Maxentius
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 278 – 28 October 312) was a Roman emperor who ruled Italy, Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica from 28 October 306 until his defeat and death.[1] The son of former emperor Maximian Herculius and his wife Eutropia, Maxentius was born around 278 and married Valeria Maximilla, daughter of Galerius, fathering at least one son, Romulus.[1] He seized power in Rome amid the instability following Diocletian's retirement and the Tetrarchy's fractures, acclaimed by the Praetorian Guard and populace at his father-in-law's villa on the Via Labicana, initially styling himself princeps before adopting Augustus.[1] Though never formally recognized by other Augusti and later damned as a usurper in victor historiography, Maxentius consolidated control by defeating Severus II in 307, repelling Galerius, and suppressing a revolt in Africa led by Domitius Alexander.[1] His regime emphasized senatorial support, traditional Roman cults, and ambitious public works, including the Basilica Nova (now Basilica of Maxentius) in the Forum and the Temple of Romulus, aimed at restoring Rome's prestige.[2][3] Maxentius' reign ended when Constantine invaded Italy in 312, culminating in his drowning during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on 28 October, after which his body was recovered, decapitated, and displayed in Rome.[1] Primary accounts, such as those by Eusebius, Lactantius, and Zosimus, derive largely from pro-Constantinian perspectives that vilify him as tyrannical, potentially exaggerating negatives while overlooking his effective defense of Italy and patronage of Roman institutions.[4]
Early Life and Family Background
Birth and Upbringing
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius was born circa 278 AD to the Roman general Maximian, who would later become Augustus in the Tetrarchy, and his wife Eutropia, a woman of Syrian origin.[1] His father's Illyrian background and military career contrasted with Eutropia's eastern heritage, placing Maxentius within an imperial family marked by diverse provincial roots typical of late third-century Roman elites.[1] Primary ancient sources provide no precise birth location, though some modern reconstructions suggest Syria during Maximian's early service under Probus or Carus.[5] Following Maximian's elevation to co-Augustus with Diocletian in 286 AD, Maxentius was positioned as an informal heir apparent, benefiting from proximity to power without formal Tetrarchic designation.[1] Historical records of his upbringing remain sparse, indicating a conventional patrician education in rhetoric, administration, and possibly military theory, aligned with the expectations for sons of high-ranking officials in the Dominate era.[1] He entered the Senate at a young age, securing equestrian and senatorial status, yet avoided prominent roles amid the Tetrarchy's emphasis on adopted merit over dynastic ties.[1] By the early fourth century, Maxentius had married Valeria Maximilla, daughter of Galerius, forging a strategic alliance that produced at least two sons, including Valerius Romulus (born circa 294 AD); this union underscores his navigation of elite networks despite exclusion from Caesarship in 293 and 305, attributed by contemporaries to personal frictions with Diocletian and Galerius.[1] Accounts portray his pre-imperial years as marked by relative idleness and private life in Italy, away from the eastern and Danubian fronts where Tetrarchic rivals consolidated power, reflecting a deliberate or enforced marginalization within the system.[1]Relations with the Tetrarchy
Maxentius was proclaimed emperor on 28 October 306 at his residence on the Via Labbicana in Rome by the Praetorian Guard, with immediate support from the Senate and populace, fueled by resentment toward Galerius' heavy taxation census and the prior disbandment of two Praetorian cohorts, which had weakened the city's garrison.[6][7] This usurpation directly challenged the Tetrarchic succession established after Diocletian's abdication in 305, as Maxentius held no official position within the imperial college of Augusti Galerius and Severus or Caesars Constantine and Maximinus Daia.[6] The Tetrarchs refused to recognize Maxentius' claim, branding him a usurper; Galerius, as senior Augustus, responded by ordering Severus to march from Milan against Rome in spring 307 with Maximian's former Illyrian army.[8][7] Severus' forces largely defected upon approach, swayed by the return from retirement of Maximian—Maxentius' father and former co-Augustus—who allied with his son and assumed the title of Senior Augustus, as evidenced by contemporary coinage; Severus fled to Ravenna, was captured near Tres Tabernae, and executed on 16 September 307.[6][7] Galerius then launched a personal invasion of Italy late in 307, advancing with a large army from Illyricum and the East to Ariminum and as far as Interamna (modern Narni), about 100 kilometers from Rome, but encountered mass desertions, supply shortages, and fortified resistance, confining his control to his camp and compelling a withdrawal with orders to plunder the Via Flaminia.[6][7] These failures underscored Maxentius' de facto isolation from the Tetrarchy, as he controlled central Italy, parts of Hispania, and later Africa but received no formal integration or legitimacy from the eastern and Danubian rulers.[6] In November 308, at the Conference of Carnuntum on the Danube—summoned by Galerius and attended by Diocletian—Maxentius was explicitly denounced as a tyrant and public enemy, denied any imperial title, and excluded from the Tetrarchy's reorganization, which elevated Licinius to Augustus in Severus' stead while Maximian was forced into permanent retirement.[9] This condemnation formalized the Tetrarchs' hostility, positioning Maxentius as an outsider whose rule depended on Roman traditionalism rather than collegial consensus, setting the stage for ongoing civil conflict until his defeat by Constantine in 312.[6]Accession and Consolidation of Power
