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Capacitor plague

The capacitor plague refers to a major reliability crisis in the electronics industry during the early 2000s, characterized by the premature failure of non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors produced primarily between 1999 and 2003, which led to widespread device malfunctions due to leaking, bulging, or exploding components.^[1] These failures were caused by an unstable water-based electrolyte formula that generated excessive hydrogen gas under heat and voltage stress, often lacking essential stabilizers like depolarizers, resulting in internal pressure buildup that compromised the capacitors' seals.^[2] A prominent allegation attributes the defective formula to industrial espionage, in which a Japanese engineer reportedly stole an incomplete recipe from Rubycon Corporation around 2001 and shared it with manufacturers in China and Taiwan; however, recent analyses suggest the crisis arose from a combination of factors, including broader manufacturing challenges and rising thermal demands in electronics.^[3]^[1] Affected devices included personal computers, motherboards, power supplies, and consumer electronics from major brands such as Dell, IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Apple, with failures peaking between 2002 and 2007 as capacitors reached 3–6 years of age.^[4] The crisis prompted costly recalls and repairs—for instance, Dell faced a $300 million charge in 2005 to address faulty units shipped from 2003 to 2005, impacting millions of systems—and accelerated the industry's shift toward more reliable low-ESR and polymer capacitor technologies.^[3] While the exact scale is debated, the event highlighted vulnerabilities in global manufacturing and supply chain quality control, contributing to increased e-waste and repair demands in the decade following.^[2]

Background

Electrolytic capacitors

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are polarized components that store electrical energy through the use of an anodized aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) layer as the dielectric on the anode foil, enabling high capacitance densities in compact form factors. The anode foil, made from high-purity aluminum, is etched to dramatically increase its effective surface area—often by factors of 80 to 100 times for low-voltage applications—and then electrochemically formed to grow a thin, insulating oxide layer whose thickness is proportional to the applied voltage, typically ranging from 0.0013 to 0.0015 μm per volt.^[5]^[6] This dielectric provides the insulating barrier between electrodes, while the capacitance arises from the formula C = \epsilon_0 \epsilon_r \frac{A}{d}, where \epsilon_r (dielectric constant) for aluminum oxide is 7 to 10, A is the effective area, and d is the oxide thickness, allowing values far exceeding those of non-electrolytic types.^[5] A liquid electrolyte, usually water-based with conductive salts and stabilizing additives, serves as the cathode contact, bridging the anode and a separate cathode foil to complete the circuit and facilitate ion transport. This electrolyte impregnation also imparts a key self-healing mechanism: in the event of localized dielectric breakdown due to voltage stress or impurities, the electrolyte enables localized anodization to reform the oxide layer, mitigating faults and maintaining functionality without catastrophic failure.^[5]^[7] The polar nature of these capacitors stems from the rectifying properties of the oxide-semiconductor interface, requiring correct polarity in operation to avoid reversal damage.^[6] Construction begins with preparing the foils: the anode (0.05–0.11 mm thick) is etched and formed, while the cathode (0.02–0.05 mm thick) is only etched to enhance conductivity. These are interleaved with highly absorbent separator paper to prevent shorting, wound tightly into a spiral or cylindrical element, and impregnated with the electrolyte under vacuum to ensure full saturation. The assembly is then encased in an aluminum can, sealed with rubber gaskets or plastic molding to contain the electrolyte and withstand internal pressures, and fitted with leads for external connection.^[5]^[6] In the 1990s and early 2000s, aluminum electrolytic capacitors were essential in consumer and computing electronics for their ability to provide bulk capacitance in space-constrained designs, particularly in switched-mode power supplies for smoothing rectified AC output and handling ripple currents, as well as on motherboards for decoupling noise in voltage regulator modules supporting high-performance microprocessors. They also featured prominently in compact devices like desktop computers, televisions, and audio systems, where high-capacity storage was needed for energy buffering without excessive volume.^[8]^[9] Japan pioneered and long dominated aluminum electrolytic capacitor production, commercializing the technology in 1931 through companies like Nippon Chemi-Con, but by the 1990s, Taiwanese firms rapidly expanded their role due to lower labor and manufacturing costs, capturing significant global market share amid surging demand from Asia's electronics boom.^[10]^[11]^[12]

