows that flooded interiors with light to evoke spiritual transcendence.^[81] These elements marked a shift from Romanesque solidity to ethereal height. The dissemination of Islamic arch forms to Europe occurred through Crusades (1095–1291 CE) and Mediterranean trade routes, where Western architects encountered Levantine and Andalusian styles in captured cities like Jerusalem and via Italian ports such as Venice and Amalfi. Pointed and multifoil arches from structures like the Dome of the Rock (7th century) and Córdoba's Mezquita influenced Gothic designs in France and England, appearing in sites like Notre-Dame and Canterbury Cathedral, while Norman Sicily served as a conduit for ribbed vaulting from Córdoba.^[82]

Pre-Columbian Americas

In pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, the Maya developed the corbelled arch as a primary method for spanning interior spaces in monumental architecture, particularly in temples and palaces during the Classic period (c. 250–900 CE) and into the Post-Classic era. This technique involved layering stone courses that projected inward from opposing walls, gradually narrowing until they met at a capstone, creating a tapered vault rather than a semicircular form. At sites like Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán Peninsula, such vaults were integral to structures like the Temple of the Warriors and the Osario, dating to the 9th–10th centuries CE, where they supported multi-room complexes and allowed for spans of up to approximately 6 meters.^[83] These corbelled forms emphasized verticality and symbolic enclosure, often adorned with stucco masks or hieroglyphs, reflecting the Maya's mastery of limestone masonry in a region abundant with karst terrain.^[84] In the Andean region, the Inca employed false arches characterized by trapezoidal doorways and niches, constructed without true voussoirs but achieving stability through precise ashlar masonry. These openings, wider at the base and tapering upward, were designed to withstand seismic activity prevalent in the Andes, distributing stress effectively in mortarless walls fitted from andesite or granite blocks. At Machu Picchu, built in the 15th century CE under Emperor Pachacuti, such features appear in elite structures like the Temple of the Sun and residential compounds, where the ashlar technique involved polishing and interlocking stones to create earthquake-resistant forms spanning small to medium openings. This approach prioritized durability and integration with the rugged topography, avoiding the inward projection of corbelling in favor of geometric precision. True arches, relying on keystone compression, were absent across pre-Columbian Americas, with cultures instead favoring post-and-lintel systems using wooden beams or stone slabs supported by piers. This reliance stemmed from available materials—such as brittle limestone in Mesoamerica ill-suited for curved voussoirs—and cultural traditions emphasizing rectilinear forms that aligned with cosmological views of stability and hierarchy, reducing the need for wide-span innovations in narrow temple interiors.^[84] In South America, similar factors limited arch development, as Andean stonework focused on vertical stacking for seismic resilience rather than horizontal thrust management. Regional variations in North America included minimal arch-like curvature in Mississippian mound-building cultures (c. 800–1600 CE), where earthworks and wooden superstructures at sites like Cahokia and Moundville primarily used post-and-lintel construction for platform mounds and enclosures. Subtle corbelling occasionally appeared in wattle-and-daub walls or ramp edges, but these were rare and limited to small-scale features, reflecting a focus on earthen volume over stone vaulting in riverine environments with abundant timber. This approach supported communal plazas and elite residences without the compressive forms seen elsewhere, prioritizing symbolic elevation through mound height rather than spanned openings.^[85]

