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Artificial gravity

Artificial gravity is the simulation of gravitational effects in microgravity environments, such as those encountered during spaceflight, achieved by generating inertial forces that mimic Earth's gravity to protect astronaut health.^[1] Primarily, it counters physiological deconditioning—including muscle atrophy, bone density loss, cardiovascular alterations, and fluid shifts—by providing a consistent downward force on the body, equivalent to approximately 9.8 m/s² (1 g).^[2]^[3] This concept leverages the equivalence principle from general relativity, where acceleration is indistinguishable from gravity, enabling long-duration missions to destinations like Mars without the full spectrum of weightlessness-related risks.^[2] The two principal methods for creating artificial gravity are rotation and linear acceleration.^[1] In the rotation approach, centrifugal force is produced by spinning the entire spacecraft or a habitat module, with the acceleration given by the formula A = ω²r, where ω is the angular velocity and r is the radius from the center of rotation; for instance, a 1 g environment requires a rotation rate of about 4 rpm at a 56 m radius.^[3] This method allows for continuous gravity but introduces challenges like Coriolis forces (F = 2mωv), which can cause motion sickness if rotation exceeds 6–10 rpm, and gravity gradients that vary force levels across the body.^[3] Linear acceleration, by contrast, involves propelling the spacecraft at a constant rate to simulate uniform gravity, potentially enabling rapid transits (e.g., 2–5 days to Mars at 1 g), though it demands immense fuel and is impractical for extended periods beyond initial launch phases.^[3] Physiological research underscores artificial gravity's potential as a multifaceted countermeasure, particularly for missions exceeding six months.^[4] Ground-based studies, such as 60-day bed rest trials using short-arm centrifuges, demonstrate that daily exposure to 0.5–1 g reduces bone resorption, preserves muscle strength, and stabilizes cardiovascular function compared to microgravity analogs.^[5]^[1] Historical experiments, including NASA's Neurolab mission on STS-90 (1998), confirmed that intermittent centrifugation is well-tolerated and mitigates post-flight orthostatic intolerance.^[1] However, optimal parameters—such as minimum gravity levels (potentially 0.38 g for Mars adaptation) and exposure duration—remain under investigation to balance efficacy against side effects like vestibular disturbances.^[4] Ongoing international efforts, coordinated by agencies like NASA and ESA, aim to integrate artificial gravity into future habitats through parabolic flights, centrifuge analogs, and proposed facilities on the International Space Station and commercial platforms.^[5] As of 2025, ground-based research continues through initiatives like ESA's Artificial Gravity Bed Rest Study (AGBRESA), while private companies, such as Orbital Assembly Corporation, plan to construct the Voyager space station with artificial gravity starting in 2025.^[5]^[6] A 2017 roadmap identified five critical knowledge gaps and recommended ground-based validation by 2024 and subsequent in-orbit testing; however, as of 2025, significant in-orbit demonstrations remain pending.^[4] Concepts range from tethered rotating modules to full-vehicle spins, with designs like a 225 m tether capable of 1 g at approximately 2 rpm for Mars-bound crews.^[3] These advancements could transform human spaceflight by enabling sustainable presence beyond low Earth orbit.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Artificial gravity refers to the creation of an inertial force that simulates the effects of gravitational acceleration in environments devoid of natural gravity, such as spacecraft, space stations, or habitats in free fall or deep space transit. This concept is fundamentally based on the equivalence principle in general relativity, which posits that locally, the physical effects of a uniform gravitational field are indistinguishable from those experienced in an accelerated reference frame, allowing acceleration to replicate gravity's influence on objects and inhabitants.^[3]^[7] The idea of artificial gravity originated in the early 20th century amid growing interest in space exploration, with foundational theoretical proposals emerging in the 1920s from rocketry pioneer Hermann Oberth, whose writings on space travel influenced subsequent designs for rotating structures to produce gravity-like conditions. Oberth's concepts, detailed in his 1923 book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen^[8], laid groundwork for later engineering visions during the mid-20th-century space race, emphasizing the need for simulated gravity in prolonged orbital or interplanetary missions.^[9] Primarily, artificial gravity serves to counteract the physiological deconditioning caused by microgravity, including muscle atrophy and bone mineral density loss, thereby preserving astronaut health for extended spaceflight durations. It also enhances operational efficiency by enabling Earth-like management of fluids, tools, and materials, which otherwise float uncontrollably in weightlessness. Furthermore, by fostering a more natural sensory environment, artificial gravity supports crew psychological well-being, mitigating issues like spatial disorientation and confinement-related stress during long missions. One prevalent method to achieve this is through rotational acceleration, which generates a centrifugal force mimicking gravity.^[1]^[10]^[11]

Comparison to Natural Gravity

Artificial gravity simulations, particularly those employing rotation, exhibit key physical distinctions from Earth's natural gravitational field. Natural gravity provides a uniform acceleration of approximately g \approx 9.8 \, \mathrm{m/s^2} acting equally across an object's extent, independent of position within the local field. In rotational systems, however, the centrifugal force generates an acceleration a = \omega^2 r, where \omega is the angular velocity and r is the radial distance from the rotation axis; this creates a body force that varies linearly with distance, resulting in a head-to-foot gradient for a standing human, such as a 2% difference over 2 meters at a 100-meter radius habitat.^[3]^[12] Rotational artificial gravity also introduces the Coriolis force, absent in natural gravity, which deflects moving objects perpendicular to both their velocity and the rotation axis with magnitude $2 \omega v \sin \theta, where v is the object's speed and \theta is the angle between velocity and rotation axis. This effect alters perceived motion paths, such as curving the trajectory of a thrown ball or inducing cross-coupled sensations during head tilts, leading to perceptual mismatches. Humans, adapted over evolution to the stable uniformity of 1g natural gravity, often experience these rotational dynamics as sensorily incongruent, with the gradient and Coriolis contributions exacerbating feelings of instability.^[3]^[12]^[1] In contrast, linear acceleration methods for artificial gravity align more closely with natural gravity through local uniformity. Per the equivalence principle in general relativity, a constant linear acceleration in a sufficiently small region produces effects indistinguishable from a true gravitational field, free from radial variations or Coriolis perturbations. Thus, short-duration or small-scale linear setups can replicate natural gravity's uniformity without the limitations inherent to rotation.^[3]^[12]

