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Axel jump

The Axel jump is an edge jump in figure skating, named after its inventor, Norwegian skater Axel Paulsen, who first performed it in 1882 during a competition in Vienna.^[1] It is the only basic jump with a forward takeoff from the outside edge of the skater's left skate (for right-handed skaters), requiring an extra half rotation in the air compared to other jumps to land backward on the outside edge of the right skate, making a single Axel equivalent to 1.5 revolutions.^[2]^[1] Executed by building speed on the back outside edge before shifting forward and launching with arms and free leg for rotation, the Axel demands precise timing, height, and control to achieve distance and a clean landing.^[1] It is considered one of the most challenging jumps due to its forward entry and increased rotational demand, often serving as a benchmark of technical skill in competitions.^[2] As a required element in senior and junior singles programs under International Skating Union rules, it is typically attempted as a double (2.5 revolutions) or triple (3.5 revolutions).^[2] The Axel's history includes its debut as the "Axel Paulsen jump" before being shortened, with the first triple landed by Canadian skater Vern Taylor in 1978.^[2] Japanese skater Midori Ito became the first woman to complete a triple Axel in competition at the 1988 NHK Trophy, repeating it to win gold at the 1989 World Championships and earn silver at the 1992 Albertville Olympics.^[2]^[1] Advancements continued with American Ilia Malinin landing the first quadruple Axel (4.5 revolutions) in 2022 at the U.S. International Classic, which he has since repeated in major competitions including the 2024 and 2025 World Championships where he won gold, remaining the only skater to achieve it as of 2025, highlighting the jump's evolution in elite skating.^[1]^[3]^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and characteristics

The Axel jump is an edge jump in figure skating, executed by taking off from the forward outside edge of one skate while facing forward.^[5]^[6] Unlike toe jumps, which initiate from the toe pick of the blade for additional propulsion, edge jumps like the Axel rely solely on the pressure and curve of the blade's edge against the ice to generate lift and momentum.^[5] This forward takeoff distinguishes it as the only such jump among the six recognized types (Axel, Salchow, loop, toe loop, flip, and Lutz), requiring skaters to convert forward speed into rotational energy without the aid of a backward approach or toe assist.^[5]^[6] A defining feature of the Axel is its additional half-rotation compared to other jumps of equivalent multiplicity: a single Axel requires 1.5 revolutions (540 degrees) in the air, a double Axel 2.5 revolutions, and a triple Axel 3.5 revolutions, with the skater landing on the backward outside edge of the opposite foot.^[5]^[6] This extra rotation stems from the forward entry, which necessitates greater height and velocity to complete the turn before landing backward, making the Axel the most demanding of the basic jumps.^[5] In contrast to backward-takeoff edge jumps like the Salchow (from the backward inside edge) or loop (from the backward outside edge), the Axel's forward momentum demands precise timing and power to avoid under-rotation or loss of control.^[5] Named after Norwegian skater Axel Paulsen, who first performed it in 1882, the jump embodies the sport's emphasis on technical precision and athleticism.^[6] Its execution assumes foundational skills in forward skating and basic edges, serving as a pivotal milestone for advancing skaters.^[5]

Role in competitions

In figure skating competitions governed by the International Skating Union (ISU), the Axel jump is a mandatory element in the short program for senior and junior singles skaters, requiring one Axel-type jump as one of three jumping passes.^[7] For women, this is typically a double or triple Axel, while men usually perform a triple Axel to meet scoring expectations, with the solo jump and jump combination completing the required passes without repetition of the Axel or other jumps.^[7] In the free skating segment, the Axel remains essential, often incorporated into combinations or sequences, where it contributes significantly to the technical score under ISU regulations limiting jumps to seven for men and six for women, including at least one Axel.^[8] The Axel features prominently in singles and pairs disciplines but is rarely used in ice dance due to restrictions on jumps exceeding one revolution, except for assisted lifting movements. In pairs short programs, two side-by-side solo jumps of the same type and the same number of revolutions (double or triple) and one double or triple throw jump are required as the jumping elements, while free skates may include throw Axels, adding to the pair's base value and grade of execution (GOE).^[8]^[9] Olympic and ISU events follow these rules, with Axel sequences—linking jumps via steps—allowed in free skates to enhance difficulty without counting as full combinations.^[8] Strategically, the Axel is often positioned as the final or late jump in programs owing to its inherent difficulty, allowing skaters to conserve energy for its execution and maximize GOE through precise control, while in free skates, placement in the second half earns a 10% bonus to the base value.^[8] This positioning impacts the overall base score, as a triple Axel carries a high value (8.0 points for men) compared to other triples, influencing program design for optimal technical merit. Over time, the Axel's role has evolved from a showcase element in early 20th-century exhibitions to a cornerstone of modern routines, where a clean triple Axel serves as a baseline requirement for medal contention in men's singles during the quad-era, as seen in ISU Grand Prix and Olympic events.^[10] In women's competitions, the triple Axel's inclusion has similarly elevated its status, with successful executions distinguishing top performers since the 1980s.^[2]