Modern and Revival Eras

In the 19th century, architects revived historical arch forms amid a broader neoclassical and romantic movement, drawing on Gothic and Romanesque styles for public buildings to evoke grandeur and historical continuity. The Gothic Revival prominently featured pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and intricate tracery, as exemplified by the Palace of Westminster in London, designed by Charles Barry and Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin and largely completed by 1870, where these elements symbolized national heritage in a major civic complex.^[86] Similarly, the Romanesque Revival emphasized robust round arches and heavy masonry, seen in H.H. Richardson's Allegheny County Courthouse in Pittsburgh, built from 1884 to 1888, which integrated these features into a monumental public structure blending functionality with ornamental solidity.^[87] This revival extended into the early 20th century with neoclassical influences, such as the Beaux-Arts-style Washington Union Station in Washington, D.C., completed in 1907 by Daniel Burnham, where grand Roman-inspired barrel vaults and arches created expansive, light-filled interiors for a key transportation hub.^[88] The 20th century marked significant engineering innovations in arch design, leveraging steel and advanced calculations to span vast distances in bridges and infrastructure. Parabolic arches, which distribute compressive forces optimally along their curve, became a hallmark of this era, as demonstrated by the Sydney Harbour Bridge in Australia, engineered by John Bradfield and constructed from 1923 to 1932 using riveted steel plates weighing over 52,000 tons.^[89] The bridge's 503-meter span and parabolic profile not only provided structural efficiency but also integrated rail, road, and pedestrian traffic, influencing global bridge engineering by prioritizing material economy and wind resistance.^[90] Contemporary architecture has further advanced arch applications through parametric design and computational tools, enabling complex, optimized forms in large-scale venues. The Beijing National Stadium, known as the "Bird's Nest," completed in 2008 for the Olympics by Herzog & de Meuron with Arup engineers, employs a lattice of interwoven arced steel beams—24 primary radial trusses forming an elliptic saddle shape—generated via algorithmic modeling to balance aesthetic intricacy with seismic resilience and minimal material use.^[91] This approach allowed for iterative simulations that refined the 42,000-ton structure's compression paths, reducing redundancy while achieving a 330-meter length and supporting 91,000 spectators. Post-1940s modernism largely supplanted arches with trabeated systems of straight beams and columns, favoring rectilinear geometries for mass production, standardization, and the International Style's emphasis on functional purity, which dominated urban development through the late 20th century.^[92] However, a resurgence has occurred since the late 20th century, driven by sustainability imperatives, as arch and compression-only structures efficiently channel loads without tension members, minimizing high-carbon materials like steel and concrete and thereby reducing embodied energy in optimized designs compared to tensile frames.^[93] This revival aligns with regenerative architecture principles, promoting durable, low-maintenance forms in eco-conscious projects like vaulted roofs and catenary shells that enhance resource efficiency.

Construction Techniques

Masonry and Stone Arches

Masonry and stone arches represent a traditional form of construction where wedge-shaped units of stone or brick are arranged in a curved configuration to span openings, relying entirely on compressive forces for stability without tensile reinforcement. These structures have been employed since antiquity to create durable bridges, doorways, and vaults, with the arch's shape enabling efficient load transfer to supporting abutments. The construction process requires meticulous preparation, beginning with the erection of temporary wooden or metal formwork known as centering, which provides a scaffold to support the arch's profile during assembly. Voussoirs— the precisely cut, wedge-shaped masonry units—are then laid starting from the springers, the lowest voussoirs resting on the imposts or vertical supports, and progressing symmetrically upward toward the crown. The final voussoir, the keystone, locks the assembly in place at the apex, distributing the load evenly. Once the mortar has cured sufficiently, the centering is carefully removed, allowing the arch to self-support through its compressive geometry. Common materials for these arches include durable natural stones such as limestone and sandstone, or fired bricks, all shaped into wedges to fit the arch's curvature and bonded with lime-based mortar for flexibility and breathability. The stones or bricks are quarried and cut to exacting dimensions, ensuring tight joints that minimize shear and enhance load-bearing capacity. A primary challenge in masonry arch construction is achieving precise alignment of the voussoirs, as even minor deviations can result in uneven thrust distribution, leading to localized stress concentrations and potential cracking or collapse over time. For repairs, repointing is a standard technique, involving the removal of degraded mortar from joints and its replacement with a compatible lime mortar to reinstate water resistance and structural cohesion without introducing incompatible stiffness. Historical masonry arches demonstrate impressive engineering feats, with span limits reaching up to 50 meters or more in medieval examples, such as the 14th-century Trezzo sull'Adda Bridge in Italy, which featured a single 72-meter span before its partial destruction.