Acceleration-Based Methods

Rotational Methods

Rotational methods for artificial gravity rely on the centrifugal force experienced in a rotating reference frame, which simulates the effects of gravity by providing an outward acceleration on objects within a spinning habitat. In this approach, a spacecraft or space station rotates around a central axis, pressing inhabitants against the outer structure much like gravity pulls toward Earth's center. This inertial force arises from the tendency of rotating bodies to move in straight lines, countered by the structure's constraint, resulting in a perceived downward pull. The principle stems from Newtonian mechanics, where circular motion requires centripetal acceleration directed inward, but occupants feel the equal and opposite centrifugal reaction outward.^[3]^[12] The effective gravity g_{\text{eff}} in such a system is given by the equation

g_{\text{eff}} = \omega^2 r,

where \omega is the angular velocity in radians per second and r is the radius of rotation in meters. This formula derives from the centripetal acceleration required for uniform circular motion, a_c = v^2 / r, where tangential velocity v = \omega r, yielding a_c = \omega^2 r. In the rotating frame, this acceleration manifests as an apparent gravitational field proportional to the square of the rotation rate and the distance from the axis, allowing engineers to tune g_{\text{eff}} to desired levels, such as 1 g (9.81 m/s²), by adjusting \omega and r. For instance, achieving 1 g at a comfortable rotation rate of 4 revolutions per minute (rpm) requires a radius of approximately 56 meters.^[3]^[12] Early experiments validated the feasibility of rotational gravity. During the 1966 Gemini XI mission, astronauts tethered their spacecraft to an Agena target vehicle with a 30-meter cable and rotated the assembly at about 0.15 rpm, generating a minimal artificial gravity of 0.00015 g to demonstrate the concept and assess crew stability. This test, though limited in scale, confirmed that centrifugal force could produce a perceptible outward pull without disorientation at low rates. In the 1970s, Skylab missions included rotation tolerance studies using a specialized rotating chair that spun crew members up to 30 rpm while in microgravity. These experiments, involving eight astronauts, showed significantly reduced motion sickness compared to ground tests, with most completing 150 head movements at high rates with minimal symptoms after adaptation, highlighting improved tolerance in weightless conditions.^[13]^[14] Design considerations for rotational habitats prioritize human comfort and structural integrity. Rotation rates of 2–4 rpm are generally acceptable for long-term habitation, as higher speeds exacerbate Coriolis effects—a fictitious force F_c = -2m \vec{\omega} \times \vec{v} that deflects moving objects and can induce nausea during head movements—while rates below 2 rpm minimize adaptation needs. A minimum radius of around 100 meters is often targeted for 1 g at feasible low rates (e.g., 2 rpm requires about 224 meters), reducing gravity gradients across the habitat and structural stresses from hoop tension, which scales with \rho \omega^2 r^2 where \rho is material density. Spin-up energy demands are modest for large structures, typically achievable with chemical thrusters or reaction wheels, but ongoing rotation requires attitude control to counter precession. Materials like advanced composites help manage these stresses, ensuring the habitat withstands centrifugal loads over missions.^[3]^[14]^[12] Recent advancements explore variable gravity designs to simulate different g-levels for varied physiological needs, such as partial gravity for Mars preparation. As of 2025, companies like Vast Space are planning commercial space stations incorporating artificial gravity for long-term habitation, while Russia patented a rotating system with habitable modules and axial/static components in October 2025. These concepts aim to optimize crew health and experiment conditions in future stations.^[15]^[16]

Linear Acceleration Methods

Linear acceleration methods generate artificial gravity by applying continuous thrust to a spacecraft, creating a uniform inertial force equivalent to gravity across the entire vehicle in accordance with the equivalence principle. This principle, a cornerstone of general relativity, posits that the effects of gravity are indistinguishable from those of acceleration in a non-inertial reference frame.^[3] By maintaining a constant proper acceleration of approximately 1 g (9.81 m/s²), occupants feel a downward force toward the propulsion end, simulating Earth's gravity without spatial gradients or artifacts like those in rotational systems.^[3] The approach offers complete uniformity, with every point in the spacecraft experiencing identical acceleration regardless of position.^[3] For interplanetary travel, such as a Mars transfer, constant 1 g thrust could shorten transit times dramatically—to as little as 2 to 5 days one-way—while mitigating microgravity's physiological toll by allowing normal activities like walking and fluid management.^[3] However, this method proves impractical for orbital space stations or indefinite habitation, as sustaining thrust demands prohibitive fuel consumption over extended periods.^[3] Historical concepts trace back to mid-20th-century visionary engineering, with physicist Robert Forward advancing ideas for propulsion systems enabling constant acceleration in the 1980s, including antimatter-fueled designs that would naturally produce gravity-like conditions during interstellar voyages. Brief testing of linear acceleration effects has occurred in suborbital flights, such as sounding rocket launches, where initial thrust phases deliver short bursts of 3–6 g, approximating the sensation though limited to seconds or minutes.^[3] Key limitations stem from propulsion constraints: achieving sustained 1 g requires exhaust velocities far beyond chemical rockets, necessitating advanced systems like nuclear or electric drives, yet even these struggle with the exponential propellant mass needed via the rocket equation.^[17] The proper acceleration remains constant at α = g, but relativistic effects emerge at high velocities, governed by the Lorentz factor:

\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}

where v is the spacecraft's velocity and c is the speed of light; this leads to time dilation for crew relative to Earth observers during long missions.^[18] As of 2025, no breakthroughs enable full 1 g linear gravity, though hybrid designs pair low-thrust electric propulsion (e.g., ion engines at 0.001–0.01 g) with rotational elements for partial gravity augmentation in deep-space proposals.^[19]