Late 1990s electronics manufacturing

In the late 1990s, the global electronics industry experienced explosive growth driven by the personal computer boom, with worldwide PC shipments surging from approximately 57 million units in 1995 to over 130 million by 2000, creating immense demand for components such as aluminum electrolytic capacitors used in power supplies and motherboards.^[13]^[14] This demand extended to consumer appliances and emerging gaming consoles, prompting major brands like Dell, HP, and Sony to outsource production to cost-effective regions, particularly Taiwan, where original design manufacturers (ODMs) rapidly scaled operations to handle design, assembly, and component sourcing.^[15] Taiwanese firms capitalized on this shift, evolving from original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the early 1990s to dominant ODMs by the decade's end, capturing a significant portion of the supply chain for high-volume electronics.^[15] Taiwanese capacitor manufacturers, such as Lelon Electronics (founded in 1976 but expanding aggressively during this period), emerged as low-cost alternatives to established Japanese leaders like Rubycon and Nichicon, which had long dominated the premium segment of aluminum electrolytic capacitors with their high-reliability products.^[16] By leveraging lower labor costs and proximity to assembly lines, companies like Lelon and others increased production capacity to meet the surging needs of PC and appliance makers, positioning Taiwan as a key hub in the global supply chain.^[17] This rapid scaling contributed to Taiwan accounting for about 30% of global aluminum electrolytic capacitor shipments by the early 2000s, underscoring the island's growing influence in passive components amid the outsourcing wave.^[17] To compete on price in this high-demand environment, Taiwanese manufacturers adopted cost-cutting practices, including streamlined quality controls and modifications to production formulas without extensive independent research and development, as they prioritized volume over premium innovation to undercut Japanese pricing.^[1] These measures were necessitated by intense price pressures from global buyers seeking affordable components for mass-market products, leading to a supply chain where rushed production heightened vulnerability to formulation errors.^[1]

History

Initial discoveries

The earliest reports of widespread capacitor failures emerged in late 2001 and early 2002, primarily affecting personal computers in North America, such as those from Dell and Compaq. These incidents involved non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors that leaked electrolyte fluid, causing motherboards to short-circuit and fail prematurely. Initially, technicians and manufacturers misattributed the problems to environmental factors like high humidity or electrical power surges, leading to delayed identification of the underlying component defect.^[18]^[19] The issue gained public attention in September 2002 when Passive Component Industry magazine published the first detailed report on the failures, linking them to defective low-ESR aluminum electrolytic capacitors produced by Taiwanese manufacturers using an unstable electrolyte formula. This coverage highlighted cases in Dell and Compaq systems from 2001-2002 models, where capacitors failed after as little as 250 hours of operation despite being rated for 4,000 hours. Similar problems were soon noted in HP and Gateway PCs, prompting initial investigations into the supply chain. Although no formal recalls were immediately issued, companies like IBM began addressing failures under existing warranties for affected desktop systems.^[3]^[19]^[18] In response, Taiwanese capacitor producers, including Lelon and Teapo, acknowledged the defects in their products during 2002, attributing them to raw materials sourced from Japan that lacked proper additives for stability. They claimed their own manufacturing processes were not directly at fault but cooperated with investigations into the electrolyte-related issues. The scope remained limited to North American markets at this stage, where repair programs started emerging through authorized service centers and third-party technicians, focusing on motherboard replacements for symptomatic units. Electrolyte-related defects were beginning to be recognized as the common thread across these early cases.^[18]^[20]^[21]

Widespread prevalence

The capacitor plague reached its peak incidence between 2003 and 2005, with a surge in failures affecting millions of electronic units worldwide due to defective aluminum electrolytic capacitors produced primarily by Taiwanese manufacturers. Failure rates in affected batches reached as high as 20%, leading to widespread device malfunctions that escalated from isolated incidents to a recognized systemic crisis.^[1]^[22] Initially concentrated in personal computers, the issue expanded geographically and across markets, impacting consumer electronics globally as faulty components were integrated into supply chains serving North America, Europe, and Asia. Notable examples include Dell and Sony televisions, and various household appliances, where the capacitors' degradation caused operational failures on a massive scale. By 2005, estimates indicated that at least 10 million devices had been affected worldwide, underscoring the plague's broad economic and reliability implications for the electronics industry.^[1]^[3] Public awareness intensified through online forums such as AnandTech and Slashdot, where users shared experiences of recurring hardware issues, amplifying reports and pressuring manufacturers for accountability. This grassroots attention culminated in class-action lawsuits filed as early as 2007, targeting companies like Dell for failing to disclose the defects, which further highlighted the plague's recognition as a major industry-wide problem.^[1]^[3]

Timeline of key events

In 1999, Taiwanese capacitor manufacturers, including Lelon, began producing aluminum electrolytic capacitors using a flawed electrolyte formula that omitted key additives, leading to the initial introduction of defective components into global electronics supply chains.^[1] The first reports of capacitor failures emerged in late 2001 and early 2002, with devices such as PC motherboards and power supplies showing signs of malfunction; Dell, for instance, identified issues in its OptiPlex systems and initiated targeted replacements by 2003 without a full public recall at the time.^[3]^[23] By 2003, Japanese firms launched investigations into the rising failure rates, uncovering manufacturing defects in imported capacitors; this period also saw early lawsuits filed against suppliers, alongside allegations of industrial espionage involving a stolen formula from a Japanese company.^[21]^[1] Failures peaked between 2004 and 2005, affecting millions of devices worldwide and prompting major OEMs like Dell and Apple to ban capacitors from suspect producers such as Teapo, with Dell ultimately allocating $300 million in 2005 for repairs and replacements.^[24]^[22]^[20] Manufacturers corrected the electrolyte formula by 2006, reducing new production failures, and by 2007 the widespread issue had largely subsided as affected batches were phased out of active use.^[2]^[17] After 2007, while new devices were no longer impacted, lingering failures continued in stored or older electronics, where capacitors degraded over time due to the inherent design flaw. As of 2025, analyses continue to debate the exact causes, with emphasis on broader manufacturing issues beyond espionage.^[25]^[26]^[1]