Proclamation as Emperor
Following the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in May 305, Galerius appointed Flavius Severus as Western Augustus, but Severus' policies, including efforts to disband parts of the Praetorian Guard and impose new taxes on Rome—which had long enjoyed exemptions—sparked widespread discontent among the city's elite, military, and populace.[10][11] This unrest intensified as Severus marched on Italy to enforce his authority, alienating key supporters in the capital.[5] On October 28, 306, amid this turmoil, Maxentius—son of the retired emperor Maximian—was acclaimed princeps (later elevated to Augustus) by the Praetorian Guard, Senate, and urban crowds in Rome, who viewed him as a restorer of traditional privileges against perceived tetrarchic overreach.[10][12] He pledged donatives to the troops and positioned himself as a defender of Roman interests, leveraging his familial ties to Maximian, who resided nearby in Lucania and soon provided active endorsement.[6][13] The proclamation was not recognized by the official tetrarchy; Galerius condemned it as usurpation and ordered Severus to suppress Maxentius, but Severus' army defected en masse upon approaching Rome in early 307, leading to his capture and coerced suicide.[10][12] This rapid consolidation affirmed Maxentius' control over Italy and initial African provinces, though it marked the onset of civil strife fracturing the post-tetrarchic order.[5][6]Support from Rome and Key Allies
On October 28, 306, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Maxentius emperor in Rome amid widespread discontent over taxation and military levies demanded by the tetrarchic rulers Severus and Galerius, with the Senate and urban populace quickly endorsing his elevation to princeps.[12][14][15] This support stemmed from Maxentius' local ties as son of the retired Augustus Maximian and his promise to restore privileges eroded under prior regimes, enabling him to rally approximately 10,000–15,000 guard troops alongside urban cohorts for defense.[12][13] The Roman backing proved crucial in consolidating control over peninsular Italy, as it deterred Severus' advancing army of over 30,000 from Ravenna; many of Severus' soldiers defected after Maxentius spread rumors of Maximian's return and offered donatives, leading Severus to besiege Rome unsuccessfully before his capture and coerced suicide in early 307.[12][13] Maximian himself reemerged from retirement in autumn 306, aligning with his son to co-rule and legitimize the regime through shared imperial titles and propaganda emphasizing Herculian heritage, though their partnership frayed by 308 over succession disputes.[13] Key allies extended beyond Rome to provincial administrators and military commanders in Italy and North Africa, where Maxentius dispatched a praetorian prefect-led force to secure grain supplies from Carthage, vital for feeding Rome's million residents and sustaining loyalty.[14] In 308, he further entrenched African support by defeating the usurper Domitius Alexander, vicar of Africa, whose revolt threatened supply lines; Alexander's rapid suppression reaffirmed Maxentius' hold on provinces yielding annual revenues estimated at 100,000–150,000 talents, funding his Italian defenses and building projects.[14][12] Diplomatic overtures to eastern rulers like Maximinus Daia yielded temporary non-aggression pacts, but Rome's institutional pillars—the Guard, Senate, and plebs—remained his core base, contrasting with tetrarchic reliance on frontier legions.[8]Reign and Governance
Territorial Control and Administration
Maxentius exercised authority over Italy, encompassing the central and southern regions, as well as northern territories extending to the Alps and the Istrian peninsula following his forces' defeat of Severus II in 307 AD.[16] His domain also included the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, integral to the Italian administrative prefecture.[14] North Africa fell under his control after the rapid suppression of a revolt led by the vicar Lucius Domitius Alexander in 308 AD, who had proclaimed himself emperor in response to Maxentius' loss of formal recognition at the Conference of Carnuntum; Maxentius dispatched his praetorian prefect with troops to Carthage, restoring provincial loyalty within months.[12] Spain, however, remained outside his grasp, secured by Constantine following the latter's proclamation in 306 AD.[14] Unlike the tetrarchic emperors who governed from peripheral strongholds such as Trier or Nicomedia, Maxentius centered his administration in Rome, leveraging its symbolic and institutional prestige to legitimize his rule.[17] He maintained continuity with late republican and early imperial structures, appointing urban prefects to oversee the city of Rome and its environs, including Attius Insteius Tertullus in late 307 AD amid preparations against invading armies.