Applications in Human Spaceflight

Physiological Benefits

Artificial gravity offers substantial physiological advantages by mitigating the detrimental impacts of microgravity on human health during extended space missions. In microgravity environments, such as those experienced on the International Space Station (ISS), astronauts lose bone density at rates of 1–2% per month in weight-bearing bones like the femur and spine, a process driven by reduced mechanical loading that artificial gravity counters through simulated inertial forces equivalent to Earth's gravity.^[20] This approach also prevents muscle atrophy by maintaining necessary tensile forces on skeletal muscles, averts cardiovascular deconditioning that impairs blood volume regulation and vascular tone, and alleviates vestibular disturbances that disrupt balance and spatial orientation.^[21]^[22] Evidence from ground-based analogs, including prolonged head-down tilt bed rest studies, and direct ISS observations underscores that conventional exercise countermeasures, such as resistance and aerobic training, fail to fully counteract these effects despite their partial efficacy in preserving muscle mass and aerobic capacity.^[23] For example, even with daily exercise protocols lasting up to 2.5 hours, astronauts exhibit persistent bone resorption and incomplete recovery of cardiovascular function upon return to Earth.^[24] A 2024 review in Physiological Reviews emphasizes artificial gravity's potential to sustain near-1g conditions, thereby supporting holistic organ function, including skeletal integrity and hemodynamic stability, beyond what exercise alone achieves.^[21] Levels of artificial gravity between 0.3g and 1g prove sufficient for most benefits, as they replicate adequate loading to inhibit demineralization and atrophy while minimizing Coriolis effects from rotational methods.^[19] Notably, these partial gravity regimes reduce cephalad fluid shifts—a hallmark of microgravity that elevates intracranial pressure and contributes to Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS), leading to vision impairments such as optic disc edema.^[22] By normalizing fluid distribution, artificial gravity also bolsters immune responses, countering microgravity-induced dysfunctions like altered T-cell activation and increased susceptibility to infections observed in spaceflight data.^[25] Early human trials, including NASA's centrifuge experiments in the 1960s at the Langley Research Center, illustrated these advantages by showing that short-arm centrifugation preserved locomotor comfort and reduced post-flight orthostatic intolerance, where centrifuged subjects maintained hemodynamic stability during tilt tests unlike non-exposed controls.^[22] Such findings laid foundational evidence for artificial gravity as a multifaceted countermeasure, with rotational setups briefly referenced here as a means to deliver these protective effects without delving into engineering details.^[26]

Engineering Proposals

One of the earliest engineering proposals for artificial gravity came from Wernher von Braun in 1952, who conceptualized a rotating wheel space station with a 76-meter diameter to generate 1 g of centrifugal acceleration for an 80-person crew.^[27] Published in Collier's magazine, the design featured a three-deck toroidal habitat orbiting at approximately 1,075 kilometers altitude, constructed from modular segments launched via reusable ferries, and intended as a waypoint for interplanetary travel.^[28] In the 1970s, Gerard K. O'Neill advanced these ideas with his cylindrical colony designs, rotating at approximately 0.5 RPM to produce 1 g along the inner surface for thousands of inhabitants in free-space settlements.^[9] Detailed in the 1977 NASA Ames Summer Study on Space Settlements, O'Neill cylinders consisted of paired, counter-rotating 8-kilometer-long, 6.4-kilometer-diameter structures built from lunar-derived materials, featuring agricultural zones, urban areas, and closed-loop life support systems for permanent off-Earth habitation.^[29] Modern proposals include NASA's concepts for the Lunar Gateway in the 2020s, utilizing tethered rotation where two station elements connected by a kilometer-long tether spin to create variable gravity from 0.1 g to 0.38 g, enabling physiological research and crew acclimation for lunar surface operations.^[30] This configuration leverages existing Gateway hardware for spin-up via thrusters, with a demonstration targeted post-2028 assembly. Vast Space's Haven-1, planned for launch in May 2026 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9, represents a stepping stone toward modular spin habitats by testing integrated systems for future artificial gravity implementations in commercial low-Earth orbit stations. As of 2025, Vast completed primary structure qualification testing for Haven-1, advancing toward its 2026 launch.^[31]^[32] The single-module design supports four crew for 30-day missions, with Vast's roadmap planning a separate Artificial Gravity Station by 2035 to achieve sustainable 1 g environments via rotation.^[33] For International Space Station successors, centrifuge modules have been proposed as attachable facilities providing up to 1 g in compact 4-meter-radius arms, drawing from the unbuilt Centrifuge Accommodations Module to facilitate variable-gravity experiments on platforms like Axiom Station.^[34] In 2025, commercial studies emphasized sustainable artificial gravity for planetary settlements, featuring variable g rings—modular toroidal structures with adjustable rotation speeds (1-4 RPM) to simulate 0.16 g to 1 g for habitat optimization and resource efficiency.^[35] These designs, analyzed in orbital stability models, prioritize lunar-sourced construction for scalability.^[36] Proposals for Starship variants include centrifuge arms—extendable 50-meter booms deploying habitat pods to spin at 2-3 RPM, generating partial to full gravity during Mars transits while preserving the vehicle's reusability.^[37] Such systems often integrate with inflatable modules to extend rotation radius beyond 50 meters, using Bigelow Aerospace-derived fabrics for lightweight deployment that lowers required spin rates to under 2 RPM and eases launch constraints.^[38] This hybrid approach, rooted in NASA's TransHab program, enables 1 g in expansive 100-square-meter volumes with minimal mass penalty.^[39]

Implementation Challenges

Implementing artificial gravity through rotational methods presents significant technical hurdles, primarily due to the scale and dynamics of large rotating structures. For instance, achieving 1 g at low rotation rates to minimize physiological discomfort necessitates radii on the order of 50-100 meters or more, resulting in substantial structural mass—potentially tens of thousands of kilograms for mission-critical components—which increases launch requirements and overall system complexity.^[3] Spin-up to operational speeds demands considerable initial energy input via thrusters or flywheels, with estimates for large habitats indicating megajoule-scale kinetic energy storage, though maintenance in vacuum requires minimal ongoing power once stabilized.^[3] Additionally, vibrations from imbalances or crew movements can lead to resonance, necessitating advanced damping systems such as counter-rotating hubs or fluid ring dampers to ensure structural integrity and stable gravity simulation.^[40] Physiological challenges arise from the non-uniform gravity fields in rotating environments, particularly the Coriolis effect, which induces cross-coupled accelerations during head or body movements and can cause nausea and disorientation. Studies indicate that rotation rates exceeding 4 RPM often trigger motion sickness, with a conservative comfort limit around 2-3 RPM for prolonged exposure, though adaptation may allow up to 6 RPM in some individuals.^[3] Varying gravity gradients across the body—higher at the feet than the head—pose further adaptation issues, potentially exacerbating cardiovascular and vestibular responses over long durations, as evidenced by ground-based centrifuge trials.^[1] Logistically, deploying such systems is constrained by exorbitant costs and launch limitations. Conceptual designs like the Hyperion rotating habitat estimate development and deployment expenses exceeding $30 billion, factoring in materials, assembly, and testing.^[41] Current launch vehicles impose strict size restrictions, often requiring in-orbit construction for structures beyond a few meters in diameter, which amplifies risks and timelines. Recent 2025 reviews underscore ongoing uncertainties regarding long-term human impacts, noting that while partial gravity may mitigate microgravity deconditioning, effects on reproduction, bone health, and neurodevelopment in varying g-levels (0.1-1.0 g) remain unverified without extended space trials.^[42] As a potential mitigation, short-arm centrifuges for intermittent exposure have been explored since the 1960s through NASA ground tests, including bed-rest studies simulating deconditioning, which demonstrated feasibility for daily sessions to counteract muscle atrophy without full habitat rotation; however, no such devices have been deployed in space.^[9]