Reinforced Concrete and Steel

The integration of reinforced concrete into arch construction began in the late 19th century, revolutionizing the field by embedding steel rebar within poured concrete forms to provide tensile reinforcement alongside concrete's compressive strength. This method allowed for the fabrication of monolithic structures that could withstand bending forces, enabling slender designs without the need for extensive masonry support. A landmark illustration is Robert Maillart's Salginatobel Bridge in Switzerland, completed in 1930, which features a three-hinged hollow-box arch spanning 89 meters across the Salgina Valley; the innovative thin-walled concrete form, reinforced with internal steel, minimized material while maximizing structural efficiency.^[94]^[95]^[96] Steel arches, emerging concurrently in the mid-19th century, employed riveted or welded trusses to create tied configurations that distributed loads effectively over vast distances, often prefabricated off-site for rapid assembly. The Eads Bridge in St. Louis, Missouri, engineered by James Buchanan Eads and opened in 1874, exemplifies this approach as the first major all-steel arch bridge, with three parallel arch spans each measuring about 152 meters and constructed from riveted tubular steel chords supported on stone piers.^[97] Prefabrication techniques, such as shop-riveting of truss components, facilitated the bridge's construction amid challenging river conditions, setting a precedent for industrial-scale arch projects.^[98] These materials' tensile properties—steel, with its much higher tensile strength compared to concrete (typically 50–100 times greater)—permitted thinner profiles and spans far exceeding those of stone arches, reaching up to 518 meters in 20th-century steel examples like the New River Gorge Bridge completed in 1977.^[99]^[100] Reinforced concrete arches benefited similarly, with rebar preventing cracking under tension and enabling hollow or filigree designs that reduced self-weight by up to 50% compared to mass concrete predecessors.^[101]^[102] Over the 20th century, arch design evolved from mass concrete forms, which prioritized bulk for load-bearing in early applications, to sophisticated prestressed variants introduced post-1950s. Prestressing involves tensioning high-strength steel tendons within the concrete to preemptively counter tensile stresses, allowing even slimmer profiles and spans while improving durability against fatigue. This advancement, pioneered by Eugène Freyssinet in the 1920s and widely implemented after World War II, marked a shift toward optimized, long-lasting structures in both bridges and buildings.^[103]

Contemporary Methods and Materials

In the 21st century, digital tools have revolutionized arch design and fabrication through computational parametric modeling and advanced manufacturing techniques. Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) enable architects to generate complex, optimized arch geometries by defining parameters such as curvature, load distribution, and environmental factors, allowing for iterative simulations that enhance structural efficiency. For instance, the Atyrau Bridge in Kazakhstan (completed 2021), a 314-meter-long pedestrian bridge designed using parametric tools inspired by natural forms like river flows to create a lightweight shell structure.^[104] Complementing parametric design, 3D printing has emerged as a key method for producing custom formwork in arch construction, enabling the creation of intricate, reusable molds that minimize waste and labor. Large-scale extrusion-based 3D printing fabricates temporary or permanent formwork for concrete arches, supporting non-standard shapes that would be cost-prohibitive with conventional methods; studies show this approach can reduce formwork costs by up to 50% for doubly curved surfaces. The Eggshell Pavilion demonstrates this, utilizing 3D-printed thermoplastic formwork to cast a thin-shell reinforced concrete arch-like structure, achieving spans with minimal material while allowing for demountable and recyclable components.^[105]^[106] New materials like fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) have introduced lightweight, high-strength alternatives for arch structures, offering superior corrosion resistance and tensile properties over traditional steel or concrete. FRP composites, typically combining carbon or glass fibers with epoxy resins, enable all-FRP arches or hybrids that achieve spans exceeding 100 meters with weights 70% lower than equivalent steel designs, as evidenced in pedestrian bridge prototypes. A 2023 review highlights their application in modular arch systems, where pultruded FRP sections provide durability in harsh environments, such as coastal areas, without the need for protective coatings.^[107] Geopolymer concrete further advances material innovation by serving as a low-carbon binder in arch construction, activated by industrial byproducts like fly ash and slag to form a matrix that is 80% lighter and highly resistant to chemical degradation compared to Portland cement-based alternatives. This material's geopolymerization process yields compressive strengths up to 60 MPa while exhibiting negligible chloride penetration, making it ideal for long-span arches in aggressive settings; research on bridge applications confirms its viability for precast arch elements with lifespans over 100 years.^[108] Sustainability drives contemporary arch practices, incorporating recycled aggregates and low-carbon mixes to lower embodied energy by 40-60% in projects emphasizing circular economy principles. The Circular Arch Bridge at The Green Village in the Netherlands (2024) utilizes 100% recycled concrete aggregates from demolished structures, combined with low-carbon cement substitutes, to form a 12-meter span arch that diverts over 10 tons of waste from landfills while maintaining structural integrity under pedestrian loads. Such designs prioritize lifecycle assessments, ensuring minimal emissions during production and demolition.^[109] Hybrid systems integrating arches with tensegrity principles—where compressive arch elements are stabilized by tension cables—facilitate ultra-thin spans that optimize material distribution for efficiency. The Kurilpa Bridge in Brisbane, Australia (2009), represents a seminal hybrid tensegrity arch, spanning a total of 470 meters with a main span of 125 meters, featuring mast-supported cables reducing the arch thickness to under 1 meter, achieving a 30% weight savings over conventional truss designs while enhancing pedestrian flow. Recent advancements extend this to deployable hybrids, allowing temporary arches for events or disaster relief with self-erecting mechanisms.^[110]