Historical development

Origins and invention

The Axel jump was invented by Axel Paulsen, a Norwegian skater renowned for his prowess in both speed and figure skating, during the late 19th century when the sport was evolving from primarily speed-oriented competitions toward more artistic expressions involving intricate maneuvers.^[11] Paulsen first performed the jump on January 21, 1882, at a special figures competition in Vienna, Austria, which is recognized as the inaugural international figure skating event.^[12] In this demonstration, he executed a single Axel consisting of 1.5 rotations in the air, launching from a forward outside edge—a departure from the backward takeoffs common in other jumps of the era.^[1] Paulsen's innovation was hailed as revolutionary due to its forward takeoff, which demanded greater precision and aerial control compared to prevailing techniques, thus elevating the technical demands of figure skating.^[1] He showcased the jump across Europe shortly after its creation and later toured the United States in the 1880s, delivering exhibitions that introduced American audiences to this advanced element while also competing in speed skating races.^[13] The jump was initially known as the "Axel Paulsen jump" in honor of its creator, a naming convention that distinguished it from later developments like the Lutz jump, and it was eventually shortened to simply the "Axel."^[1] This attribution underscored Paulsen's lasting influence on the sport, where the Axel remains the only basic jump with a forward takeoff.^[6]

Evolution and milestones

The evolution of the Axel jump progressed steadily in the early 20th century as figure skaters pushed the boundaries of rotation and technical difficulty beyond the single Axel. By the mid-1940s, advancements in training and equipment enabled the transition to double rotations, culminating in American Dick Button landing the first double Axel in competition during his gold medal performance at the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland.^[14] This breakthrough not only secured Button's victory but also set a new standard for jump complexity in men's singles skating.^[15] The mid-20th century saw the introduction of the triple Axel, representing a major leap in athletic demands due to its forward takeoff and 3.5 rotations. Canadian skater Vern Taylor achieved the first ratified triple Axel in competition at the 1978 World Figure Skating Championships in Ottawa, Ontario, though as an amateur event, it marked an early milestone in the jump's adoption.^[16] Brian Orser became the first to land a triple Axel at the Olympic level during the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. A decade after Taylor's achievement, American Brian Boitano landed two triple Axels in his long program at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada, contributing to his gold medal win in a famously close "Battle of the Brians" against Orser. For women, Japanese skater Midori Ito broke barriers by landing the first triple Axel by a female in international competition at the 1988 NHK Trophy, later replicating it at the same Olympics to become the first woman to execute seven triple jumps in an Olympic free skate.^[17] The quadruple era for the Axel jump emerged in the 21st century, driven by enhanced training methods and younger athletes' physical capabilities. The first successful quadruple Axel in competition was landed by American Ilia Malinin at the 2022 U.S. International Figure Skating Classic in Lake Placid, New York, where the 17-year-old completed the 4.5-rotation jump cleanly.^[18] Malinin ratified the feat again at the senior Grand Prix level during the 2022 Skate America, earning a historic score and gold medal while highlighting the jump's extreme difficulty, valued at 12.50 base points under ISU rules.^[19] In women's skating, Russian Alexandra Trusova pioneered aggressive quad attempts in 2022, incorporating multiple quadruple jumps—including efforts toward higher-difficulty elements like the Axel—into her Olympic free skate, though no woman has yet ratified a quadruple Axel. Malinin has since repeated the quadruple Axel in subsequent competitions, including at the 2024 and 2025 World Championships, while no female skater has yet ratified the element as of 2025.^[20]^[21] Technological aids significantly influenced triple Axel progress in the 1980s and 1990s, with harness systems allowing skaters to simulate air time and rotations without full impact risks, accelerating mastery of the jump's timing and body position.^[22] Pioneers like East Germany's Katarina Witt utilized early harness training around the mid-1980s to attempt triples, contributing to broader adoption that helped integrate the element into competitive programs by the 1990s.^[23]

Technical execution

Takeoff mechanics

The takeoff of the Axel jump is unique among figure skating jumps due to its forward entry, requiring skaters to generate propulsion from a forward outside edge while initiating the extra half-rotation that distinguishes it from other jumps. For counterclockwise rotators, the approach typically begins with a step from the right back outside edge to the left forward outside edge, forming a curved path that builds momentum through consistent gliding. During this glide phase, horizontal velocity remains relatively constant, often around 4.8 m/s for single Axels, with over 50% of the required angular momentum generated through arm and free leg positioning.^[24]^[25] Body positioning during the preparatory phase emphasizes extension for momentum conservation: the arms and free leg (right leg for counterclockwise skaters) are held backward and low, while the trunk remains upright to minimize drag, and the support leg (left) achieves a deep knee bend (joint angle of approximately 120-140 degrees)—to store elastic energy for explosive power. This knee flexion, combined with ankle dorsiflexion, positions the body over the skate for optimal force application. In the subsequent transition phase, vertical velocity increases via tangential extension of the support leg and blade angling, with the rocker edge of the forward outside providing initial lift through subtle skidding and counter-leaning. Hip internal rotation supplies the torque needed to reorient the body backward, reducing the support leg angle to near-parallel with the ice.^[26]^[25]^[24] The final pivot phase sees the skater rock forward onto the toe picks, compressing the blade against the ice to launch upward, though this often incurs a loss of horizontal speed (down to about 2.9 m/s for triples) and minor angular momentum due to friction. Ankle flexion deepens here, particularly for multi-revolution Axels, to maximize blade stress and vertical takeoff velocity, which reaches approximately 3.2-3.7 m/s depending on the jump's difficulty. Common errors include shallow edge depth on the forward outside, resulting in flat propulsion and insufficient vertical lift, or excessive knee collapse inward, which disrupts alignment and reduces torque from hip rotation. These faults frequently lead to under-rotation (UR) penalties, as inadequate initial height and speed limit airborne time for completing rotations, with studies showing higher energy dissipation in less skilled performers.^[24]^[25]^[26]