Causes

Defective electrolyte formula

In electrolytic capacitors, the electrolyte serves as a conductive solution that facilitates ion transport between the anode and cathode, while also helping to maintain and repair the thin oxide dielectric layer on the aluminum anode foil. Typically composed of ammonium salts, such as ammonium adipate or ammonium borate, dissolved in a solvent mixture of water and ethylene glycol or other polyhydric alcohols, the electrolyte enables high capacitance in a compact form but is prone to gradual degradation over time. This degradation can lead to electrolyte evaporation or chemical breakdown, resulting in gas buildup within the capacitor case, which compromises performance and integrity.^[27] The specific defect in the capacitor plague stemmed from an incomplete or miscopied electrolyte formula that omitted essential stabilizers, particularly depolarizers like picric acid or p-benzoquinone, which are critical for absorbing excess hydrogen gas and preventing uncontrolled electrochemical reactions. Without these components, the electrolyte became unstable under normal operating voltages, accelerating the breakdown process and causing rapid evaporation of the solvent along with excessive hydrogen gas production. This flaw was exacerbated by manufacturing shortcuts aimed at cost reduction, leading to widespread use of the defective formulation in non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors produced between 1999 and 2007.^[1]^[28] The core chemical process involved the electrolytic decomposition of water in the absence of proper stabilizers, where applied voltage drove the reaction at the electrodes, producing hydrogen gas at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. This can be represented by the overall electrolysis equation:

$2H_2O \rightarrow 2H_2 + O_2

The resulting gas accumulation increased internal pressure, often bulging or rupturing the capacitor's vent, while also contributing to the conversion of the stable aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) dielectric to soluble aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃) via hydration: Al₂O₃ + 3H₂O → 2Al(OH)₃. These reactions diminished capacitance and increased equivalent series resistance, hastening failure.^[28]^[29] The plague primarily affected non-solid (liquid electrolyte) aluminum electrolytic capacitors, as their fluid-based design allowed gas buildup and leakage; in contrast, solid polymer electrolytic capacitors, which use a conductive polymer instead of liquid, were unaffected due to the absence of volatile solvents and gas-producing reactions.^[1]

Industrial espionage allegations

In 2001, a materials scientist employed by the Japanese capacitor manufacturer Rubycon Corporation allegedly stole an electrolyte formula intended for aluminum electrolytic capacitors and took it to Luminous Town Electric, a company in China where he had previously worked.^[3] Later that year, members of the scientist's team defected to Taiwan, carrying an incomplete copy of the formula, which they used to establish their own company in Taiwan and produce low-cost capacitors for the global market.^[3] This incomplete replication omitted key stabilizing additives, leading to electrolyte instability that caused widespread capacitor failures.^[30] Evidence supporting the espionage allegations emerged from investigations into the supply chain failures, including unsealed documents from a 2010 U.S. federal court case involving Dell and affected customers, which detailed the formula's path from Japan to Taiwan.^[3] These findings implicated up to several Taiwanese firms, such as Lelon Electronics and Luxon Electronics, in distributing the defective components to major electronics manufacturers like Dell, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard. By 2025, recent analyses have questioned whether industrial espionage was the sole or primary cause, arguing that the narrative overemphasizes the theft while downplaying broader industry challenges such as aggressive cost-cutting, complex global supply chains, and the thermal stresses from hotter processors in early 2000s devices.^[1] Experts suggest the plague's scope—spanning 1999 to 2007 and affecting diverse products—points to systemic issues in the Asian electronics sector rather than a single act of sabotage.^[1] The allegations underscored significant vulnerabilities in intellectual property protection within the Asian electronics manufacturing industry, prompting increased scrutiny of supply chain security and contributing to shifts toward diversified sourcing among Western firms.^[30] This incident highlighted the risks of formula theft in a highly competitive market, where rapid replication could lead to catastrophic quality failures affecting millions of consumer devices.^[3]

Broader manufacturing issues

The capacitor plague was exacerbated by systemic quality control lapses in the manufacturing process, where high-volume production of electrolytic capacitors prioritized speed over thorough verification of component stability. Manufacturers often implemented untested tweaks to electrolyte formulas to meet surging demand for consumer electronics in the early 2000s, leading to widespread adoption of flawed materials without adequate accelerated aging tests to detect long-term degradation.^[31]^[29] Supply chain opacity further amplified these issues, as original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) like Dell relied on complex, multi-tiered networks of Asian subcontractors who introduced changes to capacitor specifications without notifying upstream partners. This lack of transparency meant OEMs were often unaware of substitutions in materials or processes, resulting in the integration of defective components into millions of devices before failures surfaced.^[32]^[1] Environmental factors during manufacturing and operation, particularly high humidity in production facilities, accelerated the degradation of vulnerable electrolytes containing up to 70% water, promoting chemical instability and electrolyte loss through seals. Combined with elevated operating temperatures from power-intensive electronics, these conditions hastened the formation of corrosive byproducts, shortening capacitor lifespans dramatically in affected batches.^[1]^[29] Industry analyses in 2025 have emphasized cost pressures and the absence of standardized testing protocols—such as uniform equivalent series resistance (ESR) specifications—as the primary drivers of the plague's scale, rather than isolated incidents, underscoring how profit-driven shortcuts in the global electronics sector undermined reliability across the supply chain.^[1]^[31]