Architectural and Cultural Roles

Styles and Applications

In Romanesque architecture, rounded arches formed the structural backbone of load-bearing walls in cathedrals, combining with piers and masonry to support heavy vaults and create multi-story elevations such as arcades and galleries.^[111] This approach, seen in examples like Durham Cathedral, relied on thick walls to distribute the downward thrust of rounded arches, enabling enclosed stone interiors but limiting window sizes due to the need for substantial mass.^[112] Gothic architecture advanced this by employing pointed arches in cathedrals, which efficiently directed weight onto load-bearing columns and reduced outward pressure on walls, allowing for thinner constructions and expansive stained-glass windows.^[113] Paired with flying buttresses—ramping arches that redirected lateral forces to the ground—these elements supported soaring vaults, as exemplified in structures like Chartres Cathedral, where the interplay of arches and buttresses achieved unprecedented height and luminosity.^[114] In Baroque architecture, arches transitioned toward decorative roles in facades, often integrated with sculptural elements to create dynamic, theatrical effects that emphasized movement and grandeur.^[115] Neoclassical styles further emphasized arches as ornamental gateways, such as the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, commissioned in 1806 by Napoleon I and designed by Jean Chalgrin as a monumental triumphal arch inspired by ancient Roman forms, serving primarily as a decorative urban marker rather than a primary load-bearer. Modern applications of arches span functional and ornamental uses across diverse building types. In bridges, steel truss arches enable vast spans for transportation, exemplified by the Chaotianmen Bridge in Chongqing, China—a continuous steel truss arch with tie girders completed in 2009, holding the record for the longest main span at 552 meters through innovative cantilever assembly techniques.^[116] Stadiums like Wembley Stadium in London incorporate massive steel arches for structural support, such as its 315-meter single-span lattice arch that upholds the retractable roof while defining the venue's iconic silhouette.^[117] Gateways, such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, blend both roles: its weighted catenary stainless-steel form, reaching 192 meters in height, functions as a self-supporting structure while serving as an ornamental monument commemorating westward expansion.^[118] These examples highlight arches' versatility in contemporary engineering, prioritizing efficiency in load distribution for functional spans while allowing aesthetic integration in public landmarks.

