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Common frog

The common frog (Rana temporaria), also known as the European common frog or grass frog, is a medium-sized amphibian species belonging to the family Ranidae, characterized by a robust, squat body lacking a tail, a wide flat head, and horizontally oval pupils.^[1] Adults typically measure 7.5 to 10 cm in length, with females generally larger than males, and exhibit variable dorsal coloration ranging from brown, gray, olive, yellow, or even pinkish hues, often accented by dark spots, a chevron-shaped mark on the back, and a blackish eardrum area.^[2] During the breeding season, males develop bluish-gray throats and dark nuptial pads on their forelimbs, while lacking external vocal sacs but producing a low croaking call audible up to 50 meters.^[2] This species is notable for its wide tolerance of environmental conditions, including cold climates, making it one of the most northerly distributed amphibians, extending to the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia.^[1] Native to Europe—from the Pyrenees and British Isles in the west to the Urals and western Siberia in the east—and parts of northwestern Asia, the common frog occupies a broad geographic range, though it is absent from much of southern Europe, such as Iberia south of the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean lowlands.^[1] It thrives in diverse habitats, including damp forests (both deciduous and coniferous), wet meadows, tundra, forest steppes, mountain lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, often favoring cooler upland areas but also adapting to anthropogenic settings like parks, gardens, and agricultural fields near water bodies.^[2] As a largely terrestrial species, it forages nocturnally or on rainy days for invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, snails, and woodlice, using its keen sense of smell to detect prey like earthworms.^[2] Hibernation occurs in soil burrows or under leaf litter from October to February, with adults capable of surviving prolonged submersion in hypoxic waters during winter without depleting muscle energy stores.^[3] Reproduction is aquatic and seasonal, with breeding commencing in March to June (earlier in lowlands, later at high altitudes), where males gather in shallow waters and attract females through croaking; clutches of 670 to 4,500 eggs are laid in gelatinous clumps attached to submerged vegetation, hatching after 2-4 weeks into tadpoles that metamorphose into froglets by June to August.^[1] The species exhibits strong site fidelity, with adults orienting back to hibernation sites from distances up to 230 meters using olfactory and celestial cues.^[4] Although populations are generally stable and widespread, localized declines occur due to habitat loss from urbanization, drainage of breeding ponds, pollution, and climate-induced freezes, particularly in peripheral southern ranges.^[1] Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its extensive distribution, presumed large population, and habitat adaptability, it receives protection under the Bern Convention (Annex III) and EU Habitats Directive in parts of its range.^[1]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The scientific name Rana temporaria for the common frog was formally established by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758, introducing the binomial nomenclature that standardized taxonomic naming for this and other species.^[5] Prior to this, European descriptions of frogs often used lengthy polynomial phrases or vernacular terms, but Linnaeus's system simplified identification and promoted consistency across scientific literature.^[5] The genus name Rana derives directly from the Latin word rana, meaning "frog," a term used since ancient Roman times to denote these amphibians generally.^[2] The specific epithet temporaria stems from the Latin adjective temporarius, translating to "temporary" or "of the season," alluding to the species' conspicuous spring emergence from hibernation and its brief breeding period, after which adults largely disappear from view during summer and winter.^[2] In English, the common name "common frog" reflects its widespread abundance across much of Europe, distinguishing it from less prevalent species; alternative English names include "grass frog" or "European brown frog."^[2] In continental Europe, equivalents emphasize its habitat or appearance, such as "grasfrosch" (grass frog) in German or "grenouille rousse" (russet frog) in French.^[2] These vernacular names evolved alongside local folk traditions but were unified under the Linnaean framework for scientific use.^[1]

