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Biotelemetry

Biotelemetry is the instrumental technique for gaining and transmitting information from a living organism and its environment to a remote observer, allowing for the remote detection and measurement of biological functions, behaviors, and physiological states without direct physical contact.^[1] This technology encompasses a range of methods, including acoustic, radio, and satellite-based systems, as well as passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags, which collect data on variables such as location, heart rate, temperature, and activity levels.^[2] The development of biotelemetry traces its roots to early 20th-century innovations in wireless communication and sonar, with the first wildlife applications emerging in the 1950s, such as tracking salmon movements and monitoring penguin egg temperatures.^[3] Key advancements, including the invention of the transistor in 1947 and subsequent miniaturization of electronic components, enabled the creation of smaller, more efficient transmitters, expanding its use from large animals to smaller species and even human subjects.^[1] By the late 20th century, biotelemetry had evolved into a critical tool in ecological and biomedical research, with modern systems incorporating microprocessors for enhanced data processing and battery life.^[1] Biotelemetry finds wide application in wildlife conservation and fisheries management, where it tracks animal migration, habitat use, survival rates, and responses to environmental changes, such as in studies of juvenile salmonids in river systems.^[4] In human health and digital medicine, it supports remote patient monitoring through wearable devices like smartwatches and patches for detecting arrhythmias or glucose levels, as well as implantable and ingestible sensors for chronic disease management and clinical trials.^[5] These applications promote personalized medicine, reduce the need for invasive procedures, and facilitate real-time data analysis for improved outcomes in both ecological and clinical contexts.^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Biotelemetry is the remote measurement and transmission of physiological, behavioral, or energetic data from living organisms using wireless technologies such as transmitters and receivers. This approach enables the collection of biological signals, including heart rate, body temperature, location, and activity patterns, without constant physical contact, allowing for real-time or near-real-time monitoring in natural or clinical environments. Unlike general telemetry, which applies to non-biological systems like vehicle or spacecraft tracking, biotelemetry specifically targets data from living subjects to study their interactions with the environment or health status.00112-0)^[6] The scope of biotelemetry encompasses applications across animals and humans, spanning wildlife ecology to medical diagnostics, while distinguishing between invasive methods—such as implanted devices for internal physiological monitoring—and non-invasive ones, like external tags or wearables for surface-level data collection. In animal studies, it facilitates tracking migration patterns, for example, through radio tags on species like wildebeest to map spatial movements and behaviors over vast distances. In human medicine, it supports remote health assessment, such as continuous heart rate monitoring via wearable smartwatches or implantable pacemakers, aiding in disease detection and personalized treatment without restricting patient mobility.^[6]^[7] Biotelemetry's interdisciplinary nature integrates biology with electronics and telecommunications, drawing on sensor design, signal processing, and wireless communication protocols to generate actionable insights into organismal function. This fusion has broadened its utility from ecological research on free-living animals to biomedical applications, emphasizing ethical considerations like minimizing organismal stress through miniaturized, low-power devices.00112-0)^[6]