Symbolic and Cultural Significance

In Islamic architecture, the arch within the mihrab serves as a profound symbol of the gateway to the divine, directing worshippers toward Mecca and representing the intersection between the earthly realm and the spiritual presence of God.^[119] This ornate arched niche acts as a visual and spiritual anchor, embodying the transcendence from human supplication to divine connection.^[120] In Roman tradition, arches evolved into triumphal monuments that signified military victory and imperial glory, awarded by the Senate to honor generals and later emperors as enduring emblems of power and conquest.^[121] These structures, often adorned with reliefs depicting processions, reinforced the narrative of triumph over adversity, projecting the might of Rome across public spaces.^[122] Arches appear frequently in art as motifs of exoticism and transition, notably in Eugène Delacroix's Romantic paintings such as Women of Algiers in Their Apartment, where Moorish arches frame intimate domestic scenes, evoking a sense of cultural passage and sensual endurance amid oriental splendor.^[123] In literature, arches often function as metaphors for life's thresholds, symbolizing the passage from one state to another—such as birth to maturity or mortality to eternity—while embodying resilience and the cyclical turning of existence.^[124] This representational role underscores arches not merely as physical forms but as narrative devices that convey openness within solidity and the human capacity for enduring transformation.^[125] Culturally, arches manifest in festive rituals as temporary structures, such as wedding arbors, which symbolize the gateway to marital union and the establishment of a shared future home, drawing from ancient Roman practices of vows exchanged beneath garlanded arches to mark new beginnings.^[126] In modern memorials, arches continue this legacy, as seen in Paris's Arc de Triomphe, which honors revolutionary and Napoleonic victories while serving as a poignant reminder of collective sacrifice and national endurance.^[10] These contemporary uses adapt the arch's form to commemorate historical events, fostering communal reflection on loss and resilience. Globally, arches exhibit stark variations in cultural narratives: in indigenous traditions, natural formations like Utah's Rainbow Bridge hold sacred status as portals to the spirit world, integral to Navajo, Hopi, and other tribes' rituals for honoring ancestors and maintaining spiritual harmony with the land.^[127] Conversely, Western monumentalism employs constructed arches, such as those in Australian settler colonial contexts, to assert dominance and narrate imperial progress, often overwriting indigenous histories with symbols of European triumph and permanence.^[128] This contrast highlights arches as versatile emblems—spiritual connectors in indigenous cosmologies versus assertions of power in Western ideologies.^[129]