Classification

The common frog (Rana temporaria) occupies a well-defined position in amphibian taxonomy, belonging to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Amphibia, order Anura, family Ranidae, genus Rana, and species temporaria (Linnaeus, 1758).^[6]^[5] Subspecies recognition is limited, with the nominal form Rana temporaria temporaria widely accepted across its range; however, several variants such as R. t. honnorati (from Corsica), R. t. canigonensis have been proposed based on morphological and genetic differences, though their validity remains debated due to overlapping traits and insufficient sampling in phylogenetic analyses. Rana aragonensis (from the Pyrenees) is often regarded as a synonym of R. temporaria, while Rana parvipalmata (from northern Spain) is frequently recognized as a distinct species.^[5] Phylogenetic analyses incorporating mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences place R. temporaria within the brown frog clade of the genus Rana, revealing its divergence from other Rana species, particularly central Asian lineages, approximately 22 million years ago during the Early Miocene, as estimated from molecular clock calibrations and fossil constraints in a 2003 study.^[7]^[8]

Description

Physical characteristics

The common frog (Rana temporaria) is characterized by a robust, corpulent body with adults typically reaching a snout-vent length of 7–10 cm (up to 13 cm in some individuals), and females are generally larger than males. ^[9] Average body weight is approximately 20-25 g, varying by population and sex, with females generally heavier than males. ^[10] The body features a rounded snout, a wide flat head, and long, muscular hind legs that enable powerful jumps, contributing to its squat, tailless morphology as a typical anuran. ^[2] ^[1] The skin is smooth and moist, supporting cutaneous gas exchange, and includes specialized dorsal glands such as a prominent chevron-shaped glandular spot on the neck, with granular texture often present on the flanks and thighs. ^[1] The hind feet are partially webbed, with toes connected by membranes that extend to about the base of the digits, facilitating propulsion in water. ^[1] Coloration shows minor variations across populations, generally featuring shades of brown, olive, or grey on the dorsum with lighter ventral surfaces. ^[1] Internally, the common frog has a simple digestive system comprising a short esophagus leading to a stomach, followed by coiled small intestines and a straight large intestine, optimized for rapid processing of small prey items. ^[2] The circulatory system includes a three-chambered heart with two atria and a single ventricle, allowing partial separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. ^[11] The skeletal structure is adapted for dual terrestrial and aquatic lifestyles, featuring a rigid vertebral column that fuses posteriorly into a urostyle for enhanced jumping leverage, along with flexible limb girdles and elongated hind limb bones. ^[2]

Variation and coloration

The common frog (Rana temporaria) displays significant intraspecific variation in coloration, with the dorsal surface typically ranging from olive-brown to yellowish-brown, often adorned with irregular dark spots and a prominent black temporal mask surrounding the eye and tympanum. The ventral side is generally pale, featuring creamy white or yellowish hues sometimes mottled with darker blotches on the belly and hind legs. These color patterns provide a baseline camouflage against forest floors and aquatic substrates, though individual differences can include grey, reddish, or more olive tones.^[2]^[1]^[12] Geographic variation is evident, particularly in melanism, where northern populations exhibit darker dorsal coloration compared to southern ones, as observed along a 1500 km latitudinal gradient in Scandinavia. This increased melanism in higher latitudes likely enhances camouflage against darker, peat-rich soils or coniferous litter, though environmental plasticity rather than genetic adaptation appears to drive the pattern. Sexual dimorphism further contributes to variation: females are larger than males (up to 10 cm versus 8 cm in snout-vent length) and often display yellower tones with red flank patches, while males develop temporary blue-gray patches on the back and throat during the breeding season.^[13]^[2]^[1] Rare color anomalies include full melanism, resulting in all-black individuals, which occur infrequently—only isolated cases among hundreds of studied adults—and may stem from age-related increases in pigmented area rather than distinct mutations. Pigmentation patterns, such as spot number, remain largely stable over time, but total melanistic coverage can expand with age. Seasonal color shifts are also noted, with males lightening to greyish and females darkening to brownish or rufous tones during the spring breeding period, a change indirectly linked to rising temperatures that trigger reproduction.^[14]^[15]