Basic Principles

Biotelemetry systems capture and transmit biological data through signals derived from living organisms, primarily categorized as bioelectric or biophysical. Bioelectric signals, such as electrocardiograms (ECG) or neural activity, arise directly as electrical potentials from cellular processes in tissues like the heart or brain. Biophysical signals, including temperature, pressure, or motion, are non-electrical phenomena that require transducers to convert them into measurable electrical outputs for telemetry. These signal types form the foundation for remote monitoring, enabling the detection of physiological states without physical contact. The captured signals are processed into either analog or digital formats for transmission. Analog signals represent continuous waveforms, such as real-time ECG traces, preserving the temporal variations of the biological data. In contrast, digital signals consist of discrete data packets generated via analog-to-digital conversion, which quantizes and encodes the information for more robust handling against noise and interference. This distinction allows biotelemetry to adapt to varying data fidelity needs, with analog suited for high-resolution continuous monitoring and digital for efficient, error-corrected packet-based communication. Transmission principles in biotelemetry leverage different propagation media to suit environmental constraints. Electromagnetic waves, typically in the radio frequency (RF) range, facilitate short- to medium-range terrestrial applications by propagating through air or tissue. Acoustic waves are preferred for underwater scenarios, where they travel efficiently over distances up to several hundred meters via coded pulses detected by receiver arrays. Satellite-based systems, exemplified by the Argos platform, enable global coverage; transmitters emit short RF bursts at 401.650 MHz, which satellites in low-Earth orbit capture and relay using Doppler shift for positioning, with messages processed every 90–600 seconds. To encode biological data onto these carriers, modulation techniques such as amplitude modulation (AM), which varies carrier amplitude proportional to the signal, or frequency modulation (FM), which shifts the carrier frequency, are employed to ensure reliable propagation. The achievable transmission range in biotelemetry is governed by fundamental electromagnetic principles, often approximated using the Friis transmission equation adapted for biological contexts:

R \approx \frac{\lambda}{4\pi} \sqrt{\frac{P_t G_t G_r}{L N}}

Here, R denotes the approximate maximum range, P_t the transmitted power, G_t and G_r the antenna gains at transmitter and receiver, \lambda the signal wavelength, L the path loss factor accounting for tissue or environmental attenuation (beyond free-space), and N the minimum detectable noise power at the receiver. This equation highlights trade-offs in power and frequency selection to balance range against biological safety limits, with adaptations for tissue absorption reducing effective range.^[8] Power and bandwidth management are paramount in battery-powered biotelemetry implants to prolong device longevity and minimize tissue heating or energy drain on the subject. Lithium-based batteries, with energy densities up to 300 W·h/kg, support operational lifespans of 5–10 years, but designs prioritize low-duty-cycle transmission to conserve joules—often achieving microwatt-level outputs. Bandwidth is optimized to match signal complexity, using narrow bands for simple biophysical data to reduce power while allocating wider spectra for high-fidelity bioelectric signals, ensuring compliance with regulatory limits on specific absorption rates.

System Components

Sensors and Transmitters

Sensors and transmitters form the core of biotelemetry systems, capturing biological and environmental data from subjects and relaying it wirelessly to remote receivers. Sensors detect specific signals, such as physiological parameters or location data, while transmitters encode and broadcast these signals using radio frequency or acoustic waves. These components must be compact, biocompatible, and energy-efficient to minimize impact on the monitored organism, enabling long-term deployment in diverse applications from wildlife tracking to medical monitoring.^[9]

Sensor Types

Physiological sensors measure internal bodily functions, providing insights into health and activity states. Common examples include electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes that record heart rate in species like alligators and southern elephant seals, and electromyogram (EMG) sensors that detect muscle activity in fish such as rainbow trout. Accelerometers serve as physiological or movement sensors, quantifying body acceleration to infer energy expenditure or behavior in amphibians like cane toads. These sensors often integrate micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) for precision and reduced size.^[9]^[9]^[9] Environmental sensors capture external conditions affecting the subject, such as location and habitat variables. Global Positioning System (GPS) modules track precise locations in terrestrial wildlife, as seen in cost-effective collars for monitoring animal movements via mobile networks. Depth sensors, typically pressure-based, measure dive profiles in aquatic species like seals and sharks, revealing foraging patterns. Other examples include dissolved oxygen sensors for assessing water quality impacts on fish and irradiance sensors for light exposure in migratory sharks. These sensors complement physiological data to contextualize behavioral responses.^[10]^[9]^[9]