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Methods and materials - OERu Courses
The development of the arch gave architecture new alternatives to post and lintel construction. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BCE in ...
[60]
(PDF) The Tholos Tombs of Mycenaean Greece - Academia.edu
Architectural features include a circular chamber, corbelled dome, dromos, and stomion, with construction materials like limestone and conglomerate. Nine ...
[61]
Mycenaean Art – Art and Visual Culture: Prehistory to Renaissance
Therefore, a corbeled (or corbel) arch is employed over doorways to relieve the weight on the lintel. The corbel arch is constructed by offsetting ( ...
[62]
Pont du Gard - Smarthistory
Feb 18, 2022 · A triple tier of arches rises 160 feet above the rushing river. Once, the top level of the structure carried its own flow of water, but now, ...
[63]
Roman Concrete – Science Technology and Society a Student Led ...
The Romans called it “opus caementicium”, but today we simply call it Roman concrete. The concrete was made from three components: aggregate, mortar, and facing ...Missing: basilica | Show results with:basilica
[64]
Arch of Constantine, Rome - Smarthistory
The Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome is not only a superb example of the ideological and stylistic changes Constantine's reign brought to art, but also ...
[65]
LacusCurtius • The Arch (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
### Summary of Roman Arch Innovations
[66]
The composite Order, an Overview
Aug 12, 2012 · The Composite capital consists of the bottom portion of the Corinthian capital (two rows of acanthus leaves) topped by an Ionic capital using angled volutes ...
[67]
1. Architecture in ancient China – Chinese Culture
The dougong structure is an intricate system of wooden brackets that transfer the weight of the roof to the columns. It is a crucial element in traditional ...
[68]
Introduction | SpringerLink
Oct 30, 2021 · Arch and dome structures have a glorious history of more than 2,000 years. In China, the use of arch structures dates to the Han Dynasty at the ...
[69]
Ancient Chinese Architecture - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 24, 2017 · Wood was always preferred rather than stone, and the roof material of choice was glazed ceramic tiles. The most typical building, at least for ...
[70]
The arch: how the timeless architectural form is back on trend
Mar 3, 2021 · ... arch as a symbol of classic elegance. There is also an element of cultural context. Although arches were rarely used in traditional Chinese ...
[71]
[PDF] INDIA'S DECCAN UPLAND - SCIENTIFIC CULTURE
The entrance of the chaitya halls is mostly having a dominant semicircular arched open chaitya window as façade. The façade was open and had wooden devices to ...Missing: BCE | Show results with:BCE
[72]
Borobudur Temple Compounds - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The Borobudur Temple Compounds is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the ...Missing: arches | Show results with:arches
[73]
https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/3123626/arch-how-timeless-architectural-form-back-trend
[74]
The Great Mosque of Córdoba - Smarthistory
The horseshoe arch. The horseshoe-style arch was common in the architecture of the Visigoths, the people that ruled this area after the Roman empire collapsed ...
[75]
Architecture under Umayyad Patronage (661-750) - Muslim Heritage
Jan 15, 2002 · Umayyad architecture developed main mosque elements like minarets, mihrabs, and domes. They introduced horseshoe arches, multifoil arches, and ...
[76]
Taj Mahal : The Architecture of Love - Muslim Heritage
Nov 4, 2004 · The Mughal rule was the golden age of Muslim architecture in India, especially under the reign of Akbar (1542-1605) Jahangir (1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (1628- ...
[77]
Hagia Sophia (Istanbul) | Whose Culture?
One of the architectural challenges in constructing the church was connecting a dome, a shape with a round base, onto a structure with a square base. Isidore of ...
[78]
Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres - Smarthistory
Harris: [0:00] The three-part elevation consists of a nave arcade, these very tall, pointed arches that are very slender and graceful. ... Gothic architecture and ...
[79]
Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe
Oct 30, 2020 · The same styles also found their way into Europe from vibrant Islamic cities like Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo, passing first via Italian trading ...
[80]
Corbel Vault - Maya-Archaeology.org
Jul 7, 2009 · A corbel vault (or corbeled / corbelled vault) is a vault-like construction method, which uses architectural technique of corbelling to span a space or void in ...
[81]
Rock stars: Exploring the ruins and royalty of ancient Maya courts
Jul 10, 2017 · Some might look at the absence of true arches in Maya architecture and interpret it as a lack of advancement. But sites like Plan de Ayutla ...