Habitat and distribution

Geographic range

The common frog (Rana temporaria) has a wide native distribution across Europe, extending from the United Kingdom and Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains and western Siberia in the east, and reaching as far north as the Arctic Circle, including areas near the Barents and White Seas in Norway and Russia.^[1] Its southern limit lies in northern France, northern Spain, and northern Italy, with populations present in countries such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Ukraine, as well as northwestern Kazakhstan.^[1] The species is absent from Portugal, central and southern Iberia, much of southern France, southern Italy, most of Greece (except the northeast), southern Ukraine, and southern European Russia. Introduced populations have established on the Isle of Lewis, Shetland, Orkney, and the Faroe Islands.^[10] Within its range, the common frog inhabits diverse terrestrial environments, including deciduous, coniferous, and mixed woodlands, meadows, bogs, forest steppes, tundra, glades, bushlands, swamps, and even anthropogenic areas such as fields, gardens, parks, and urban fringes.^[1] It favors damp, cooler habitats like upland forests and wet meadows, often occurring near ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams, which provide essential permanent water bodies for breeding.^[2] The species tolerates a broad elevational gradient, from sea level to over 2,600 m in mountainous regions such as the Alps and Pyrenees.^[16] The current distribution reflects post-glacial recolonization patterns, with populations expanding northward from southern refugia in areas like the Pyrenees, northern Italy, and the Balkans following the retreat of ice sheets at the end of the Pleistocene.^[17] This historical expansion has shaped genetic diversity across the range, with higher variation often observed in southern peripheral populations.^[18]

Genetic population structure

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analyses of the common frog (Rana temporaria) have revealed two primary lineages distributed across western and eastern Europe, reflecting postglacial recolonization from distinct refugia. These lineages show substantial genetic divergence, with pairwise sequence differences reaching up to 3% between eastern and western groups, indicative of ancient separation during the Pleistocene. Gene flow between these lineages remains low, as evidenced by high fixation indices (F_ST ≈ 0.23) and limited haplotype sharing, primarily constrained by geographic barriers such as mountain ranges and suture zones in central Sweden. This structure suggests multiple colonization routes into northern Europe, with minimal admixture promoting regional genetic distinctiveness.^[17]^[19] In isolated or fragmented habitats, such as oceanic islands or montane areas, effective population sizes (N_e) for R. temporaria are typically small, often estimated at around 32 breeding females per population based on temporal genetic monitoring. These low N_e values elevate inbreeding risks, as reduced connectivity limits immigrant gene flow and increases the likelihood of mating among relatives. Consequences include heightened inbreeding depression, manifesting as decreased larval survival and adult fitness in small, closed populations.^[20]^[21] Hybridization between R. temporaria and the sympatric moor frog (Rana arvalis) occurs rarely in overlapping ranges, primarily in central and eastern Europe, where breeding sites coincide. Documented hybrids develop to adulthood under experimental conditions, but natural occurrences are infrequent due to temporal and behavioral reproductive isolation, resulting in negligible introgression and preservation of species boundaries.^[22]