Rotation and flight

Once airborne, the rotation phase of the Axel jump begins immediately after takeoff, where the skater initiates faster spinning by pulling the arms and legs tightly toward the body's central axis, leveraging the conservation of angular momentum to increase rotational speed.^[27] This pull-in action is crucial for achieving the required revolutions—1.5 for a single, 2.5 for a double, 3.5 for a triple, and 4.5 for a quadruple—within the limited flight duration. For quadruple Axels, elite skaters achieve rotational speeds of approximately 5.5-6.0 revolutions per second during this phase, though variations exist based on individual technique and jump height.^[28] Maintaining body tightness is essential throughout the flight to minimize air resistance and sustain high rotational velocity, with core muscles engaged to keep the trunk upright and limbs compact.^[29] The skater's head plays a key role in orientation, often spotting a fixed point on the ice during initial rotation to aid balance before aligning with the body's spin for controlled descent. This tight, streamlined position—resembling a cannonball tuck for multiple revolutions—reduces the moment of inertia, allowing efficient completion of rotations without excessive energy loss.^[30] The entire flight phase lasts about 0.6 seconds for a triple Axel, demanding precise timing to accommodate the extra half-rotation inherent to the jump's forward takeoff.^[31] In single Axels, skaters may adopt a more upright or slightly extended aerial position for aesthetic flow, whereas multiples require the compact tuck to maximize spin efficiency within the brief airborne time.^[26] Under International Skating Union rules, full rotation must be evident in this phase to avoid under-rotation deductions, emphasizing the need for controlled body alignment.

Landing technique

The landing phase of the Axel jump commences as the skater approaches the ice, with the body position opening to decelerate rotation and align for touchdown. This adjustment typically occurs in the final 0.1–0.2 seconds of flight, allowing the skater to transition from a compact rotational posture to an extended one for stability.^[32] Upon contact, the skater touches down on the backward outside edge of the foot opposite the takeoff leg, ensuring precise edge control to avoid scratches or two-footed landings. The free leg is extended forward initially to maintain balance, then swung back to facilitate the rotational check.^[33]^[26] Arms are positioned at the sides to halt further spin, while the torso remains upright with minimal trunk inclination—ideally less than 10 degrees in skilled performers—to optimize impact absorption. Landing forces can reach 5–8 times the skater's body weight over 50–125 milliseconds, requiring eccentric muscle activation in the lower limbs to dissipate kinetic energy and prevent injury.^[26]^[34] Following touchdown, the skater executes an immediate edge transition and flow out, lifting the free thigh to maintain momentum and integrate seamlessly into the program's choreography, thereby reducing fall risk from over- or under-rotation.^[26]

Variations and difficulty

Single and double Axels

The single Axel jump involves 1.5 rotations in the air, taking off from a forward outside edge and landing on the opposite foot's back outside edge, making it the only basic jump with a forward takeoff among single jumps.^[24] It typically requires an entry speed of approximately 5.42 m/s (about 12 mph) and achieves a jump height of 0.5-0.7 meters, providing sufficient airtime for the extra half-rotation compared to other single jumps like the toe loop or Salchow.^[24] Common among beginners, the single Axel serves as an foundational element in introductory programs, helping skaters develop timing, edge control, and basic rotational awareness before progressing to multi-revolution jumps.^[35] Under the International Skating Union (ISU) scale of values effective July 1, 2025, it carries a base value of 1.10 points for both men and women in single skating.^[36] The double Axel builds on the single by adding an extra full rotation, totaling 2.5 revolutions, and demands greater precision in generating angular momentum during takeoff.^[24] It requires a slightly slower but more controlled entry speed of around 5.23 m/s (about 11.7 mph) and reaches heights of approximately 0.8 meters to accommodate the increased rotation without under-rotating on landing.^[24] American skater Dick Button first landed the double Axel in competition at the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, revolutionizing jump technique by demonstrating the feasibility of multi-rotation Axels from a forward approach.^[15] In the current ISU scale, the double Axel has a base value of 3.30 points, reflecting its elevated difficulty.^[36] Technique for the single Axel emphasizes a less aggressive pull-in of the arms and legs to maintain balance during the shorter flight, focusing instead on a strong outside edge and knee bend for lift.^[35] In contrast, the double Axel requires adaptations such as a more vertical takeoff angle and tighter body position in the air to accelerate rotation, often introduced through progressive drills like waltz jumps into back spins to build multi-rotation familiarity.^[24] These jumps pose challenges like maintaining forward momentum without two-footing the landing or losing edge control, particularly for the double where insufficient height can lead to under-rotation calls.^[37] In competitions, the single Axel appears frequently in junior and novice programs as a reliable solo or combination element, aiding skaters in accumulating points while honing fundamentals. The double Axel, however, serves as a baseline requirement for senior ladies' short programs, where it must be executed cleanly to meet ISU technical standards, often distinguishing competitive performances in international events.^[38]