[82]
Mississippian Culture - Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park ...
The platform mounds tended to be flat-topped pyramidal structures with ramps for easier access to the summit. Wooden buildings atop the mounds functioned as ...
[83]
Gothic Revival Architecture: Origins, Features & Legacy | RIBA
The Gothic Revival was a conscious movement that began in England to revive medieval Gothic forms, from the second half of the 18th century and throughout ...
[84]
Romanesque Revival - Buffalo Architecture and History
A style of architecture developed in Italy and western Europe between the Roman and the Gothic styles; characterized by round arches and vaults.Missing: 19th | Show results with:19th
[85]
Union Station - SAH Archipedia
Here the three arches of the exterior are increased to five short barrel vaults with column screens below and thermal windows above. This arrangement is ...
[86]
Sydney Harbour Bridge: An Australian Icon
The Sydney Harbour Bridge, completed in 1932, is a steel arch bridge carrying road, rail, and pedestrian traffic. It is the world's tallest steel arch bridge.Missing: parabolic | Show results with:parabolic
[87]
Sydney Harbour Bridge Mathematics
Oct 13, 2012 · The Upper Arch is a Parabola in the main section, but then curves in a reverse parabolic shape towards its two end sections. Shown below are our ...
[88]
National Stadium in Beijing by Herzog and de Meuron
Nov 2, 2015 · Twenty-four steel beams are arced to define the shell and skirt the central opening as a tangent. These are linked to 24 columns that curve in ...
[89]
The Rise and Fall of Modernist Architecture - Inquiries Journal
This essay discusses the principles of modernism, how modernist architects initially worked to solve design problems through the creation of urban utopias.
[90]
Modernism Reconsidered: Revisiting the Movement's Complex ...
Jan 31, 2025 · The relationship between modernism and sustainability is complex and layered, marked by both forward-thinking principles and critical shortcomings.
[91]
https://www.architectural-review.com/today/national-stadium-in-beijing-by-herzog-and-de-meuron
[92]
Salginatobel Bridge - ASCE
The Salginatobel Bridge, spanning the Salgina Valley ravine, is the earliest surviving three-hinged, hollow box arch bridge designed by Robert Maillart.
[93]
The Art of Structural Design - Princeton University Art Museum
Maillart revolutionized concrete bridge design by the application of several key concepts. ... arch of the bridge to create one monolithic arch. The bottom ...
[94]
Eads Bridge - City of St. Louis
Eads Bridge is the world's first steel-truss bridge, and an engineering marvel. After the Civil War and the expansion of the nation's railroad system.
[95]
Eads Bridge (U.S. National Park Service)
Mar 31, 2021 · It was a major engineering feat, the largest bridge built at that time and the very first steel bridge. Completed in 1874, it is the oldest ...
[96]
Steel vs Concrete: Which is Better for Commercial Structures
Mar 14, 2025 · Steel's remarkable tensile strength allows it to endure significant stretching and bending forces without breaking. This characteristic makes it ...
[97]
New River - WV Department of Transportation
The New River Gorge Bridge was the world's longest steel arch span. Carrying Appalachian Corridor L (US 19) across a scenic gorge deep in the hills of Fayette ...<|separator|>
[98]
Comparision between steel structure and reinforced concrete structure
Dec 9, 2023 · Reinforced concrete combines the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile strength of steel, resulting in an excellent material for ...
[99]
[PDF] The heritage of Robert Maillart: innovation and optimization of the ...
He was the forerunner of using reinforced concrete especially in the design of thin arch structures as well as the introduction of new geometric shapes to the ...<|separator|>
[100]
Post-1945 Highway Bridge Engineering
Prestressed-concrete slab construction, like prestressed beams and girders, began after World War II and continues to be used. The slab serves as both the ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[101]
https://bmbsteel.com.vn/en/comparision-between-steel-structure-and-reinforced-concrete-structure
[102]
3D Printed Formwork for Concrete: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities ...
This article provides a comprehensive map of the state-of-the-art of five different 3D printing technologies used for the fabrication of formworks so far.
[103]
Eggshell Pavilion: a reinforced concrete structure fabricated using ...
Feb 16, 2023 · This paper discusses the design, fabrication, and assembly of the 'Eggshell Pavilion', a reinforced concrete structure fabricated using 3D printed thin shell ...
[104]
Innovating arch structures with fiber-reinforced polymer composites
Jun 7, 2023 · This review covers using FRP composites for arch structures, including manufacturing methods, all-FRP and hybrid arches, and future development ...