Transmitter Designs

Transmitters vary by attachment method to suit different organisms and study durations. Implantable designs, such as subcutaneous tags, are surgically placed for long-term physiological monitoring, like ECG in reptiles, ensuring minimal external interference. External transmitters, often in collars or harnesses, are non-invasive for larger wildlife; VHF radio collars on birds like golden plovers transmit location and activity data over kilometers. Ingestible transmitters, resembling pills, provide temporary internal monitoring; pH-sensing capsules track gastric acidity in penguins and sharks, or esophageal pH in humans via devices like the Bravo capsule. Miniaturization has advanced these designs, with tags under 1 gram enabling tracking of small insects and birds using MEMS and low-power components, reducing metabolic costs to less than 1% of body weight in some cases.^[9]^[9]^[11]

Power Sources

Most biotelemetry transmitters rely on batteries for reliable operation, with lithium-based cells providing longevity of months to years depending on duty cycle and transmission range. For instance, small VHF tags for wildlife use compact lithium batteries to sustain signals for over a year in active animals. Emerging energy harvesting techniques supplement or replace batteries, drawing from body motion, thermal gradients, or electromagnetic fields to enable battery-free or extended-life implants. Piezoelectric harvesters convert heartbeat or diaphragm motion into electricity for powering sensors in mammalian studies, while thermoelectric generators exploit body heat differences for low-power medical devices. These approaches are particularly vital for miniaturization, as they reduce overall device mass and environmental impact.^[7]^[12]

Frequency Bands

Biotelemetry operates across specific frequency bands allocated for low-interference transmission. In wildlife applications, Very High Frequency (VHF) bands from 30 to 300 MHz, particularly 140-170 MHz, are standard for radio transmitters due to their balance of range and penetration through vegetation. For medical implants, Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands like 2.4 GHz support short-range, high-data-rate links in body-worn or implantable devices, as in dual-band antennas for biotelemetry monitoring. Acoustic frequencies are used in aquatic environments for underwater propagation, complementing radio in marine studies. Band selection depends on tissue attenuation, regulatory limits, and application range, ensuring safe and effective data relay.^[6]^[13]^[9]

Receivers and Data Processing

In biotelemetry systems, receivers capture transmitted signals from sensors attached to biological subjects, enabling the tracking of movements, behaviors, and physiological states. Receiver types vary by deployment environment and scale, including ground-based systems that use fixed or mobile antennas to detect radio or acoustic signals for local monitoring, such as VHF radio tracking of terrestrial wildlife or underwater acoustic receivers for aquatic species with detection ranges of 100–2000 meters. Airborne receivers, often mounted on aircraft or drones, facilitate large-scale surveys by scanning broad areas for radio-tagged animals, integrating biotelemetry data to validate detection probabilities influenced by environmental factors like vegetation cover. Satellite-based receivers, such as those in the Argos system, provide global coverage for migration studies by triangulating signals from platform transmitter terminals on animals, suitable for species that surface periodically, like marine mammals. Data processing begins with demodulation to extract the baseband signal from the modulated carrier, commonly using techniques like amplitude shift keying (ASK) or frequency shift keying (FSK) in implanted devices, where non-coherent demodulators are preferred for low-power efficiency. Filtering follows to eliminate noise, such as biological artifacts or environmental interference, employing infinite impulse response (IIR) filters for signals like electrocardiograms (ECGs) to isolate features via derivatives and lowpass operations on inter-beat intervals. Decoding then recovers the original data, for pulse position modulation (PPM) by measuring pulse intervals with digital signal processors (DSPs) achieving 0.2% error rates, or for pulse code modulation (PCM) by inverting Manchester encoding to interpret bit patterns. Software tools, including R packages like VTrack for acoustic telemetry analysis and move for trajectory visualization and home-range estimation, support post-processing tasks such as data cleaning and metric computation from biologging datasets. Telemetry systems handle data storage through real-time transmission, where signals are relayed immediately via satellite or acoustic networks for near-instant access, limited by bandwidth to summarized metrics like location fixes, or archival methods that store high-resolution data onboard tags until physical recovery or pop-up release, enabling detailed environmental recordings from species like seals. Error correction codes enhance reliability in noisy channels, with Reed-Solomon codes applied in satellite transmissions to detect and correct burst errors in encoded packets, ensuring data integrity for animal tracking. A key metric for reliable detection is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), where thresholds exceeding 10–12 dB are required to balance high detection probability and low false alarms in tag signals.