Symptoms

Failure mechanisms

The failure mechanisms of aluminum electrolytic capacitors affected by the capacitor plague primarily involve a cascade of internal degradation processes triggered by defective electrolyte formulations. The electrolyte, which is essential for maintaining the dielectric oxide layer on the aluminum anode foil, begins to degrade prematurely due to its improper composition, such as excessive water content and insufficient corrosion inhibitors. This leads to accelerated evaporation and diffusion of the electrolyte through the capacitor's rubber seal, causing a gradual drying out that reduces the effective conductive medium within the device.^[29]^[33] As the electrolyte dries, the aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) dielectric layer experiences stress from incomplete self-healing reactions, where remaining electrolyte is consumed to repair micro-defects, further thinning or compromising the layer's integrity. This degradation sequence results in cracking or weakening of the oxide layer under operational voltage stress, increasing internal leakage currents and promoting localized corrosion. Concurrently, the equivalent series resistance (ESR) rises sharply—often doubling or more—as the electrolyte's conductivity diminishes, impairing the capacitor's ability to filter ripple currents effectively and generating excess internal heat.^[33]^[34] A critical aspect of these failures is the accumulation of gas, primarily hydrogen (H₂), generated through electrochemical reactions at the cathode during operation. In defective capacitors, water in the electrolyte reacts with the aluminum anode to form aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃), releasing hydrogen gas via corrosion processes that are normally suppressed by additives. This gas buildup increases internal pressure, often leading to venting through the capacitor's safety mechanism or, in severe cases, rupture of the case. The pressure can reach critical levels following Faraday's law of electrolysis, where gas volume is proportional to the charge passed (n_g ≈ K i t, with K as a constant, i as current, and t as time).^[28]^[29] Under typical operating conditions, healthy aluminum electrolytic capacitors have a rated lifespan of 5,000 to 10,000 hours at elevated temperatures like 85–105°C, following the Arrhenius-based 10-Kelvin rule where lifetime halves for every 10°C increase. However, in the capacitor plague incidents, these lifespans were significantly reduced, with failures often occurring within 3–6 years under typical operating conditions, due to the rapid electrolyte loss and gas generation. Factors such as operational heat from nearby components, like CPUs in personal computers, further accelerate this by elevating the core temperature and hastening evaporation rates.^[34]^[33]

Electrical effects

The failure of electrolytic capacitors during the capacitor plague primarily manifested through power supply instability in electronic circuits, particularly in motherboards where degraded capacitors led to voltage ripples and brownouts due to diminished capacitance and elevated equivalent series resistance (ESR).^[29] As capacitance dropped significantly—sometimes to as low as 4% of the original value—these issues escalated to wild oscillations in output voltage, compromising the stability of DC power supplies and potentially resulting in complete system shutdowns.^[35]^[36] This instability was exacerbated by the defective electrolyte, which accelerated degradation under operational stress, leading to unreliable power delivery in affected devices from 1999 to 2007.^[29] Signal integrity was another critical electrical effect, as failing capacitors lost their filtering capabilities, introducing noise into circuits and causing degraded performance in audio and video signals.^[29] In televisions and game consoles, this often resulted in noisy audio output or distorted video, stemming from increased ripple on power rails that propagated to sensitive analog sections.^[35] For personal computers, the unreliable power from motherboard capacitors frequently triggered boot failures or random reboots, as the system could not maintain consistent voltage levels during initialization.^[1] Cascading damage was a common consequence, where overloaded failing capacitors stressed adjacent components, such as voltage regulators, by exposing them to excessive input voltage or current spikes from unstable power conversion.^[35] This could lead to secondary failures in switching semiconductors or other circuitry, amplifying the overall system disruption.^[29] Diagnostic indicators included intermittent operation that worsened with elevated temperatures, as heat hastened electrolyte evaporation and ESR increase, providing early warnings of impending total failure.^[29]