[105]
(PDF) Geopolymer‐based applications for bridge structures: A review
Apr 29, 2025 · This review article presents a comprehensive synthesis of the advancements and challenges in the application of geopolymer concrete (GPC) for bridge structures.
[106]
Circular Arch Bridge at The Green Village - everox
Jun 4, 2025 · The bridge is constructed from prefabricated concrete blocks using 100% everox recycled coarse aggregate and 100% everox recycled fine aggregate ...
[107]
How to Design and Understand Unusual Tensegrity Structures - Ansys
Apr 28, 2020 · For example, the Kurilpa Bridge in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, is one of the most famous hybrid tensegrity structures that people can use ...
[108]
Pointed Arch - Architecture of Gothic Medieval Cathedrals
Pointed arches were used to direct weight onto load-bearing columns at a sharp angle, thus allowing for much taller vaulted ceilings. Unlike earlier Romanesque ...
[109]
Architectural Description and Analysis | Durham Cathedral - Projects
Durham is built with a three storey elevation, comprising an arcade, gallery and clerestory. The main arches, which are supported alternately on cylindrical ( ...Missing: load- | Show results with:load-
[110]
Gothic Architecture 101 - Washington National Cathedral
The buttresses resist the outward push of the interior arches and vaulted ceiling that would push a wall outward, and redirect those forces down into the ground ...
[111]
Chartres Cathedral
And since walls were relieved of bearing weight (now accomplished by buttressing), windows could be enlarged. In addition, the nave wall at Caen seems more ...Missing: load- | Show results with:load-
[112]
Architecture in the Baroque Period
Note too the use of sculptural ornamentation in niches on the facade; this is characteristic of much Baroque architecture.
[113]
Chaotianmen Bridge (Chongqing, 2009) | Structurae
### Summary of Chaotianmen Bridge
[114]
Iconic construction projects: Wembley Stadium - Go Construct
The most iconic feature of the stadium is the monumental steel arch, which is the longest single span roof structure in the world.
[115]
Architecture in the Parks (Gateway Arch) - National Park Service
Feb 26, 2001 · The Gateway Arch is a massive stainless steel structure that towers 630 feet above the surrounding landscape.Missing: ornamental | Show results with:ornamental
[116]
Mihrab (Prayer Niche) - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The most important element in any mosque is the mihrab, the niche that indicates the direction of Mecca, the Muslim holy pilgrimage site in Arabia, ...
[117]
Islamic Architecture: Seen and the Unseen - Archiol
Jun 22, 2023 · The Mihrab of each mosque symbolizes the intersection between the vertical and horizontal line, i.e., between the divine god and humans. The ...
[118]
The Triumphal Arches of Rome | Walks Inside Rome
What did the Roman triumphal arch symbolize? The reason we call these arches 'triumphal' is because the SPQR (Senate the People of Rome) awarded them to ...
[119]
Triumphal Arch | Archaeology News Online Magazine
Triumphal arches hold great symbolic value, representing the power, glory, and triumph of a nation or ruler. They serve as a visual reminder of a nation's ...<|separator|>
[120]
The Orientalism of Eugène Delacroix – Beware of the Colors!
Jul 3, 2024 · Eugène Delacroix was a Romantic artist and the leader of French Romantic school. Many of his paintings are examples of Orientalism in art.
[121]
The Universal Symbol Of Turning At The Heart Of Ancient Architecture
May 17, 2023 · Long before the Romans made arches popular they were a sacred and universal symbol reflecting the continuous turning of the cycle of life.<|separator|>
[122]
Arches, Gates, and Doors: Symbolism in your story
Apr 8, 2019 · Door, gates, arches all represent transitioning from one place to another. Either another room, from outside to inside, or it can be from the everyday drab ...
[123]
The Significance Of The Wedding Arch - Park Chateau
Apr 5, 2024 · In ancient Rome, for instance, couples would exchange vows beneath a garland-draped arch, signifying the transition from betrothal to marriage.Missing: festivals | Show results with:festivals
[124]
The sacred and profane collide in the West - High Country News
May 26, 1997 · After five nearby Indian tribes complained that tourists were desecrating an ancient place of worship by walking beneath the arch, the agency ...
[125]
Australian Triumphal Arches and Settler Colonial Cultural Narratives
Aug 6, 2025 · Within the Western architectural canon, the triumphal arch has been used to embody symbolism and meaning in the urban rituals of parades and ...
[126]
Why Mackinac Island is Sacred Ground to Indigenous Peoples
Jul 11, 2025 · Arch Rock was believed to be a gateway to the spirit world. Ceremonies were held near it to honor ancestors and spirits. People would leave ...Introduction · Revitalization And... · Why This History Matters To...<|separator|>