Triple and quadruple Axels

The triple Axel demands 3.5 rotations in the air, making it the most difficult triple jump due to the extra half-turn compared to other triples. Canadian skater Vern Taylor first landed it in competition at the 1978 World Figure Skating Championships.^[39] For women, Japan's Midori Ito achieved the feat first in 1988 at the NHK Trophy and later at the Winter Olympics.^[1] World-class skaters achieve takeoff speeds of approximately 7 m/s (~16 mph), reaching heights of about 0.62 m for air time of roughly 0.7 seconds.^[40] Under the International Skating Union (ISU) scale of values effective July 1, 2025, it carries a base value of 8.0 points, reflecting its technical complexity.^[36] The quadruple Axel escalates the challenge with 4.5 rotations, requiring takeoff speeds of about 7.3 m/s (~16 mph) and heights around 0.84 m for air time of approximately 0.9 seconds.^[40] American skater Ilia Malinin became the first to ratify it in competition at the 2022 U.S. International Figure Skating Classic, earning full credit from judges. Malinin has since repeated the quadruple Axel in multiple competitions, including the 2023 Grand Prix Final and 2024 World Championships.^[18] As of November 2025, Malinin remains the only skater to have landed it cleanly in official scored events.^[41] Its ISU base value stands at 12.50 points, the highest among jumps, underscoring its rarity and risk.^[36] Achieving these jumps involves advanced technique escalations beyond lower Axels, such as an extreme arm pull during flight to maximize rotational speed while minimizing pre-rotation at takeoff to ensure full revolutions.^[42] Off-ice plyometrics, focusing on explosive lower-body power through jumps and bounds, form an essential part of preparation to build the vertical leap and torque needed.^[43] Gender disparities are pronounced: the triple Axel is a routine element for elite men, integral to competitive programs, whereas it remains emerging for women, with fewer than 30 having ratified it worldwide by 2025. No woman has yet landed a quadruple Axel, though a few like Russia's Kamila Valieva have attempted quadruple jumps—such as her under-rotated efforts in 2022—pushing boundaries in other types while highlighting physiological and technical hurdles.^[44]

Biomechanics and training

Physical principles

The Axel jump relies on the conservation of angular momentum, a fundamental principle governed by the equation L = I \omega, where L is the angular momentum, I is the moment of inertia, and \omega is the angular velocity. During the flight phase, skaters generate angular momentum primarily at takeoff through torque applied against the ice, and this quantity remains constant in the absence of external torques. To achieve the required rotations—1.5 for a single Axel, 2.5 for a double, and so on—skaters reduce their moment of inertia by pulling their limbs tightly toward the body's axis, which increases angular velocity proportionally. For instance, in triple Axels, rotational speeds exceed 5 revolutions per second, necessitating this tight positioning to complete the extra half-rotation inherent to the jump.^[45]^[46] The forward takeoff distinguishes the Axel from other jumps, converting initial linear momentum into rotational motion while adding an extra half-turn due to the skater's forward-facing departure from the ice. As the skater approaches backward but steps forward onto the takeoff edge, the forward velocity vector imparts an initial tangential component that contributes approximately 180° of additional rotation relative to backward-takeoff jumps, ensuring the skater lands backward after the specified revolutions. This dynamic requires precise timing to align the body's angular momentum with the flight path, as any misalignment reduces rotational efficiency. Quantitative analyses show that takeoff angular momentum in Axels is notably higher than in comparable jumps, with values increasing from singles to triples to sustain the extended rotation in air.^[45]^[47] During rotation, skaters experience centrifugal forces that challenge their control, described by F = m \omega^2 r, where m is mass, \omega is angular velocity, and r is the radius from the rotation axis. In quadruple attempts, these forces on the arms can reach about 180 pounds for a typical skater, pulling limbs outward and requiring immense core strength to maintain a compact position. Upon landing, the impact forces on the knees and hips peak at 5-12 times body weight, equivalent to 5-12 g, absorbed primarily through knee flexion to dissipate energy over a longer time frame and minimize injury risk.^[48]^[45] Energy dynamics in the Axel begin with kinetic energy from the approach speed, given by KE = \frac{1}{2} m v^2, which must be partially converted to vertical lift and rotational energy at takeoff to achieve sufficient air time—typically around 0.6 meters height for triples. This initial energy sustains the flight, with air resistance playing a minimal role due to the skater's streamlined, tight body position, which reduces drag coefficients significantly compared to extended postures. Studies indicate kinetic energy dissipation during phases of the jump, with initial values around 2-3 N·m·kg⁻¹ for skilled performers, gradually decreasing through flight and landing.^[26]^[48]^[45]