Physical manifestations

The physical manifestations of aluminum electrolytic capacitor failures during the capacitor plague were primarily driven by internal gas generation and electrolyte degradation, leading to visible structural changes in the capacitor casing and surrounding components. One of the most common signs was bulging or doming of the capacitor's top, where the aluminum can swelled outward due to increasing internal pressure from hydrogen gas produced by the defective electrolyte's chemical reactions with the aluminum foil. This swelling often began as a subtle dome shape and could progress to severe deformation if unaddressed.^[21]^[37] Leaking electrolyte was another prevalent indicator, appearing as a brownish, viscous residue that seeped from the capacitor's vent or seals, often drying into crusty deposits that corroded nearby solder joints and printed circuit board (PCB) traces. This leakage resulted from the electrolyte's inability to withstand operational stresses, exacerbated by the flawed formulation used in affected capacitors from Taiwanese manufacturers. In advanced stages, the leaked material could spread across the PCB, promoting further degradation.^[21]^[38] Though rarer, exploding cases occurred in severely overheated units, where excessive internal pressure caused the capacitor to rupture dramatically, ejecting debris such as aluminum flakes, electrolyte remnants, and fibrous materials onto adjacent components. These incidents were more likely in high-stress environments but highlighted the potential hazards of unchecked failures. Post-failure, a greenish buildup often formed from the interaction of leaked chemicals with copper elements on the PCB, accelerating corrosion and rendering affected areas non-functional. These physical signs were typically linked to underlying electrical instability, such as increased leakage current.^[21]^[37]^[38]

Investigation and Resolution

Technical analyses

Technical analyses of the capacitor plague involved detailed failure investigations using non-destructive and destructive methods to uncover the underlying defects in affected aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Dissection studies, including cross-sectional examinations and spectroscopic techniques, revealed internal gas voids primarily composed of hydrogen gas, which caused bulging and rupture, alongside dried electrolyte residues on the capacitor casings and printed circuit boards. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) on dissected samples from failed units detected elevated levels of dissolved aluminum in the electrolyte, indicating corrosion of the anode foil and degradation of the oxide dielectric layer. These findings were corroborated by firms specializing in component failure analysis, highlighting how impurities and formulation errors accelerated internal pressure buildup.^[39] Chemical assays, such as ion chromatography and mass spectroscopy, played a crucial role in identifying anomalies in the electrolyte composition, as detailed in the 2007 analysis by Hillman and Helmold. In suspect capacitors manufactured between 1999 and 2003, analyses showed a notable absence of phosphate ions, which serve as depolarizers to inhibit excessive hydrogen generation in alkaline environments (pH > 7). Reverse-engineering efforts confirmed that the electrolyte formulas lacked these essential additives, leading to uncontrolled electrochemical reactions and gas evolution even under normal operating conditions. Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectrography further revealed lower foil purity in affected Taiwanese products compared to reliable Japanese counterparts, contributing to heightened corrosion susceptibility.^[39] Testing protocols employed accelerated life tests to quantify reliability differences between defective and standard lots. Suspect capacitors demonstrated significantly elevated failure rates, with bulging and leakage occurring prematurely compared to control samples that endured the full test duration without degradation. Measurements of capacitance, equivalent series resistance (ESR), and leakage current during these trials validated the chemical assay results, showing capacitance increases in failing units due to dielectric thinning. Low-grade capacitors implicated in the plague exhibited lifetime performance variations across manufacturers, underscoring the impact of electrolyte deficiencies on overall durability. Recent studies from 2022 onward have extended these analyses to storage degradation, confirming that plague-era issues persist in unused devices. When stored at room temperature for extended periods (beyond 1-2 years), the oxide layer in non-solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors can deteriorate through reactions with the electrolyte, increasing leakage current and promoting hydrogen gas formation via corrosion. Observations of 2005-era capacitors stored unused revealed that up to 70% developed swelling from internal gas pressure, with non-bulged units showing doubled capacitance and high leakage upon initial charging, necessitating re-forming to restore functionality. These findings emphasize that degradation mechanisms, including electrolyte evaporation and foil corrosion, continue to affect stockpiled components, even without operational stress, as documented in manufacturer guidelines and failure reports.^[40]

Corporate and legal actions

In response to the widespread failures caused by defective electrolytic capacitors, major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) initiated extensive repair and replacement programs. Dell, one of the most affected companies, acknowledged the issue in 2005 by taking a $300 million charge to fund the repair or replacement of faulty systems, primarily targeting its OptiPlex desktop line where 11.8 million units shipped between May 2003 and July 2005 contained the problematic components.^[3]^[32] The company ultimately replaced motherboards in approximately 22% of the 21 million potentially impacted OptiPlex PCs, at an average cost of about $65 per unit, while extending warranties on select models such as the OptiPlex GX260 and GX270 to cover capacitor-related failures.^[22]^[41] Apple similarly launched the iMac G5 Repair Extension Program in 2005, providing free repairs for video and power supply issues in first-generation iMac G5 models produced between May 2004 and October 2005, attributing the problems to failing capacitors on the logic board and extending coverage for three years from purchase.^[42] Hewlett-Packard (HP) addressed similar motherboard failures in affected systems through targeted repairs, though on a less publicized scale compared to Dell and Apple.^[24] Legal actions followed as customers sought redress for the disruptions. A prominent 2007 class-action lawsuit filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina by Advanced Internet Technologies accused Dell of knowingly selling defective computers, citing internal documents that revealed the company's awareness of high failure rates—up to 97% in some batches—but failure to proactively notify customers or halt shipments.^[32] The suit, which highlighted risks to business operations from system crashes and data loss, was settled out of court in September 2010, with Dell agreeing to undisclosed terms as part of broader efforts to resolve capacitor-related claims.^[22] While direct lawsuits against the Taiwanese capacitor suppliers were limited, affected OEMs and consumers pursued claims against motherboard and PC assemblers, emphasizing supply chain accountability for the faulty parts sourced from manufacturers like those using the defective electrolyte formula.^[43] The crisis prompted swift industry-wide measures to mitigate further risks, including blacklisting of suspect capacitor suppliers. By early 2003, major motherboard and PC makers, including Dell and others, ceased procurement of the implicated Taiwanese electrolytic capacitors after confirming their role in the failures through failure analysis.^[44] This shift favored more reliable Japanese alternatives, effectively sidelining brands associated with the bad electrolyte and restoring confidence in component quality by 2004.^[44] Regulatory scrutiny was minimal at the time, though the events underscored vulnerabilities in global supply chains and led to enhanced quality controls in subsequent years.