Partial Gravity Simulation

Lunar Gravity Simulation

Simulating lunar gravity, approximately 1/6th of Earth's gravitational acceleration at 1.62 m/s², is essential for preparing long-term lunar bases, as it mitigates some physiological deconditioning risks associated with microgravity exposure while avoiding the high energy and structural demands of full 1g simulation.^[43] Partial gravity environments like 1/6g support sustainable habitation by reducing bone loss and muscle atrophy compared to zero gravity, yet require less rotational infrastructure than Earth-like conditions, which demand large radii or high spin rates for comfort.^[44] This approach also facilitates in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) by enabling realistic testing of regolith processing and volatile extraction under lunar conditions, such as producing oxygen and water from local materials without Earth-based gravity biases.^[45] Additionally, 1/6g simulation enhances astronaut mobility, allowing evaluation of locomotion, vehicle handling, and extravehicular activity (EVA) dynamics that align with lunar surface operations.^[46] Key methods for lunar gravity simulation leverage acceleration-based principles tailored to 1/6g. Rotational techniques use centrifugal force in centrifuges or spinning habitats, where the required angular velocity ω is calculated as ω = √(g_moon / r), with g_moon = 1.62 m/s² and r as the radius from the rotation axis; for example, a 10 m radius yields ω ≈ 0.40 rad/s (about 3.8 rpm), minimizing Coriolis effects for human tolerance.^[3] Linear acceleration methods, suitable for short-duration scenarios like lander descents, maintain a constant thrust providing 1.62 m/s², though practical implementation is limited by fuel constraints and is often simulated via parabolic trajectories.^[47] Experimental efforts in the 2010s and 2020s have advanced lunar gravity simulation for mission readiness. The European Space Agency (ESA) conducted parabolic flight campaigns using the A310 Zero-G aircraft, achieving 0.16g for up to 23 seconds per parabola across multiple flights, enabling tests of human performance, hardware functionality, and biological responses in lunar conditions during campaigns like the 54th in 2011.^[48] More recent ESA campaigns, including opportunities in 2024 and 2025, continue to support lunar gravity research for exploration-focused experiments.^[49] For the Artemis program, NASA partnered with Blue Origin in 2021 to utilize the New Shepard suborbital rocket, where the crew capsule rotates at 11 rpm to generate over two minutes of continuous 1/6g via centrifugal force; this flight occurred on February 4, 2025, successfully supporting technology validation including ISRU and surface systems, aiding de-risking innovations for lunar landings.^[50]^[51] Lunar gravity simulation uniquely addresses challenges like dust mitigation and EVA suit design, where low-g dynamics exacerbate regolith adhesion and mobility issues. In 1/6g, lunar dust—fine, electrostatically charged particles—exhibits ballistic trajectories and deeper inhalation risks during EVAs, necessitating suit features like electrostatic cleaning grids and low-friction joints to prevent abrasion and seal contamination, as observed in analog tests.^[52] These aspects balance operational efficiency, such as reduced dust lofting during resource extraction, with suit durability for extended surface stays.^[53]

Martian and Other Reduced Gravity

Simulating Martian gravity at approximately 0.38g, or 3.7 m/s², is essential for preparing human missions to Mars, as it allows researchers to investigate the physiological and psychological impacts of long-term exposure to reduced gravity environments.^[54] This level of partial gravity is critical for assessing bone density loss, muscle atrophy, cardiovascular changes, and other health risks that could compromise crew performance during multi-year transits or surface operations.^[55] Such studies also evaluate the feasibility of permanent settlements by examining reproduction, development, and habitability in partial gravity, informing whether 0.38g supports sustainable human presence on Mars.^[56] Key methods for simulating 0.38g include adjustable rotational systems that generate centripetal acceleration tailored to Mars-like levels, often using variable-rate spinning in spacecraft or laboratory setups to mimic the desired force without constant full rotation.^[57] Intermittent centrifugation in habitats provides another approach, where short-radius centrifuges expose crew members to periodic bouts of partial gravity—typically 30 minutes to several hours daily—to counteract microgravity effects while minimizing Coriolis forces and energy demands on the habitat.^[1] These techniques can be integrated into modular spacecraft designs, allowing gravity levels to be dialed in for acclimation before planetary arrival.^[58] NASA's Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation (HI-SEAS) program, conducted from the 2010s through the 2020s, served as a key Mars analog for studying crew dynamics in isolated environments, incorporating behavioral adjustments and modified exercise regimens to study adaptations to expected reduced-gravity impacts, such as lower-g locomotion.^[59] Complementary research through parabolic flights and ground-based offload systems has directly tested partial gravity effects on human performance, providing data for Mars mission planning.^[60] Recent analyses, including November 2025 content from Space Settlement Progress on Mars cycler designs, highlight ongoing challenges in implementing artificial gravity for Mars habitats, such as structural integrity during spin-up, crew acclimation to variable forces, and integration with in-situ resource utilization for long-term viability.^[61] Beyond Mars, simulations extend to even lower gravity levels, such as 0.01g for asteroid missions, using compact centrifuges to replicate surface conditions on small bodies less than 1 km in diameter and study regolith behavior or crew mobility in near-weightless regimes.^[62] Variable gravity systems in multi-destination spacecraft further enable adjustable acceleration profiles, allowing seamless transitions between levels like 0.38g for Mars and near-zero for asteroid operations, thus supporting versatile exploration architectures.^[9]