Applications

In Wildlife and Ecology

Biotelemetry plays a pivotal role in wildlife and ecology by enabling the remote monitoring of free-ranging animals, providing insights into their movements, behaviors, and interactions with ecosystems without constant human disturbance. Key applications include tracking migration patterns using satellite tags on birds, which reveal long-distance routes and stopover sites critical for survival. For instance, satellite telemetry has been used to map the annual cycles of migratory birds, identifying gaps in tracking data that inform conservation priorities across North America. Similarly, accelerometers deployed on fish analyze swimming patterns, quantifying activity levels and energy expenditure in aquatic environments. These devices correlate acceleration data with tail beat frequency, offering a proxy for swimming activity in species like tuna. Radio collars equipped with GPS on mammals further support studies of population dynamics, mapping home ranges and social structures in terrestrial habitats. In marine ecosystems, acoustic telemetry facilitates the tracking of elusive species such as sharks through networks of underwater receivers, elucidating residency patterns and habitat preferences. This approach has been instrumental in monitoring shark movements in coastal waters, contributing to assessments of fishery impacts and protected area efficacy. For conservation, biotelemetry monitors endangered species like sea turtles, revealing migration corridors and nesting behaviors that guide protective measures. Satellite tagging of sea turtles has documented their global movements and habitat use, supporting international efforts to reduce bycatch and habitat loss. Such applications extend to population-level insights, where telemetry data on habitat utilization have led to policy changes, including the designation of migration corridors to mitigate barriers from human development. Unique challenges in wildlife biotelemetry arise from the harsh environments animals inhabit, particularly regarding tag retention and device durability. Tags must withstand abrasion, predation, and physiological stresses, with external attachments often showing higher retention rates than implants in some species, though both can affect growth and survival. In long-term studies, battery life is a critical limitation; for large mammals like elephants, GPS collars are designed to operate for several years to capture multi-seasonal behaviors, balancing data collection frequency with power conservation. These constraints necessitate innovative designs, such as duty cycling, to extend deployment durations while minimizing impacts on animal welfare. Overall, biotelemetry's data have transformed ecological understanding, driving evidence-based policies like corridor protections that enhance biodiversity resilience.

In Human Medicine

Biotelemetry in human medicine primarily involves the wireless transmission of physiological data from sensors attached to or implanted in the body to enable real-time monitoring and diagnosis. This technology facilitates cardiac monitoring through devices like the Holter monitor, which records ambulatory electrocardiograms (ECGs) over 24-48 hours to detect arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia.^[14] These recordings allow clinicians to analyze heart rhythm irregularities after the monitoring period, without having restricted patient mobility during use. Remote patient surveillance represents another core application, particularly for managing chronic conditions like diabetes through wearable devices that track glucose levels via continuous glucose monitors (CGMs). These systems transmit blood glucose data wirelessly to healthcare providers, enabling timely interventions to prevent hypo- or hyperglycemia.^[15] Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) incorporate biotelemetry for real-time alerts, automatically detecting and transmitting data on life-threatening arrhythmias to remote monitoring centers, which has been shown to reduce hospitalization rates by facilitating early detection.^[16] During the COVID-19 pandemic, biotelemetry-enabled telemedicine expanded remote vitals monitoring, with wearables capturing heart rate, oxygen saturation, and respiratory data to minimize in-person visits while assessing infection severity.^[17] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved several biotelemetry devices for clinical integration, such as the BioMonitor series by Biotronik, which are implantable cardiac monitors designed for long-term detection of atrial fibrillation through subcutaneous ECG recording and wireless data transmission.^[18] These devices support reduced hospital visits by enabling home-based monitoring, with studies demonstrating improved patient outcomes through proactive arrhythmia management.^[19] In sports medicine, biotelemetry wearables monitor athletes' biometrics, including heart rate and ECG during training, to optimize performance and prevent overexertion-related cardiac events.^[20]