Behavior

Thermoregulation

The common frog (Rana temporaria) is an ectotherm, meaning it does not generate internal heat and instead relies on environmental sources and behavioral adjustments to maintain suitable body temperatures for activity. Individuals engage in basking on sun-exposed surfaces to elevate body temperature during cooler mornings or periods, and they retreat to shaded areas, burrow into soil, or hide in vegetation to prevent overheating on warmer days. In the field, their body temperatures typically range from 15 to 21 °C, reflecting selection of moist, moderate microhabitats, while laboratory experiments indicate a preferred temperature of approximately 23–24 °C in thermal gradients; the optimal range for locomotion and metabolic performance falls between 15 and 25 °C.^[23]^[24]^[25] Seasonally, common frogs adapt to colder conditions by entering hibernation from late autumn through winter, burying themselves in sites that provide insulation and protection from frost, such as mud at the bottom of ponds or streams, deep leaf litter, under logs, or in compost heaps. Both aquatic and terrestrial hibernation strategies occur, varying by population and elevation, with higher-altitude groups often favoring flowing water to maintain temperatures above freezing. Emergence typically begins in early spring—January in southern Europe to March in northern regions—as air temperatures exceed 5–10 °C, prompting migration to breeding sites.^[16]^[26]^[27] Physiologically, the frog's highly vascularized and permeable skin supports cutaneous respiration, accounting for up to 50–100% of gas exchange depending on activity and environment, which simultaneously facilitates passive heat transfer between the body and surroundings. For overwintering survival below 0 °C, R. temporaria employs freeze avoidance rather than tolerance, selecting hibernacula where ice formation is minimized, unlike species that use glucose as a cryoprotectant; laboratory tests confirm high mortality from direct freezing exposure.^[28]^[29]^[30] Common frogs (Rana temporaria) exhibit social aggregation primarily during hibernation, migrating in autumn to aquatic sites such as streams, lakes, and ditches where they form groups that can include amplexus-like pairings.^[31] These hibernacula aggregations provide microclimate benefits, including thermal stability that aids overwintering survival in cold environments.^[31] While basking sites may also facilitate grouping for thermoregulatory advantages, such behaviors are less documented outside of hibernation contexts.^[16] Acoustic communication plays a key role in non-reproductive social interactions among common frogs, with a vocal repertoire that includes release calls, territorial calls, and warning calls distinguishable by spectral composition, pulse number, and repetition rate.^[32] Release calls, produced by males when clasped by rivals, serve to deter unwanted interactions and signal unavailability, featuring a tremolo effect with 5.6 ± 4.1 peaks per note and a fundamental frequency ranging from 18 to 5909 Hz across individuals.^[33] These calls are not limited to the breeding season; spontaneous release vocalizations have been recorded post-breeding in August, suggesting their use in ongoing social deterrence or stress responses outside reproductive periods.^[33] Territoriality in common frogs is generally limited, particularly among adults, with overlapping feeding areas and minimal defense of space observed in non-breeding contexts.^[34] However, aggressive behaviors emerge during feeding, where individuals compete for resources, indicating context-dependent social interactions rather than fixed territorial boundaries.^[35] Such aggression appears more evident in juveniles, who show heightened resource defense compared to adults, though overall territoriality remains subdued relative to other ranid species.^[35]

Diet

Juveniles

Juvenile common frogs (Rana temporaria), immediately following metamorphosis, exhibit a diet dominated by small terrestrial invertebrates, reflecting their limited size and habitat preferences in damp, vegetated areas near natal ponds.^[1] Primary prey includes microarthropods such as springtails (Collembola), mites (Acarina), and small fly larvae (Diptera), which are abundant in leaf litter and soil surfaces.^[1] This feeding is opportunistic, with juveniles consuming whatever small, accessible invertebrates are available, adapting to local prey densities in post-metamorphic summer and autumn habitats.^[36] Foraging in juveniles centers on diurnal visual hunting, where they actively stalk and strike at movement within their immediate environment, often in shaded, moist microhabitats.^[37] Their smaller gape size restricts prey to items no larger than a few millimeters, preventing consumption of the broader, larger invertebrates targeted by adults and emphasizing a reliance on minute, soft-bodied arthropods.^[38] To support rapid post-metamorphic growth and energy accumulation for overwintering, juveniles require a high-protein diet from these invertebrate sources, promoting somatic development in their first few months.^[36] Cannibalism involving juveniles is rare but has been documented, such as adults preying on newly metamorphosed individuals in high-density situations.^[37] As juveniles mature, their diet gradually transitions toward the more diverse array of prey consumed by adults, including earthworms and larger insects.^[1]