Speculative Technologies

Gravitational Manipulation Theories

Theoretical approaches to gravitational manipulation seek to directly generate or control gravity fields through fundamental physics, distinct from inertial methods like rotation or acceleration. In quantum field theory, the graviton is posited as a hypothetical massless spin-2 particle that mediates the gravitational force, analogous to photons in electromagnetism. Generating artificial gravity via controlled graviton emission or manipulation remains speculative, as it would require unifying general relativity with quantum mechanics in a theory of quantum gravity. Diamagnetic levitation provides a short-range demonstration of counteracting gravity using magnetic fields, though it does not produce true gravitational fields. In diamagnetism, materials are repelled by magnetic fields due to induced currents opposing the applied field; sufficiently strong fields can balance gravitational force on diamagnetic objects. A notable 1997 experiment levitated a live frog in a 16 T vertical magnetic field within a Bitter solenoid, achieving stable suspension where magnetic repulsion equaled the frog's weight of approximately 10 g. This effect arises from the diamagnetic susceptibility of water in biological tissues and has been replicated for other objects, but it is limited to laboratory scales and requires enormous magnetic energies, offering no scalable path to artificial gravity.^[63] Gravitomagnetism emerges from general relativity as an analog to electromagnetism, describing gravitational effects from mass currents. Predicted by solutions to Einstein's field equations, it includes frame-dragging, where rotating masses "drag" nearby spacetime, inducing gravitomagnetic fields. The Lense-Thirring effect, a key manifestation, has been measured via satellite observations like Gravity Probe B, confirming frame-dragging to within 19% of predictions around Earth. While gravitomagnetism informs theoretical devices for gravity control, such as hypothetical rotating mass configurations, no practical manipulation has been achieved. Proposed gravitational shielding devices, like Eugene Podkletnov's 1992 experiment, claimed a 2% weight reduction for objects above a rotating superconducting disk in a magnetic field, purportedly due to partial gravity screening. Independent verifications, including attempts by NASA and European labs, failed to replicate the effect under controlled conditions, attributing results to measurement errors or experimental artifacts. These claims remain unverified and are widely regarded as unsubstantiated in mainstream physics. In general relativity, gravity is sourced by the stress-energy tensor T_{\mu\nu}, which encapsulates matter, energy, and momentum distributions. The Einstein field equations relate spacetime curvature to these sources via

G_{\mu\nu} = 8\pi T_{\mu\nu},

where G_{\mu\nu} is the Einstein tensor encoding geometry (in units where G = c = 1). Manipulating gravity directly would require engineering T_{\mu\nu} to produce desired curvature, but quantum effects at high energies complicate this.^[64] Feasible gravitational manipulation demands energies approaching the Planck scale, around $10^{19} GeV, where quantum gravity effects dominate and spacetime foam disrupts classical control. Current particle accelerators reach only ~10^4 GeV, far below this threshold, rendering practical technologies impossible as of 2025. While rotational acceleration serves as the viable alternative for spaceflight, theoretical pursuits continue to explore exotic matter or modified gravity to lower these barriers.^[65]

Emerging Research Directions

Recent advancements in artificial gravity research during the 2020s have focused on hybrid approaches that integrate rotational systems with emerging technologies to address physiological challenges in spaceflight. In 2024, NASA-supported studies explored variable gravity centrifuges for physiological testing, such as the Mars Artificial Gravity Habitat with Centrifugation (MAGICIAN) concept, which proposes centrifugation to counter microgravity-induced deconditioning during long-duration missions.^[66] These efforts build on ground-based analogs to simulate partial gravity levels, enabling researchers to evaluate countermeasures for bone loss and fluid shifts. Additionally, innovations in AI-optimized rotation profiles aim to minimize Coriolis effects, with 2025 discussions at the World Economic Forum highlighting selective artificial gravity exposure combined with biotechnology for enhanced crew health.^[67] Biomedical research has emphasized the efficacy of short daily artificial gravity exposures to mitigate microgravity effects. A 2025 study in the Journal of Applied Physiology demonstrated that daily 30-minute sessions of high-intensity exercise during artificial gravity during 60 days of bed rest preserved cardiorespiratory fitness, suggesting its potential as a targeted countermeasure for space missions.^[68] Similarly, reviews in 2025 have underscored intermittent artificial gravity via short-radius centrifuges to counteract cardiovascular adaptations like fluid shifts and autonomic changes induced by microgravity.^[69] Ongoing projects are extending testing platforms to incorporate partial gravity simulations. In May 2025, MIT's Space Exploration Initiative conducted a zero-gravity flight campaign, including parabolas simulating lunar and Martian gravity to test payloads for reduced-gravity environments.^[70] Commercial initiatives, such as SpaceX's concepts for spinning Starship vehicles or tethered configurations, are exploring artificial gravity generation for Mars transit, with Elon Musk confirming plans for rotational elements to simulate gravity en route.^[71]^[72] Looking ahead, theoretical developments in quantum gravity could lay groundwork for novel artificial gravity technologies, though practical applications remain speculative. In May 2025, researchers at Aalto University proposed a quantum theory of gravity compatible with the Standard Model of particle physics, using finite-dimensional symmetries to describe gravitational interactions at quantum scales.^[73] This framework might eventually inform compact gravity simulation devices, but current efforts prioritize integration with established rotational methods.