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The development of biotelemetry in the mid-20th century marked a pivotal shift toward remote physiological and behavioral monitoring of living organisms, beginning with rudimentary radio transmission systems for wildlife studies. In the late 1950s, pioneers such as C. D. LeMunyan and colleagues at Pennsylvania State University designed the first miniature radio transmitters specifically for animal tracking, weighing approximately 123 grams and utilizing transistor-based tuned circuit oscillators to broadcast signals over short distances of about 23 meters.^[21] These devices were implanted or attached to small mammals, enabling researchers to study movement patterns in natural environments for the first time without constant physical observation, though their bulk limited use to larger specimens.^[22] Early biotelemetry technologies relied on vacuum tube transmitters before the widespread adoption of transistors in the late 1950s, which reduced size and power needs but still required significant battery capacity. For instance, the 1957 endoradiosonde developed by R. S. Mackay and B. Jacobson at the Karolinska Institute used early transistor circuits to transmit gastrointestinal pressure and temperature data from swallowable capsules, representing one of the first implantable systems for internal human monitoring.^[23] Similarly, in wildlife applications, these transmitters facilitated initial tracking efforts, such as monitoring small mammal behaviors, but were constrained by high power consumption—often draining batteries within hours—and limited signal ranges under 1 kilometer due to low output power and environmental interference. A landmark advancement in human applications came in 1961 with Norman J. Holter's invention of the ambulatory electrocardiogram (ECG) monitor, a wearable device that recorded cardiac activity on magnetic tape for up to 24 hours during daily activities, freeing patients from stationary equipment.^[14] This innovation, developed in collaboration with the Holter Research Foundation, addressed the need for prolonged, non-invasive heart monitoring and laid the groundwork for modern wearable biotelemetry by integrating analog recording with later playback analysis.^[14] Concurrently, the 1960s saw biotelemetry's integration into human space exploration through NASA's Project Mercury, where ECG telemetry was first employed for real-time monitoring of astronauts' vital signs during suborbital and orbital flights starting in 1961. Low-impedance electrodes transmitted heart rate and rhythm data via radio signals to ground stations, enabling flight surgeons to assess physiological responses to weightlessness and g-forces, as demonstrated in missions like Mercury-Atlas 6 (John Glenn, February 1962).^[24] These systems, building on earlier animal tests, highlighted biotelemetry's potential for high-stakes remote diagnostics but underscored persistent challenges, including bulky sensor arrays that restricted astronaut mobility and susceptibility to motion artifacts in dynamic environments.^[24]

Modern Advancements

In the 1980s, biotelemetry advanced significantly with the integration of satellite-based positioning systems, such as the Argos satellite network, which provided precise location data for free-ranging animals over vast oceanic areas. This era marked the routine use of satellite tracking following initial VHF radio applications in the 1970s. A key milestone was the first deployment of a satellite tag on a humpback whale off Newfoundland, Canada, in 1983, enabling researchers to monitor long-distance migrations and habitat use in marine mammals that were previously inaccessible to ground-based tracking.^[25]^[26]^[27] The 1990s brought further refinements through the adoption of digital signal processing (DSP) techniques, which enhanced data fidelity and reduced noise in transmitted signals, allowing for more reliable real-time monitoring of physiological and behavioral parameters. DSP-based receivers, interfaced with analog-to-digital converters, improved the accuracy of biotelemetric data extraction from complex environmental signals. Concurrently, technological shifts occurred from traditional very high frequency (VHF) radio systems to hybrid VHF/ultra-high frequency (UHF) configurations, which combined short-range precision with longer-distance satellite compatibility for versatile tracking applications. The introduction of archival tags, or data-storage devices that log information internally for later retrieval upon tag recovery, revolutionized non-real-time studies by enabling detailed post-hoc analysis of environmental and animal data without continuous transmission requirements; these were developed and deployed widely in the mid-1990s.^[28]^[29] The 2000s witnessed a boom in biologging, with initiatives like the ICARUS (International Cooperation for Animal Research Using Space) project, proposed in 2007 to create a global network for tracking small animals via miniaturized satellite transmitters, fostering collaborative, large-scale migration studies. Miniaturization efforts culminated by 2010 in tags weighing less than 0.5 grams, incorporating advanced batteries and sensors suitable for small vertebrates like juvenile fish and insects, thereby expanding biotelemetry to previously untaggable species. These advancements facilitated expansive ecological research, such as annual tracking of over 1,000 migratory birds in programs monitoring shorebird populations and routes, providing insights into connectivity, survival rates, and environmental responses at population scales.^[30]^[31]^[32]