Common challenges and preparation

Training the Axel jump follows a structured progression to build foundational skills before advancing to on-ice execution. Skaters typically begin with the waltz jump, a half-rotation forward outside edge takeoff that serves as a precursor to the single Axel by developing initial forward momentum and edge control.^[35] Off-ice exercises, such as jumps using an electric spinner or stationary harness systems, help isolate rotation mechanics without the risk of falls, allowing skaters to focus on body alignment and air positioning.^[35] Harness drills on ice further enhance rotational speed and stability, progressing from assisted single rotations to unassisted attempts as confidence builds. Common errors in Axel jumps often stem from takeoff and landing phases, leading to reduced rotation or instability. Pre-rotation, characterized by excessive forward lean or shoulder drop during the approach, causes the skater to initiate rotation too early on the ice, resulting in under-rotation and potential falls.^[49] Two-foot landings frequently occur when skaters fail to commit fully to the outside edge, distributing weight unevenly and compromising the jump's validity under judging criteria. Loss of edge quality, such as curling the back outside edge prematurely or extending the entrance too long, can lead to downgrades by technical panels for insufficient edge depth.^[49]^[50] The high rotational and impact forces in Axel jumps, particularly triples and quads, place significant stress on the lower body, increasing risks of overuse injuries. Jumper's knee (patellar tendinopathy) and stress fractures affect up to 46% of elite male skaters and 43% of females due to repetitive quad-dominant loading on knees and lower back.^[51] Low back pain, reported in 13% of singles skaters, often arises from lumbar strains exacerbated by the jump's torque and landing impact.^[52] Acute knee injuries like ACL tears are relatively uncommon in figure skating compared to other sports but can occur from awkward landings during triple attempts, with prevalence higher in elite competitors pushing rotational limits.^[53] Preparation for Axel jumps emphasizes targeted strategies to mitigate errors and injuries while enhancing performance. Strength training routines incorporate single-leg squats to build quad and glute power for takeoff explosiveness, alongside core exercises like soccer ball squats to improve rotational control and stability.^[54]^[55] Mental visualization techniques, where skaters mentally rehearse the jump sequence including edge pressure and arm pull, help reinforce neural pathways and reduce anxiety before attempts.^[56] Coaches provide spotting assistance during edge drills to ensure proper outside edge maintenance, correcting deviations in real-time to prevent habitual flaws. Mastering a clean triple Axel typically requires 2-5 years of consistent training for dedicated elite skaters, depending on starting age and prior jump proficiency.^[57]^[58]

Notable performances

Record-breaking jumps

In figure skating, the quadruple Axel represents the pinnacle of difficulty among Axel jumps, requiring 4.5 rotations in the air. Ilia Malinin became the first skater to land it in international competition at the 2022 U.S. International Figure Skating Classic, where the element received a base value of 12.30 points plus a Grade of Execution (GOE) of +1 for a total of 13.50 points.^[59] He repeated the feat later that season at Skate America 2022, incorporating it into a free skate that earned 194.29 points and secured the gold medal.^[60] At the 2024 World Championships, Malinin performed the quadruple Axel alongside a triple Lutz-triple Axel sequence in his free skate, achieving six quadruple jumps overall en route to his first world title with a total score of 333.76 points.^[61] In 2025, Malinin defended his title at the World Championships, landing six quadruple jumps including the quadruple Axel to win gold with a record-breaking performance.^[21] Triple Axels have also produced notable scoring records, with high GOE values significantly boosting element totals. For instance, a triple Axel with +3 GOE adds approximately 2.40 points to its base value of 8.00, resulting in around 10.40 points for the jump alone under the International Skating Union (ISU) scale. Yuzuru Hanyu's triple Axel at the 2020 Four Continents Championships earned high GOE, contributing significantly to his world record short program score.^[62] Malinin's programs often feature multiple Axels, including one quadruple and up to three triples across short and free skates, as demonstrated at the 2024 Worlds where his jumps helped set a free skate world record of 227.79 points.^[63] In terms of air time, Shoma Uno's triple Axel is renowned for its height and distance, which contributed to his world championship victory in 2022. The first woman to land a triple Axel in competition was Midori Ito at age 18, accomplishing the feat for the first time at the 1988 NHK Trophy.^[64] Pairs skaters have pushed Axel boundaries with throw variations; Rena Inoue and John Baldwin became the first to execute a throw triple Axel at the 2006 U.S. Championships, earning them a historic Olympic berth and revolutionizing pairs elements.^[65] In ice dance, however, ISU rules restrict jumps to no more than one revolution, prohibiting triple or quadruple Axels entirely. As of November 2025, no additional quadruple Axels have been ratified beyond Malinin's achievements, with attempts by skaters like Adam Siao Him Fa focusing on other quadruple jumps such as the flip and toe loop during events like the Grand Prix de France.^[66]