Fictional and Cultural Representations

Mechanisms in Science Fiction

In science fiction, artificial gravity mechanisms originated in 1930s pulp fiction, where authors introduced devices to simulate gravitational environments aboard spacecraft, bypassing the challenges of weightlessness. A seminal example appears in E.E. "Doc" Smith's Lensman series, beginning with Galactic Patrol (serialized 1937–1938), in which spaceships employ artificial gravity generators to maintain normal weight conditions for crews during interstellar travel.^[74] These generators produce a consistent downward force, enabling characters to walk and interact as on a planetary surface without explaining the underlying technology.^[75] Smith's depictions, expanded in later novels like Gray Lensman (1942), established this as a foundational trope in space opera, influencing generations of writers by normalizing gravity in zero-gravity settings.^[76] Common tropes include "gravity plating" or "gravitic fields," which generate uniform artificial gravity fields emanating from a ship's deck or hull, often without any visible apparatus or adherence to physical laws. These devices typically create a directional pull mimicking Earth's 1g, ignoring principles like the inverse-square law that would weaken the field at distance or require immense energy.^[77] "Inertial dampeners," another prevalent mechanism, neutralize the inertial forces from rapid acceleration or deceleration, allowing vessels to perform high-speed maneuvers without harming occupants. This concept appears in later works, such as the 1966 television series Star Trek, where such systems protect crews during warp travel. Early films like Forbidden Planet (1956) depicted crews enduring intense braking through physical preparation in reinforced compartments, highlighting g-forces rather than neutralizing them. Variations often hand-wave the process through vague "gravitic generators" or embedded ship systems, as seen in Smith's use of gravity manipulation for both environmental control and weaponry, prioritizing plot fluidity over scientific rigor.^[76] These fictional mechanisms have profoundly shaped cultural perceptions of space travel, embedding the expectation of effortless gravity in audiences while disregarding real physical challenges such as the Coriolis effect, which would induce disorienting rotations in spinning habitats. By sidelining such complexities, science fiction facilitates immersive storytelling and visual effects, as in depictions where characters casually stroll spaceship corridors during high-velocity pursuits. Although some narratives briefly reference rotational methods inspired by actual physics, most favor these invented generators to evade engineering hurdles like structural stresses or motion sickness.^[78] This approach, popularized since the pulp era, underscores artificial gravity's role as a narrative enabler rather than a technically precise element.^[79]

Historical and Media Examples

The concept of artificial gravity in science fiction evolved significantly from the mid-20th century onward, beginning with realistic engineering-inspired depictions in the 1950s that drew heavily from Wernher von Braun's proposals for rotating space stations to simulate gravity through centrifugal force.^[9] Von Braun's 1953 design for a 76-meter-diameter wheel-shaped station, rotating at 3 revolutions per minute to produce 0.3 g, was popularized through Disney's educational films like Man in Space (1955), influencing early narratives that emphasized practical rotation-based systems over speculative technologies.^[9] In literature, Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) exemplified this realistic approach with the Discovery One spacecraft's 11-meter-diameter centrifuge, rotating at 5 rpm to generate lunar-level gravity (about 0.16 g) for crew health during long-duration missions.^[9] The novel detailed the centrifuge's role in mitigating microgravity effects, such as muscle atrophy, while integrating it seamlessly into the ship's design for everyday activities like jogging.^[80] Film and television portrayals advanced the trope starting with Star Trek: The Original Series (1966–1969), where starships like the Enterprise featured artificial gravity decks that maintained Earth-like conditions without visible rotation, allowing crews to move freely in zero-gravity environments.^[81] Later, The Expanse (2015–2022) returned to grounded physics by depicting spin-generated gravity on ships and stations, explicitly showing Coriolis effects—such as curved projectile paths and disorienting sensations near the rotation axis—to highlight the challenges of smaller-radius habitats.^[78] Video games further diversified representations, with the Mass Effect series (2007–2022) employing fictional element zero-based generators to produce uniform artificial gravity fields embedded in ship decks, enabling planetary-level pull without rotation and supporting high-maneuverability combat scenarios.^[82] In contrast, Kerbal Space Program (2011–present) relies on community mods to simulate realistic artificial gravity, where players construct rotating habitats using in-game physics to test centrifugal effects on Kerbal astronauts, blending educational engineering with gameplay. By the 2020s, these depictions had hybridized early realistic rotations with advanced speculative generators, reflecting growing interest in long-term space habitation while prioritizing narrative convenience alongside scientific plausibility. For example, the television series For All Mankind (2019–2024) portrays rotating space stations and habitats providing artificial gravity for lunar and Mars missions, balancing realism with dramatic needs.)^[83]