Implementation of fixes

Following the technical analyses that pinpointed the faulty electrolyte as the primary cause, Taiwanese manufacturers of aluminum electrolytic capacitors, such as Lelon and Teapo, revised their production formulas to incorporate verified recipes with essential stabilizers and depolarizers, which prevented gas buildup and chain reactions; these changes were widely adopted by 2005, significantly reducing failure rates in subsequent production runs.^[1] In parallel, the electronics industry accelerated the shift toward alternative capacitor technologies for critical applications, particularly in power supplies and motherboards where reliability was paramount; solid tantalum and conductive polymer capacitors gained prominence due to their lower equivalent series resistance (ESR), higher temperature tolerance, and more stable performance compared to traditional wet electrolytic types, with polymer variants seeing widespread integration in consumer electronics starting in the mid-2000s.^[45] To bolster long-term reliability, manufacturers enhanced quality assurance protocols, introducing rigorous testing standards such as accelerated aging simulations and electrolyte purity assessments exceeding 98% thresholds, alongside mandatory ISO 9001 certifications and regular supplier audits to verify compliance and detect defects early in the production cycle.^[31]^[39] By 2007, supply chain reforms became standard practice, with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) like Dell and HP implementing greater transparency through detailed traceability requirements and diversified sourcing strategies to avoid over-reliance on affected Taiwanese suppliers, thereby minimizing the risk of widespread component failures across global product lines.^[17]

Impact and Legacy

Affected products and industries

The capacitor plague primarily impacted consumer electronics produced between 2001 and 2004, with faulty electrolytic capacitors leading to widespread device failures manifesting as bulging, leaking components that caused system instability or shutdowns.^[21]^[24] In personal computers, motherboards and power supplies from major manufacturers were heavily affected, including Dell OptiPlex models such as the GX270 and GX280 (built 2003–2004), HP Pavilion and xw-series workstations (2002–2004), Apple iMac G5 (2004–2005), and boards from Abit, ASUS, Gigabyte, IBM, and MSI.^[24]^[1]^[20] Gaming consoles also suffered, with the original Xbox experiencing clock capacitor failures due to corrosion—though these may not be directly part of the capacitor plague—with issues persisting into the 2010s for units stored post-2001 production.^[1] Home appliances incorporating these capacitors experienced similar problems, including LCD and CRT televisions, DVD players, and microwaves from various brands produced in the early 2000s, often resulting in power supply malfunctions.^[21]^[29] Industrial applications were likewise vulnerable, encompassing automated teller machines (ATMs) and networking equipment reliant on electrolytic capacitors for power regulation, where failures disrupted operations in sectors like finance and telecommunications during 2002–2007.^[29] The scope was global, affecting electronics manufactured mainly from 1999 to 2003, with peak failures occurring between 2002 and 2005.^[21]^[20]

Economic and technical consequences

The capacitor plague imposed significant direct financial burdens on electronics manufacturers through recalls, repairs, motherboard replacements, and associated logistics. Dell, for example, took a $300 million charge in 2005 to address the issue across millions of affected OptiPlex systems, replacing approximately 22% of motherboards at an average cost of about $65 per unit. Similarly, HP scrapped its entire 2004 production run of affected products, incurring substantial losses in scrapped inventory and delayed shipments. These costs contributed to broader industry expenditures estimated in the hundreds of millions of dollars, encompassing warranty claims and lost productivity from device failures. Indirect effects compounded the economic damage, eroding consumer trust and disrupting supply chains. Dell's initial "fix on fail" strategy and lack of full disclosure led to lawsuits, negative publicity, and lasting reputational harm that hindered its consumer market recovery. Supply disruptions arose as major buyers shunned Taiwanese capacitor suppliers, resulting in sharp order declines—such as the 30% drop experienced by Lien Yan Electronics—and a chilling effect on Taiwan's electronics sector, which supplied roughly 30% of global aluminum electrolytic capacitors at the time. Technically, the widespread failures highlighted vulnerabilities in liquid electrolyte-based aluminum capacitors, prompting a shift toward more robust alternatives. Manufacturers like ABIT quickly transitioned to Japanese suppliers known for superior quality control, reducing reliance on the faulty Taiwanese components. This event accelerated the adoption of solid polymer aluminum electrolytic capacitors in subsequent designs, which provide enhanced reliability, lower equivalent series resistance, and resistance to the gas buildup that caused the original failures, thereby improving overall system longevity in consumer electronics. In the long term, the plague diminished market share for implicated Taiwanese firms, with companies like Lien Yan facing severe business setbacks due to lost credibility and customer aversion. The crisis also spurred increased industry focus on quality assurance, including expanded testing by institutions such as Taiwan's Industrial Technology Research Institute, fostering greater R&D emphasis on capacitor durability and manufacturing processes.