Current Trends and Challenges

Technological Innovations

Recent advancements in biotelemetry have centered on miniaturized implantable antennas, enabling deeper tissue monitoring with reduced invasiveness. For instance, ultra-miniaturized antennas with volumes as small as 0.7 mm³ have been developed to operate across multiple bands, including the Medical Implant Communication Service (MICS) at 402 MHz and Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands at 2.4 GHz, facilitating reliable wireless communication in biomedical applications.^[33] Flexible radio-frequency (RF) antennas, reviewed in 2024, incorporate biocompatible substrates like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to conform to body tissues, supporting deep-tissue telemetry for continuous vital sign monitoring without significant signal attenuation.^[34] Integration of biotelemetry systems with 5G and emerging 6G networks has enhanced data transmission capabilities, particularly through ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC). These networks provide latencies below 1 ms and data rates exceeding 1 Gbps, allowing real-time telemetry from implantable devices in remote patient monitoring and wildlife tracking scenarios. In healthcare, 6G-enabled biotelemetry supports high-bandwidth streaming of physiological data, such as electrocardiograms, with minimal delay for timely interventions.^[35] Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) have transformed biotelemetry by enabling real-time data analysis and predictive modeling. In wildlife applications, AI-assisted bio-loggers process accelerometer and GPS data on-device to infer behaviors like migration or foraging, reducing data volume for transmission while achieving high accuracy in behavior classification.^[36] These models, trained on large datasets from tracking collars, aid conservation efforts by enabling efficient behavior detection and data management.^[37] Bio-compatible nanomaterials have extended the lifespan of implantable biotelemetry devices by improving tissue integration and reducing inflammatory responses. Nanocomposites incorporating carbon nanotubes enhance mechanical strength and corrosion resistance, allowing devices to function for years without replacement.^[38] For example, nanoparticle-coated electrodes in neural implants minimize biofouling, ensuring stable signal quality for long-term monitoring.^[39] Developments in 2025 have introduced energy-harvesting antennas that power biotelemetry implants using ambient RF sources, eliminating the need for batteries. A flexible wireless power transfer system operating at 1.5 GHz achieves rectifier efficiencies up to 80%, supporting continuous operation in deep-body environments.^[40] These antennas, integrated with flexible substrates, harvest energy from nearby wireless signals, extending device autonomy in applications like cardiac monitoring.^[41] Hybrid systems combining optical and electrochemical sensing represent a significant advance in multimodal biotelemetry. In gastrointestinal monitoring, ingestible sensors enable wireless transmission of pH and metabolite data, improving diagnostic accuracy for digestive disorders.^[42] Looking ahead, quantum sensors promise ultra-sensitive detection in biotelemetry, leveraging phenomena like nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamonds to measure magnetic fields at the nanoscale with sensitivities below 1 nT/√Hz. These sensors could enable precise tracking of neural activity or biomagnetic signals in vivo, surpassing classical limits.^[43] Expansions in global networks, such as Movebank, facilitate the integration of these technologies by supporting near-real-time data feeds from over 46,000 tracking datasets worldwide (as of 2023), enhancing collaborative analysis of animal movements.^[44]