Adults

Adult common frogs (Rana temporaria) primarily consume larger invertebrates, including beetles (Coleoptera), earthworms (Lumbricidae), snails (Gastropoda), spiders (Araneae), flies (Diptera), and harvestmen (Opiliones), with occasional predation on small vertebrates such as conspecifics through cannibalism.^[37]^[39]^[40] Unlike juveniles, which are limited to smaller prey due to gape constraints, adults exploit a broader size range of items, reflecting their increased body size and predatory capacity.^[39] Aquatic prey such as insects and molluscs are more significant in northern regions.^[1] Foraging occurs mainly through ambush predation, where adults remain stationary and project their adhesive tongue to capture passing prey at distances up to several body lengths.^[41] In summer, activity is often nocturnal to minimize water loss and desiccation risk in warmer conditions.^[42] As mid-level predators, adult common frogs play a key role in controlling insect populations, including potential agricultural pests like mosquitoes, thereby contributing to ecosystem balance in their habitats.^[2]^[41]

Reproduction

Mating patterns

The breeding season of the common frog (Rana temporaria) in temperate zones occurs from March to late June, with variation by latitude and altitude (earlier in lowlands, later in northern or high-altitude areas), coinciding with the onset of spring when environmental conditions become suitable for reproduction.^[1] This timing is primarily triggered by a rise in water temperature above approximately 6°C, which stimulates migration to breeding sites and initiates reproductive behaviors.^[43] In northern populations, breeding may extend slightly later due to cooler conditions, but the core period aligns with warming trends across its range.^[27] Courtship in the common frog is characterized by explosive breeding aggregations, where large numbers of individuals converge rapidly at ponds, lakes, or temporary water bodies for a brief period lasting days to weeks.^[44] Males arrive first and vocalize to attract females, leading to axillary amplexus, in which the male clasps the female from behind to ensure fertilization during egg extrusion.^[1] These aggregations facilitate intense mating activity but also heighten male competition for access to females.^[45] Females exhibit high fecundity, typically laying 670–4,500 eggs per clutch in a single gelatinous mass deposited in shallow water (5–50 cm depth) to protect against desiccation and predators.^[1] Clutch size varies with female body size, with larger individuals producing more eggs.^[46] These egg masses often form extensive surface layers in communal spawning sites, buffering temperature fluctuations and enhancing survival rates.^[1]

Male competition and interactions

During the explosive breeding season of the common frog (Rana temporaria), male-male rivalry manifests as intense scramble competition, where multiple males pursue and attempt to clasp receptive females in shallow waters. This often results in the formation of "mating balls," clusters of several males wrestling to secure amplexus with a single female, employing physical struggles involving pushing, grappling, and displacement attempts to gain dominance. Larger males typically prevail in these encounters, displacing smaller rivals due to their greater body size and strength, which allow them to maintain a firmer grip and defend the clasp more effectively.^[44]^[47]^[48] In addition to physical combat, males engage in vocal interactions to assert territory and deter competitors within dense choruses. Advertisement calls serve to attract females, but escalate into aggressive calls—characterized by shorter, harsher pulses—when rivals approach closely, signaling intimidation and reducing the likelihood of direct confrontation. These vocal displays reinforce size-based hierarchies, as larger males produce more intense calls that correlate with higher mating success.^[48] Female selection in R. temporaria is constrained by the rapid pace of breeding, yet females exhibit preferences for males demonstrating vigorous clasping ability, often indicated by the size and coloration of nuptial pads on the males' thumbs, which facilitate secure amplexus. Smaller or subordinate males may adopt satellite tactics, positioning silently near dominant calling males to intercept approaching females and usurp amplexus without engaging in overt combat. Such alternative strategies allow opportunistic mating but yield lower success rates compared to territorial males.^[49]^[48] Size-assortative mating, arising from these competitive dynamics and temporal migration patterns where larger individuals arrive earlier, results in pairings between similarly sized males and females. This pattern has genetic implications, as it promotes compatibility in body proportions that may enhance fertilization efficiency and offspring viability; for instance, clutches from size-matched pairs show improved embryonic development and higher survival rates under varying environmental conditions.^[45]^[50]