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Artificial gravity, in the context of spaceflight, is the simulation of gravity on board a crewed spacecraft achieved by the linear acceleration or steady ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Artificial Gravity - NASA
Mar 26, 2021 · Artificial gravity uses centrifugal force to generate a gravity equivalent, as gravity and acceleration are identical, to offset microgravity ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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[PDF] Chapter 2 PHYSICS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY
1.2.1 Linear Acceleration. Linear acceleration is one means by which artificial gravity in a spacecraft can be achieved. By accelerating the spacecraft ...
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International roadmap for artificial gravity research | npj Microgravity
Nov 24, 2017 · AG can be generated by continuously rotating the entire spacecraft, or part of the spacecraft, or by means of an onboard short-radius centrifuge ...Missing: linear | Show results with:linear
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ESA - Testing the value of artificial gravity for astronaut health
Mar 21, 2019 · A groundbreaking study, funded by European Space Agency ESA and US space agency NASA, into how artificial gravity could help astronauts stay healthy in space.
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1.5: The Equivalence Principle (Part 1) - Physics LibreTexts
Mar 5, 2022 · A central principle of relativity known is the equivalence principle: - that is, accelerations and gravitational fields are equivalent.
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[PDF] Chapter 3 HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY
In the same period, inspired by the pioneering projections of Hermann Oberth, Hermann Noordung introduced a detailed engineering proposal for a space station ...
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Artificial gravity: Definition, future tech and research - Space
May 20, 2022 · Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force in a spacecraft, in order to emulate the force of gravity.Creating artificial gravity · Health effects · Voyager space hotel
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Assessing the effects of artificial gravity in an analog of long-duration ...
The objectives of this study were to 1) determine if 30 min of AG daily is protective during head down bed rest, and 2) compare the protective effects.
[10]
[PDF] Artificial Gravity in Theory and Practice - SpaceArchitect.org
Jul 14, 2016 · The centripetal and Coriolis forces associated with rotation are not fundamentally different kinds of forces with unknown origins or effects.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Sept. 14, 1966 - Gemini XI Artificial Gravity Experiment - NASA
Sep 14, 2016 · By firing their side thrusters to slowly rotate the combined spacecraft, they were able to use centrifugal force to generate about 0.00015 g. “ ...
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[PDF] Space Settlement Population Rotation Tolerance
Abstract. To avoid a number of very negative health effects due to microg, freespace settlements may be rotated to provide 1g of artificial gravity.
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Space tech: Experts name the 12 transformative technologies ...
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With antimatter to the stars | New Scientist
Jun 24, 1989 · An antimatter powered spaceship travelling from Earth to Pluto at a constant acceleration of 1 g would get there in less than three weeks.
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Artificial Gravity - Atomic Rockets
Jun 24, 2024 · The point is that inside a centrifuge or other spinning method of creating artificial gravity, moving objects appear to move in curves instead ...
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[PDF] arXiv:1702.00030v1 [physics.space-ph] 28 Jan 2017
Jan 28, 2017 · Relativistic Rocket. For a relativistic rocket, the proper acceleration a (i.e. the acceleration as experienced by the traveller) is related ...
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[PDF] Human Research Program Human Health Countermeasures ...
Feb 15, 2015 · Artificial gravity (AG) could replace terrestrial gravity with inertial forces generated by centrifugation or sustained linear acceleration.
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Apr 5, 2022 · Humans are spending an increasing amount of time in space, where exposure to conditions of microgravity causes 1–2% bone loss per month in astronauts.
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Gravity, Microgravity and Artificial Gravity: Physiological Effects ...
Sep 22, 2025 · Gravity, the force that structures the cosmos, also shapes human physiology. It influences skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular, respiratory, ...
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Artificial gravity as a countermeasure for mitigating physiological ...
Artificial gravity is an alternative approach to addressing the problems of weightlessness-induced effects on the human body. Addressing each individual ...
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Strategies of Manipulating BMP Signaling in Microgravity to Prevent ...
Exercise countermeasures developed to date are ineffective in combating bone loss in microgravity.Missing: insufficient | Show results with:insufficient
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Effects of exercise countermeasures on multisystem function in long ...
Feb 3, 2023 · Exercise training is a key countermeasure used to offset spaceflight-induced multisystem deconditioning. Here, we evaluated the effects of ...
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(PDF) Artificial gravity as a potential countermeasure for Spaceflight ...
Jun 6, 2024 · The cause of SANS was initially thought to be a cephalad fluid shift in microgravity ... shifts, and immunological dysfunction. To combat these ...
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Artificial gravity: a possible countermeasure for post-flight orthostatic ...
None of the astronauts who were centrifuged had orthostatic intolerance when tested with head-up passive tilt after flight. Thus, centrifugation may also have ...Missing: NASA 1964
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[PDF] THE CENTRIFUGAL SPACE STATION COMES FULL CIRCLE - NASA
1 Wernher von Braun, “Crossing the Last Frontier,” Collier's (22 March 1952): 30. Within a year following his publication in Collier's, von Braun published an ...
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Wernher von Braun Space Station Design (Bonestell) in (von...
The design he envisioned in that article was a 250' diameter wheel, constructed in Low-Earth orbit (LEO) out of modules, and is shown in Figure 1. (von Braun, ...
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[PDF] SPACE RESOURCES and SPACE SETTLEMENTS
This publication contains the technical papers from the five task groups that took part in the 1977 Ames. Summer Study on Space Settlements and ...
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[PDF] Gateway Gravity Testbed (GGT)
Jul 11, 2019 · We propose that the Gateway elements be 'scarred' to accommodate future demonstration and investigation of artificial gravity (AG) at human ...
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Haven-1 - Vast Space
October 8, 2025. The Haven-1 primary structure is the first space station flight article to be built in the U.S. in over 20 years. It is the third major ...Haven-1 Lab · Haven-1 VR · Haven-2
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Roadmap - Vast Space
2025: Haven Demo. In-orbit test bed for critical space station technologies · 25 ; 2026: Haven-1. The world's first commercial space station · 26 ; 2032: Haven-2.
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[PDF] Artificial Gravity Future Plans for ISS
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April 2025 - Space Settlement Progress
Apr 20, 2025 · The study aims to quantify how much structural mass is required to support both the artificial gravity and the internal pressures in various ...
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(PDF) Dynamics and Stability of Near-Future Artificial-Gravity Orbital ...
Jul 29, 2025 · Artificial gravity (AG) is gaining renewed relevance as space agencies and private companies plan for longer-duration human spaceflight beyond ...
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Real Artificial Gravity for SpaceX's Starship - Universe Today
Sep 16, 2019 · A variation of SpaceX's Starship that will be able to provide its own artificial gravity. The idea was inspired in part by science fiction.Missing: centrifuge | Show results with:centrifuge
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Development and Testing of an Inflatable Artificial Gravity System
Jan 10, 2013 · For example, in a tethered rotating system, the tension is sustained by the cable yield stress but there is little, if any, inherent stiffness.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Inflatable technology: using flexible materials to make large structures
The modern habitable inflatable module design was developed by NASA in 1997 with the Transit Habitat (TransHab) program. The TransHab was a 3 level, 27-ft ...Missing: radius | Show results with:radius
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Fluid ring damper for artificial gravity rotating system used for ...