Long-term lessons

The capacitor plague exposed critical vulnerabilities in the global electronics supply chain, particularly the risks of over-reliance on concentrated manufacturing hubs and inadequate intellectual property safeguards, leading to post-2007 emphases on supplier diversification and robust IP protection protocols. The crisis has been attributed in part to alleged industrial espionage, where a flawed electrolyte formula was reportedly stolen and replicated by Taiwanese manufacturers, though this narrative has been debated with analyses pointing to broader factors like increased heat from contemporary CPU designs and supply chain complexities.^[1]^[46] In response, electronics firms adopted multi-vendor sourcing strategies and enhanced IP monitoring, such as encrypted formula sharing and legal agreements, to prevent similar formula thefts and ensure traceability across borders. The event catalyzed a paradigm shift toward "fail-safe" engineering practices and stringent validation in electronics design, prioritizing redundancy and proactive testing to avert cascading failures. Industry analyses post-plague advocated for voltage derating—operating components at 50% or less of rated values—and controlled manufacturing environments to mitigate electrolyte degradation and mechanical stresses. These standards, now integral to reliability engineering, have reduced premature failure rates in consumer and industrial products by emphasizing burn-in screening and material quality audits.^[29]^[29] From 2022 to 2025, reports of a "storage plague" emerged, detailing electrolytic capacitor failures in archived devices due to dormant corrosion and electrolyte evaporation, independent of operational use. In one documented case, over 70% of capacitors in unused early-2000s servers swelled and leaked after prolonged storage, compromising legacy data systems and highlighting the limitations of shelf-life predictions. This phenomenon has prompted guidelines for periodic non-destructive testing and proactive replacements in warehouses and museums to preserve historical electronics.^[40]^[47] Serving as a cautionary case study in global manufacturing fragilities, the capacitor plague has informed policies addressing supply chain dependencies, exemplified by the US CHIPS and Science Act of 2022, which allocates resources to onshore production of semiconductors amid ongoing geopolitical tensions. By illustrating how localized quality lapses can trigger worldwide disruptions, it has driven international efforts to balance cost efficiencies with resilience, including subsidies for diversified fabrication and vulnerability assessments.^[48]^[49]