Ethical and Regulatory Issues

Biotelemetry applications raise significant ethical concerns regarding animal welfare, particularly the potential stress and physiological impacts caused by attaching transmitters or tags to wildlife. External telemetry devices can induce behavioral changes, reduced fitness, and even mortality in tagged animals, necessitating careful evaluation of tag size, attachment methods, and deployment duration to minimize harm. In the United States, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) oversee biotelemetry studies involving vertebrates, requiring protocols that adhere to the 3Rs principle—replacement, reduction, and refinement—to ensure ethical treatment and justify the scientific benefits against potential suffering. For human applications, privacy issues are paramount in biotelemetry monitoring through wearables, where continuous collection of physiological data such as heart rate and location raises risks of unauthorized surveillance and data misuse. Compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union mandates explicit consent, data minimization, and rights to erasure for wearable health data, though challenges persist in enforcing these for cross-border research collaborations. Regulatory frameworks for biotelemetry devices vary by application and jurisdiction, with stringent oversight for implantable systems. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies certain biotelemetry implants, such as those for cardiac monitoring, as Class III medical devices due to their high risk, requiring premarket approval (PMA) that includes clinical trials demonstrating safety and efficacy. For wildlife tracking, international treaties like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) indirectly influence biotelemetry by regulating the trade and transport of tagged endangered animals across borders, often necessitating permits to prevent exploitation during monitoring efforts. In the European Union, the Medical Device Regulation (MDR) under Regulation (EU) 2017/745, amended by Regulation (EU) 2023/607, mandates biocompatibility testing for all implantable devices, including biotelemetry transmitters, to assess cytotoxicity, sensitization, and long-term tissue interactions before market authorization. Ongoing challenges in biotelemetry include data security vulnerabilities, where unencrypted transmissions from remote sensors can be intercepted by hackers, compromising sensitive biological information. Implementing end-to-end encryption and secure protocols is essential, yet many legacy systems lack these features, heightening risks in both human and wildlife applications. Bias in AI-processed biotelemetry data poses another issue, as algorithms trained on underrepresented populations may perpetuate disparities in health diagnostics or ecological predictions, leading to inaccurate interpretations of physiological signals. Additionally, the environmental impact of discarded tags contributes to pollution, with non-biodegradable materials accumulating in ecosystems and potentially harming non-target species through ingestion or entanglement.

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Development of an efficient mid-field wireless power transmission ...
Apr 28, 2025 · Addressing this challenge involves two primary solutions: a continuous power supply to the IoTMDs via wireless power transfer (WPT) or surgical ...
[39]
Wireless Powering for Long-Lasting Deep-Body Bioelectronic Devices
Jun 18, 2025 · In this approach, an external antenna or radiating structure transmits energy via electromagnetic (EM) fields that pen- etrate the body and are ...
[40]
A hybrid sensing system combining simultaneous optical and ...
May 1, 2022 · In this work we have developed a hybrid sensing system combining simultaneous voltammetric and spectrophotometric measurements. Absorbance ...Missing: biotelemetry | Show results with:biotelemetry
[41]
Emerging tools for gastrointestinal disease detection and monitoring
The SmartPill (Medtronic, USA) combines pH sensing with pressure and temperature measurements to generate comprehensive GI transit profiles. These smart capsule ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Quantum sensors for biomedical applications - Nature
Feb 3, 2023 · Quantum sensors can detect magnetic fields and other physical quantities, with unprecedented spatial resolution and sensitivity, making them ...Missing: biotelemetry | Show results with:biotelemetry
[43]
The Movebank system for studying global animal movement and ...
Dec 12, 2021 · We have built Movebank to address this need for animal tracking and biologging data, providing tools and services to work with data ...