Iconic skaters and examples

Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen first demonstrated the Axel jump in 1882 at the Vienna Ice Skating Club, performing a jump with one-and-a-half rotations from a forward outside edge, which was later named after him and became the foundation for more complex variations in the sport.^[1]^[67] American skater Dick Button revolutionized jumping technique by landing the first double Axel in competition during his free skate at the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, where he secured the gold medal and elevated the technical demands of men's figure skating.^[68]^[69] In the triple Axel era, Brian Boitano showcased mastery by executing two triple Axels among eight triple jumps in his free program at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, clinching the gold medal in a narrow victory over rival Brian Orser and setting a new standard for precision under pressure.^[70]^[71] Midori Ito broke barriers as the first woman to land a triple Axel in international competition at the 1988 NHK Trophy, a feat she repeated at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville after two earlier falls in the event, embodying perseverance that inspired global audiences and highlighted the emotional stakes of technical innovation in women's skating.^[64]^[72] The pursuit of the quadruple Axel marked a new frontier, with Ilia Malinin achieving the first fully rotated quad Axel in competition at the 2022 U.S. International Figure Skating Classic, a 4.5-rotation jump that went viral for its technical audacity and propelled him to dominance in men's events.^[18]^[73] Yuzuru Hanyu pushed boundaries by attempting the quad Axel in his free skate at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, under-rotating the jump but demonstrating unwavering commitment to advancing the sport's limits despite the high risk.^[74]^[75] In women's skating, Alexandra Trusova emerged as a key figure in the "quad squad" by incorporating multiple quadruple jumps into her programs, including a triple Axel attempt in the short program at the 2022 Winter Olympics where she fell but still contributed to Russia's team dominance through her aggressive technical approach.^[76]^[20] Anna Shcherbakova demonstrated consistency in triple jumps, landing clean triples including Axel combinations in major competitions like the 2021 World Championships, where her reliable execution helped secure the gold medal and underscored the evolution of technical reliability in the post-quad era.^[77] The Axel jump's cultural resonance extends beyond the rink, parodied in the 2007 film Blades of Glory through exaggerated depictions of high-stakes jumps that satirize the sport's intensity and rivalries, while Ito's story of triumph after repeated falls has become an enduring narrative of resilience in Olympic lore.^[78]^[79]