[18] Praetorian prefects handled broader military, fiscal, and judicial responsibilities across Italy and Africa; notable appointees included Ruricius Pompeianus, who commanded forces in key campaigns, and Manilius Rusticianus, serving around 311 AD.[19] These officials enforced tax collection, grain supplies from Africa to Rome, and frontier defenses, with Maxentius fortifying northern passes against eastern threats.[16] Maxentius' governance emphasized senatorial collaboration, granting privileges to aristocratic families to secure administrative loyalty and counter tetrarchic centralization.[20] Provincial governors in Africa and Italy operated under imperial oversight, focusing on stability through traditional patronage rather than Diocletian's rigid diocesan divisions, though he retained praetorian oversight for fiscal efficiency.[12] This approach sustained grain imports and urban patronage in Rome but strained resources during prolonged conflicts, contributing to vulnerabilities exposed by Constantine's invasion in 312 AD.[14]Economic and Military Reforms
Maxentius addressed economic challenges by restoring traditional privileges to Rome and Italy, countering Diocletian's centralizing reforms that had imposed taxation on the city, thereby gaining support from local elites dissatisfied with the loss of exemptions.[15] Lacking revenues from the broader empire, he reimposed taxes in Italy to fund his administration, military, and construction projects, marking a pragmatic shift from prior immunities.[16] In coinage, Maxentius initiated reforms soon after his 306 accession, minting gold aurei, silver argentei, and copper folles in Rome under the initial title of princeps, emphasizing continuity with republican traditions to legitimize his rule.[13] He established a mint at Ostia around 308–309 to centralize production near Rome while maintaining output, issuing series including folles depicting deities like the Dioscuri for symbolic reinforcement of power.[21][22] Militarily, Maxentius re-established the Praetorian Guard upon his proclamation on October 28, 306, reviving the elite unit disbanded after Tetrarchic interventions in Rome, which provided a loyal core for defending Italy against rivals like Severus and Galerius.[14] This move capitalized on discontent with prior military reorganizations that had weakened Rome's traditional defenses.[10] His forces emphasized urban cohorts and local recruitment to sustain control over Italy, Africa, and parts of Spain, prioritizing defensive campaigns over expansive reforms.[23]Architectural and Urban Initiatives in Rome
Maxentius initiated a major building program in central Rome along the Via Sacra, comprising three interconnected monuments: the Basilica Nova, the restored Temple of Venus and Roma, and the Temple of Romulus.[24][25] This ensemble aimed to reinforce imperial authority and revive Rome's civic prestige amid the Tetrarchy's fragmentation.[26] The Basilica Nova, begun circa 306 CE following a fire that damaged adjacent structures, measured approximately 100 meters in length and featured innovative vaulted construction with eight massive piers supporting groin vaults spanning 25 meters.[27][28] Intended as a grand audience hall rather than a judicial basilica, it symbolized Maxentius' role as Rome's protector, with construction advancing rapidly until his defeat in 312 CE, after which Constantine completed it.[29][30] Adjacent to the basilica, Maxentius restored the Temple of Venus and Roma, severely damaged by the 306 CE fire, incorporating apsed extensions to integrate it into his forum-like complex and emphasize continuity with Rome's foundational deities.[31][28] The Temple of Romulus, a rotunda dedicated to his deceased son Valerius Romulus in 309 CE, featured bronze doors and an inscription proclaiming divine honors, forming the eastern terminus of the group.[32] These projects, executed between 306 and 312 CE, prioritized monumental scale and traditional Roman forms to assert Maxentius' legitimacy as liberator urbis.[33]Religious Policies and Cultural Stance
Approach to Pagan Traditions
Maxentius positioned himself as a defender of traditional Roman religious practices, holding the office of pontifex maximus, the chief priestly role overseeing pagan cults and rituals.[8] This title underscored his commitment to the pax deorum, the harmony with the gods central to Roman state religion, and aligned him with the senatorial aristocracy, which favored ancestral cults over emerging Christian influences.[20] In 307 AD, following a fire that damaged the Temple of Venus and Roma, Maxentius initiated its reconstruction, commissioning new cult statues for the shrines of Venus Felix and Roma Aeterna, thereby reinforcing imperial patronage of key pagan deities associated with Rome's founding and prosperity.[34] [29] He also restored other sacred sites, such as elements linked to the Temple of Romulus, integrating religious revival with his urban renewal projects to bolster legitimacy among pagan traditionalists.[35] Maxentius consulted pagan oracles and prophets for guidance, particularly before military engagements, as evidenced by his reliance on sibylline prophecies predicting victory over rivals on auspicious dates tied to Roman festivals.[36] This approach contrasted with the Tetrarchy's occasional syncretic tendencies but echoed Diocletian's emphasis on orthodox paganism, helping secure support from Rome's pagan elite amid civil strife.[37] While he ended Diocletian's persecutions for pragmatic governance, his policies prioritized the restoration and vitality of polytheistic traditions without evident favoritism toward Christianity.[8][38]