In this paper we propose a dual spin system to generate artificial gravity based on a classical rotorcraft configuration where the rotating blade-like module ...
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Hyperion: Artificial gravity reusable crewed deep space transport
The Hyperion Rough Order of Magnitude (ROM) estimate is $33 Billion ($3.0 Billion/Yr for 11 years), valued in 2017 [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49]. This ...
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(PDF) Living in Space: Concept of Artificial Gravity - ResearchGate
Sep 19, 2025 · The incapacitating effects of microgravity pose a serious threat to the long-duration human presence in space, which is necessary for ...
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[PDF] The Partial Gravity of the Moon and Mars Appears Insufficient to ...
Astronauts who spend many weeks or months in space in microgravity suffer serious health problems including muscle atrophy, cardiovascular deconditioning, ...
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Human Biomechanical and Cardiopulmonary Responses to Partial ...
It is thought that a progressively staggered approach using the proposed Lunar base will allow safer development and testing of hardware and procedures, toward ...
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Overview: In-Situ Resource Utilization - NASA
Jul 26, 2023 · NASA's Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative will develop and demonstrate technologies to use the Moon's resources to produce water, fuel, and other supplies.
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Lunar Gravity Simulation and its Effect on Human Performance
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Artificial Gravity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Artificial gravity (AG) is a countermeasure to mitigate gravity effects in astronauts, achieved by generating forces through rotation, like in a rotating space ...
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Now calling passengers for the Moon and Mars - ESA
Aug 13, 2010 · The purpose of flying parabolas with lunar and martian gravity levels is to conduct gravity-related science at other gravity levels between zero ...
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NASA, Blue Origin Partner to Bring Lunar Gravity Conditions Closer ...
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Current Lunar dust mitigation techniques and future directions
Lunar dust has the potential to impede any planned operation on the Lunar surface, especially that of a permanent Moon settlement.
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Lunar Dust Mitigation
The Apollo missions found that lunar dust readily adheres to exposed surfaces, increased friction and wear in EVA suits, and coated thermal radiators and solar ...
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[PDF] Multigenerational Independent Colony for
MICEHAB is unique in that it addresses the combined effects of long duration, partial gravity, and autonomous and robotic operations of systems that feed ...
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[PDF] Do Humans Have Futures in Moon or Mars Gravity? - NASA
Oct 21, 2020 · ➢ This can test the viability of part-time gravity as a countermeasure. ... Developing settlements of any type will require many long R&D tests.
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[PDF] Variable Gravity Laboratory for Deep-Space Crewed Missions ...
This paper describes a Variable Gravity Laboratory (VGL) in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). VGL produces Luna-to-Mars gravity levels by variable-rate centripetal ...
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[PDF] Artificial Gravity in Mars Orbit for Crew Acclimation
Abstract— NASA's current baseline plan for a crewed Mars mission anticipates a transit time of up to three hundred days in microgravity and 3-14 days on the ...
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HI-SEAS
HI-SEAS has been the home to five successful long-duration (4 to 12 month) NASA Mars simulation missions and tens of other analog space missions in ...Missing: partial gravity 2010s 2020s
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Analog Missions - NASA
Parabolic flights simulate space travel by providing short-term weightlessness and partial gravity. In addition to scientific experiments, these flights ...Missing: HI- SEAS 2010s 2020s
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https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20160010342/downloads/20160010342.pdf
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[PDF] Asteroid Origins Satellite (AOSAT) I: An On-orbit Centrifuge Science ...
Jan 6, 2017 · in two distinct modes: 1) a centrifuge producing artificial gravity to simulate surface conditions on asteroids of < 1 km diameter, and 2) ...
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Of flying frogs and levitrons - IOPscience
Diamagnetic objects are repelled by magnetic fields. If the fields are strong enough, this repulsion can balance gravity, and objects levitated in this way can ...
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Is Energy Conserved in General Relativity?
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Oct 4, 2006 · The basic scenario is that near the Planck scale, ground-state gravitons constantly stretch and squash the geometry of space–time causing ...
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(PDF) Mars Artificial Gravity Habitat with Centrifugation (MAGICIAN)
May 20, 2024 · Abstract—Extended exposure to microgravity has detrimental effects on human health. Long-duration missions to the Moon, Mars, ...Missing: intermittent | Show results with:intermittent
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Exercise during artificial gravity preserves cardiorespiratory fitness ...
Exercise during artificial gravity preserves cardiorespiratory fitness but not orthostatic tolerance following 60 days of head-down bed rest (BRACE)
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Counteracting microgravity: preserving cardiovascular health in low ...
Sep 1, 2025 · Research into artificial gravity, including short-radius centrifuges, is ongoing. These devices could provide intermittent gravitational ...
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Zero Gravity Flight 2025 - MIT Media Lab
This year's flight flew on May 14, 2025, with 10 researchers and 9 projects! The projects shown below were tested over many microgravity parabolas (including ...Missing: partial artificial
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Elon Musk Says Starship Will Spin for Artificial Gravity - Futurism
Mar 8, 2024 · SpaceX CEO Elon Musk suggested Starship will spin slowly to create artificial gravity for passengers on their way to Mars.
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SpaceX CEO Elon Musk talks Starship space telescopes, artificial ...
Jul 7, 2021 · Now, Musk says that SpaceX has also considered tethering Starships together in space to create a form of artificial gravity for passengers on ...
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New theory of gravity brings long-sought Theory of Everything a ...
May 5, 2025 · Researchers at Aalto University have developed a new quantum theory of gravity which describes gravity in a way that's compatible with the Standard Model of ...Missing: generators artificial
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SFE: Lensman [series]
### Summary of Artificial Gravity/Gravity Generators in E.E. Smith's Lensman Series
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Gray Lensman, by E. E. Smith, Ph. D. - Project Gutenberg
Also, since cadets must learn to be able to do without artificial gravity, pseudo-inertia, and those other refinements which make space liners so ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Gravity - SFE - SF Encyclopedia
Oct 7, 2019 · Gravity control also suggests the possibility of locally increasing gravity. This yields a Weapon in E E "Doc" Smith's First Lensman (1950) ...
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Artificial Gravity - University of Warwick
Aug 13, 2023 · Here we take a look at representations of artificial gravity in science fiction and the science behind them [1]. Thrust gravity. The ...
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'The Expanse' Is A Rare Sci-Fi Show That Gets Simulated Gravity Right
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(PDF) History of Artificial Gravity - ResearchGate
Jun 10, 2016 · 1.2 Science Fiction. The popularization of artificial gravity, however, is attributable to the science fiction community. The large rotating ...
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Artificial gravity's attraction - Aerospace America
Apr 17, 2017 · Some concepts call for astronauts to live and work in a cylindrical or wheel-shaped, revolving spacecraft or portion of their space vehicle.
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Deep Cut: DS9 25th Anniversary Ships - Star Trek
Apr 25, 2018 · One of the only changes Sisko made to the original specs was adding an artificial gravity net under the floor, as weightlessness made him queasy ...
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Jul 1, 2024 · High-mass fields create artificial gravity and push space debris away from vessels. In manufacturing low-mass fields permit the creation of ...
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Artificial gravity breaks free from science fiction - Phys.org
Jul 3, 2019 · Artificial gravity has long been the stuff of science fiction. Picture the wheel-shaped ships from films like 2001: A Space Odyssey and The ...