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The triple Axel: elegant and brutal - Galaxus
Mar 21, 2018 · "But it's almost impossible to say how long it takes for an athlete to master the triple Axel after she has started harness training," explains ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[20]
Biomechanics of the Axel Paulsen Figure Skating Jump
Aug 10, 2025 · It can be assumed that decreasing the ankle joint angle in the pre-take-off phase was most essential in achieving rotations in the Axel jump.
[21]
Takeoff Characteristics of Single and Double Axel Figure Skating ...
Takeoff Characteristics of Single and Double Axel Figure Skating Jumps. in Journal of Applied Biomechanics ... axel jump in figure skating" Journal of Sports ...
[22]
[PDF] The Biomechical Analysis of the Kinetics and Kinematics for Three ...
The problem of this investigation was to describe the kinetics and kinematics of three figure skating jumps: axel, double toe loop, and double loop.
[23]
SPORTS MEDICINE: How'd You Do That Triple Lutz? – Part 2
Skaters control the speed of rotation in the air by adjusting their body positions (moment of inertia). The arms and legs are quickly and tightly pulled into ...
[24]
SPORTS MEDICINE: How'd You Do That Quadruple Toe? – Part 1
Lean at take-off: As the skaters rotated, they went from leaning forward to backward to forward, etc. (Figure 5). At toe pick, their bodies were leaning forward ...
[25]
Mechanics of Jumping
### Summary of Axel Jump Mechanics
[26]
Head Position and Movement on Jump Take-Offs (Jeremy Allen) |
If a skater cannot master head anchoring via “spotting forward” (and some skaters simply can't), Jeremy says the next best option is to allow the head to turn ...
[27]
Lower limb biomechanical differences between jumps with ... - NIH
Axel Jump is the most difficult jump with an extra half turn in the flight time compared to the other jumps due to forward jump take-off, and backwards landing, ...
[28]
biomechanics of figure skating jump double axel performed in on ice ...
... ice. Nevertheless, considering other joint angles the landing technique of movement is. much different in off-ice Axel than in 2A on the ice. 5. CONCLUSIONS.
[29]
[PDF] GLOSSARY OF FIGURE SKATING TERMS
A hand-to ...
[30]
[PDF] BIOMECHANICS OF FIGURE SKATING JUMP DOUBLE AXEL ...
The introduction phase is being made by skipping sideways directly to pre take- off position, after take- off there is 2,5 rotation in the air and landing ...
[31]
How To Do An Axel – Figure Skating Axel Jump | - iCoachSkating
The axel takes off from a forward outside edge, rotates in the direction of the take-off edge, and lands on the opposite foot on a back outside edge.
[32]
None
### Base Values for Single Axel and Double Axel Jumps in Single Skating
[33]
Mastering the Double Axel - VSA Blog
Apr 18, 2025 · This article explores the biomechanics and physics behind the double Axel, offers practical tips for mastery, and introduces the Victory Sports Academy (VSA) ...<|separator|>
[34]
The double Axel: is it the make or break point? - Golden Skate
Jul 7, 2008 · The double axel is a make-or-break point for some tests and required for certain programs, but not for all, and some can succeed without it.
[35]
Just How Hard Is It to Execute a Triple Axel in Figure Skating?
Feb 12, 2018 · In a single axel, the skater builds momentum leading to the jump, takes off from one skate's forward outside edge, turns 1.5 times in the air, ...Missing: m/ | Show results with:m/
[36]
(PDF) Kinematic considerations for achieving the quadruple axel jump
Feb 14, 2025 · ... A Kinematic Comparison of Single, Double, and Triple Axels. Article. Feb 1994. Deborah L. King · Allison S. Arnold · Sarah L. Smith. To be ...
[37]
What percentage of skaters do triple jumps? - Golden Skate
Feb 27, 2017 · Probably 60% of skaters land the single axel. ... Probably 2%-5% land double axels and a few easier triple jumps, like triple salchow and triple ...The Men and the Triple Axel | Golden SkateRelative difficulty of types of jumps: triples versus quads | Page 6More results from www.goldenskate.com
[38]
Malinin Captures Third U.S. Title in Spectacular Fashion
Jan 26, 2025 · Ilia Malinin won his third consecutive US title after becoming the first skater to attempt seven quads in one program at the US Championships.Missing: ratified speed height ISU base<|separator|>
[39]
Ilia Malinin and figure skating's quad axel, explained - USA Today
Mar 29, 2025 · Malinin first landed the quad axel in competition at the U.S. International Figure Skating Classic in Lake Placid, New York in September 2022.
[40]
In Search of the Quad Axel - Ice Skating International Online
Jan 6, 2020 · Maximum in-flight rotation efficiency of 80% for Axel; Maximum time in the air 0.80 seconds. For our stated assumptions, an idealized quad ...
[41]
Neuromuscular Responses of Elite Skaters During Different Roller ...
This study aimed to describe the neuromuscular activity of elite athletes who performed various roller figure skating jumps.
[42]
2022 Olympics: Russia's Kamila Valieva struggles in free skate, fails ...
Feb 19, 2022 · Valieva, who was leading going into the long program, stumbled out of her triple axel and fell on two of her three quad jump attempts to finish ...
[43]
How Olympic Figure Skaters Break Records with Physics
Feb 14, 2022 · The quadruple Axel is generally considered the most challenging jump because it requires a forward takeoff and four and a half rotations in the ...
[44]
A Biomechanical Comparison Of Single, Double, and Triple Axels
If figure skating coaches can learn what these skaters do differently when executing a triple axel ... time in the air. The study also shows that skaters ...Missing: flight | Show results with:flight
[45]
Comparisons of angular momentum at takeoff in six types of jumps ...
Aug 29, 2025 · In the axel, a large angular momentum of the entire body is generated at takeoff, and then the upper and lower limbs are drawn toward the trunk ...
[46]
The Science of Figure Skating: Jumps - ACSM
Feb 12, 2018 · How do skaters jump over 24 inches in the air, rotate faster than six revolutions per second, and land on one foot while balancing on a 3/16- ...Missing: approach | Show results with:approach
[47]
skate tips/free: axel take-off
Curling the outside back edge before the jump (pulls the jump around); Dropping the skating shoulder (tips one into the jump); Making the entrance edge too long ...Missing: errors pre-
[48]
[PDF] Technical Panel Handbook - U.S. Figure Skating
Jul 24, 2024 · No Axel type jump in. Free Skating. If there is no Axel type jump attempted in the Free Skating, the jumps in the last jump element box will ...
[49]
Lower Extremity Overuse Conditions Affecting Figure Skaters During ...