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In the 1990s, the expansion of outsourcing of production by American and Japanese PC brand-carrying companies triggered off the rapid growth of Taiwanese ...
[14]
https://www.eetimes.com/fourth-quarter-hurts-pc-sales-growth-in-2000/
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Arrow Tech Trivia: What is the Capacitor Plague?
Feb 17, 2016 · The Capacitor Plague was an event around 2002 thru 2005 involving capacitors produced from about 1999 to 2003. This is an intriguing story about ...
[16]
Taiwan Low ESR Radial Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
Subsequent lifetime tests on low-ESR aluminum electrolytic capacitors produced in Taiwan by Japanese aluminum capacitor hours revealed the occurrence of ...Missing: 1999 | Show results with:1999
[17]
Leaking Capacitors Muck up Motherboards - IEEE Spectrum
Feb 1, 2003 · "It didn't have the right additives," says Dennis Zogbi, publisher of Passive Component Industry magazine (Cary, N.C.), which broke the story ...
[18]
If you thought the chip shortage was bad let me tell you ... - PC Gamer
Sep 6, 2022 · The events leading up to the so-called capacitor plague may have begun as early as 2001, where capacitors that were used in a range of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
The Great Capacitor Plague of the Early 21st Century - EE Times
Feb 25, 2016 · For reasons described in the video, humongous numbers of capacitors manufactured between 1999 and 2003 started to fail in systems around 2002 to ...Missing: HP Gateway<|control11|><|separator|>
[20]
How a capacitor popped Dell's reputation - Computerworld
Nov 24, 2010 · From 2003 to 2005 Dell shipped 11.8 million PCs with a known defect but chose not to fully disclose the situation to all of its customers.<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
What Happened to the Capacitors in 2002? - TwinMind
Timeline of the Capacitor Plague. Reports began late 2002 ... Dell most affected: May 2003-July 2005 shipped 11.8M Optiplex PCs with faulty capacitors ...
[22]
PCs plagued by bad capacitors - CNET
Nov 10, 2005 · Defective capacitors found in the Dell Optiplex workstations, some Apple iMac G5s, HP xw-series workstations made in 2004 and PCs with the ...
[23]
Capacitor plague - OpenCircuits
Jan 10, 2012 · The first flawed capacitors were seen in 1999, but most of the affected capacitors were made in the early to mid 2000s, and while news of ...
[24]
ESR - Capacitor plague - La vaca cega desconfiada
Sep 1, 2017 · The Japanese manufacturer Rubycon became a leader in the development of new water-based electrolyte systems with enhanced conductivity in the ...
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https://opencircuits.com/index.php?title=Capacitor_plague
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(PDF) Gas Evolution in Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
Aug 9, 2025 · In this respect, one of the most common causes of failure shown by liquid electrolyte capacitors is electrolyte leakage through the seal or even ...
[27]
[PDF] Capacitor Failure Modes – Lessons from Industry - escies
The defective electrolyte does not allow the correct aluminium oxide (Al2O3) thickness to be maintained (this is the dielectric layer of the capacitor), and an ...
[28]
Component Problems: Taiwan Low ESR Radial Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
### Summary of Capacitor Formula Theft Story
[29]
The “Capacitor Plague” Revisited: How ESR Specifications Could ...
Jul 9, 2025 · The root cause of the Capacitor Plague was traced back to a faulty electrolyte formula. Manufacturers, in an attempt to reduce costs, used a ...
[30]
Suit Over Faulty Computers Highlights Dell's Decline
Jun 28, 2010 · A study by Dell found that OptiPlex computers affected by the bad capacitors were expected to cause problems up to 97 percent of the time ...
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https://eureka.patsnap.com/article/the-capacitor-plague-revisited-how-esr-specifications-could-have-prevented-it
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[PDF] Electrolytic Capacitor Lifetime Estimation - Jianghai America
Dr. Arne Albertsen was born 1965 in Eutin in the north of Germany and he studied physics with a focus on applied physics at Kiel University. Following.
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None
### Summary of Capacitor Plague Effects in Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
[34]
[PDF] lt=lr(aT · aC · aV · aSR · aQ · aE) - Luxeon Star LEDs
“capacitor plague” were catastrophic failures. Rather, some were characterized only by a reduction in capacitance. Whereas diminished capacitance would ...
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[PDF] 1. General Description of Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
In the worst case, aluminum electrolytic capacitors may cause rupture, fire, smoke, short circuit, open circuit, or other failures, so use them with extreme ...
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[PDF] 4．Failure Modes 3．Reliability - Chemi-Con
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have two categories of failures: catastrophic failure and wear-out failure. This is a failure mode that completely destroys the ...Missing: bulging | Show results with:bulging
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System Board Capacitor Problem. - Spiceworks Community
Aug 4, 2010 · I lucked out and all mine went bad while they were under warranty. Dell replaced the system boards for free in most of my 270 and 280 systems.
[38]
More on iMac G5 power supply burnout: Bad capacitors seem to be ...
Aug 3, 2005 · "The company that made the capacitors, no longer exists. The issue has been resolved on the newer units. If you have a first generation iMac G5 ...
[39]
Leaky Cap Class Action Lawsuit - Neoseeker
Jul 7, 2004 · ... Taiwanese capacitor companies stole an incomplete Japanese design which led to premature failure of capacitors. This was not a MSI only ...Missing: plague manufacturers
[40]
Leaking Capacitors Muck Up Motherboards - Newswise
Jan 28, 2003 · Major Taiwanese capacitor makers have denied using the faulty electrolyte, and indeed tracing the origins of the bad components has been ...
[41]
History of Capacitors and How to Select Them (Part 1) - Panasonic
Spread of Low Profile Chip Type Conductive Polymer Electrolytic Capacitors (2000s); Increase in Demand for Conductive Polymer Electrolytic Capacitors (2010s).Missing: rise | Show results with:rise
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(PDF) Identification of Missing or Insufficient Electrolyte Constituents ...
... Passive Component Industry, Sept/Oct. 2002, p. 10, 12, 31. 4. B. Liotta ... capacitors indicated that the degraded electrolyte can cause capacitor leakage and ...Missing: magazine | Show results with:magazine
[43]
Detection and Reliability Risks of Counterfeit Electrolytic Capacitors
Aug 5, 2025 · This study examines counterfeit electrolytic capacitors that were unknowingly assembled in power supplies used in medical devices, and then failed in the field.
[44]
Capacitors in storage can get the plague too - Blog
Feb 22, 2022 · Capacitor plague, where capacitors swell and rupture, can occur in storage due to internal corrosion, not just during use, even in unused ...
[45]
The Causes of Electrolytic Capacitor Degradation
Jun 22, 2022 · The cause of this particular issue was incorrect electrolyte formula, but there are several other failure modes possible in electrolytic ...
[46]
The CHIPS Act: How U.S. Microchip Factories Could Reshape the ...
Oct 8, 2024 · Despite the difficulties, many experts see the CHIPS Act as a turning point in reducing supply chain vulnerabilities. They say that combined ...Missing: components | Show results with:components
[47]
Unveiling the vulnerabilities: unpacking risks in the electronics ...
Mar 12, 2024 · The semiconductor commodity components supply chain has the most vulnerability because of its high geo-concentration, low substitutability, and ...