Jul 28, 2015 · They found that 43% of the female skaters and 46% of the male skaters reported overuse syndromes, with stress fractures, jumper's knee, and shin ...Missing: ACL | Show results with:ACL
[50]
Epidemiology of Figure Skating Injuries: A Review of the Literature
Generalized low back pain has been reported to be as high as 13% in singles and pairs skaters. The etiology of back injuries in figure skating may be due in ...Missing: ACL | Show results with:ACL
[51]
Olympic Figure Skating: The Most Common Injuries Behind the ...
Unlike other sports, acute injuries such as ACL and Meniscus injuries are actually rather uncommon in figure skating.Missing: elite statistics
[52]
Strength training vital for optimal performance
Using a band around the ankles, practice the Axel takeoff and landing positions while maintaining the knee over the foot. Two-foot hop to one-foot land. Hop off ...
[53]
Off Ice Figure Skating Training – Part 3 (Kori Ade) | - iCoachSkating
The first exercise in this video is squats on a soccer ball to develop core strength and stability. This is a very challenging exercise. Kori notes that ...
[54]
How to Mentally Prepare Skaters for Optimal Performance
Oct 4, 2021 · Visualization is one of the most effective strategies for helping skaters to mentally prepare for a successful outcome.Missing: strength squats spotting master triple
[55]
Axel Edge Pressure – Part 1 (Nick Perna) | - iCoachSkating
The take-off edge on the axel jump is probably one of the most misunderstood aspects of figure skating. Nick explains that many skaters tend to lunge forward ...
[56]
How long did it take you to learn Axel? - Golden Skate
Jun 10, 2018 · The exercise itself is a super common one, but most coaches with have the axel attempt proper starting once the waltz jump/backspin about 50%.
[57]
Why Ilia Malinin landing a quadruple axel is a big deal for figure ...
Aug 7, 2024 · Malinin, who is just 17 years old, landed the first-ever quad axel in skating history last month at the US Classic in Lake Placid, a lower-level international ...
[58]
Ilia Malinin's Quad Axel Earns Gold at Skate America, Knierim and ...
Oct 23, 2022 · Alexa Knierim and Brandon Frazier became the first U.S. pair to win Skate America since 2006, outside their victory at the domestic-only ...
[59]
Ilia Malinin wins first world figure skating title with historic six ...
Mar 23, 2024 · The 19-year-old American performed a quadruple Axel, quad Lutz, quad loop, quad Salchow, another quad Lutz (in combination with a triple flip), ...
[60]
Hanyu wins Four Continents short program with new world record ...
Feb 7, 2020 · It was an ethereal performance; the jumps looked effortless as he received 111.82 points from the judges, breaking his own record of 110.53 set ...
[61]
Ilia Malinin, with unmatchable form, repeats as figure skating world ...
Mar 30, 2025 · He set the world record with a 227.79 score in the free skate at the 2024 world championships. He landed six quadruple jumps and ended with a ...
[62]
shoma uno jumping technique inquiry : r/FigureSkating - Reddit
Jan 21, 2022 · His triple axel is literally the fastest and covers the longest distance in figure skating. ... You can see he's diagonal in the air a lot of the ...
[63]
Midori ITO - Olympics.com
Her skating was characterized by powerful jumps, and in 1988 she became the first woman to land a triple Axel in competition. First appearing in the Japanese ...
[64]
Pair pulls off historic throw - The Spokesman-Review
Jan 14, 2006 · ST. LOUIS – Rena Inoue and John Baldwin parlayed a history-making throw into an Olympic invitation last night during the U.S. Figure Skating ...
[65]
Grand Prix de France 2025: Ilia Malinin roars to men's title with ...
Oct 19, 2025 · Interpreting Leonardo Da Vinci's "The Creation of Adam" in his free skate, Siao Him Fa packed in five quad jumps to start the program and fed of ...
[66]
Axel Paulsen | Norwegian figure skater and speed skater - Britannica
Paulsen, a Norwegian equally expert in figure and speed skating, introduced his jump in Vienna in 1882 at what is generally regarded as the first international ...
[67]
Richard BUTTON - Olympics.com
18-year-old Richard "Dick" Button successfully completed a double Axel for the first time. Despite its newness, he attempted the move in competition anyway.
[68]
Men's Figure Skating at St. Moritz 1948 - Olympics.com
Nov 11, 2022 · At the 1948 Olympic Winter Games in St. Moritz, American Richard “Dick” Button landed the double axel jump in his free skate programme.
[69]
The Battle of the Brians - Olympic News
Jan 22, 2010 · Boitano skated confidently, sure of his strength and his free programme. He mastered his performance, and achieved eight faultless triple jumps, ...<|separator|>
[70]
The Battle of the Brians: A Retrospective | U.S. Figure Skating
Sep 16, 2021 · It was very surreal.” Brian Boitano poses with Olympic gold medal at the 1988 Games. When Orser took to the ice for his turn, Boitano ...
[71]
OLYMPICS; In Japan, Ito Is Proclaimed the Golden Girl
Feb 26, 1992 · She was asked how she felt, after falling twice on the jump, at being able to do her triple axel finally. ... Some shows turned themselves over to ...
[72]
Ilia Malinin Rewrites the History Books with Quad Axel to Take Gold
Sep 15, 2022 · History was made on the second day of the 2022 U.S. International Figure Skating Classic as Ilia Malinin landed the first quad Axel in ...<|separator|>
[73]
Japan's Hanyu Yuzuru attempts quadruple Axel in men's free skate
Feb 9, 2022 · Hanyu Yuzuru's quadruple Axel challenge comes up short - but walks away a winner. The two-time Olympic gold medallist misses out on making history.
[74]
Hanyu Yuzuru missed out on history at Beijing 2022, but remains ...
Feb 19, 2022 · Hanyu fell attempting the quad Axel which has never been successfully completed in competition. He subsequently finished the competition in ...
[75]
Alexandra TRUSOVA - Olympics.com
She was the first female to land each of the quad Lutz, flip and toe jumps in competition, and was also the first to land two – and then three – quads in a free ...
[76]
Skate America winner Shcherbakova talks triple Axels and costumes
Jun 2, 2024 · EXCLUSIVE: Anna Shcherbakova on triple Axels and costume changes. After ... triple Axel to her... routines soon. She also expressed her delight at the ...Missing: consistency | Show results with:consistency
[77]
Ferrell Carries on with Parody in 'Blades of Glory' - NPR
Mar 30, 2007 · In the new film Blades of Glory, comic actor Will Ferrell plays a boorish figure skater forced to team up with another man in a pairs skating competition.<|separator|>
[78]
Tracing tears and triple axels: Media representations of Japan's ...
Ito's effort to achieve a second triple axel after she had failed the first time. In both of these articles, we can read Ito's triple axel at the Olympics as ...