Life cycle

Egg and larval stages

The eggs of the common frog (Rana temporaria) are deposited in large gelatinous clumps, typically containing 670 to 4500 eggs per clutch, which aggregate into extensive masses in shallow, sunlit waters.^[1] Egg development is temperature-dependent, with hatching typically occurring in 10-21 days under spring conditions around 15°C; higher temperatures accelerate this process, while cooler water prolongs it, with ranges of 4-17 days reported in some populations.^[51]^[52] Upon hatching, tadpoles emerge measuring approximately 7-10 mm in total length, equipped with a prominent yolk sac that provides nourishment for the first few days until their mouthparts fully develop.^[53] Newly hatched tadpoles exhibit a distinctive larval morphology adapted for aquatic life, including external gills for respiration that transition to internal gills as development progresses, enabling efficient oxygen uptake from water.^[1] Initially, they function as herbivorous filter-feeders, using specialized mouthparts to graze on algae, detritus, and aquatic plants while absorbing nutrients through their skin and gut.^[1] As the larval stage advances, their diet shifts toward omnivory, incorporating small amounts of animal matter alongside plant material, which supports rapid growth in schools of hundreds or thousands.^[1] Environmental factors critically influence egg and larval survival. Low oxygen levels, or hypoxia, particularly in the lower portions of dense egg clumps, can reduce hatching success and tadpole viability by limiting respiration during early development.^[1] Predation risks from invertebrates, fish, and other amphibians exert strong selective pressure, shaping the evolution of large clutch sizes as a strategy to offset high mortality rates—often exceeding 90%—and ensure at least some offspring reach the next stage.^[54]^[55]

Metamorphosis and growth

The metamorphosis of the common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpole into a froglet represents a critical transition in its life cycle, typically spanning 6 to 12 weeks from hatching under temperate conditions. This duration can extend to 16 weeks in cooler northern latitudes, such as in Finland, where larval development ranges from 63 to 113 days. In northern latitudes or under adverse conditions, some tadpoles may overwinter and complete metamorphosis the following spring.^[56] During this period, the tadpole undergoes dramatic physiological and morphological remodeling, including the progressive resorption of the tail through apoptosis and the functional development of lungs to support aerial respiration, enabling the shift from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle. These changes are primarily orchestrated by thyroid hormones, particularly thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which surge in concentration to regulate gene expression and tissue remodeling.^[50]^[57]^[58] Upon emerging from the water, froglets measure 1 to 2 cm in snout-vent length, marking the onset of juvenile growth. These young frogs rapidly increase in size, often doubling their length by the following autumn through active foraging on terrestrial invertebrates. Sexual maturity is generally attained in 2 to 3 years, with individuals reaching an average snout-vent length of 5 to 6 cm at this stage. In the wild, common frogs exhibit a lifespan of up to 10 years, though average longevity is 5 to 7 years due to environmental pressures.^[59]^[2]^[60] Developmental plasticity plays a key role in modulating metamorphosis and growth outcomes. Warmer water temperatures accelerate the rate of development, shortening the time to metamorphosis by enhancing metabolic processes and hormone responsiveness, while cooler conditions prolong the larval phase. Similarly, higher tadpole densities reduce per capita resource availability, resulting in smaller body sizes at metamorphosis compared to low-density cohorts, a density-dependent effect that influences post-metamorphic survival and growth trajectories.^[61]^[62]

Ecology and threats

Predators

The eggs and tadpoles of the common frog (Rana temporaria) face intense predation pressure from a variety of aquatic and semi-aquatic organisms, contributing to high mortality rates that often exceed 90% during these early life stages.^[63] Common predators include fish such as sticklebacks and sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus), which actively consume eggs and tadpoles in ponds and shallow waters.^[64] Newts, particularly smooth newts (Lissotriton vulgaris), prey on tadpoles, while aquatic insects like dragonfly nymphs and diving beetle larvae (Dytiscidae) are significant threats to larvae, ambushing them in vegetation.^[1] Birds such as grey herons (Ardea cinerea) also target tadpole aggregations near the water's surface.^[9] Adult common frogs encounter a broader array of terrestrial and avian predators, though their mobility allows some evasion compared to larval stages. Snakes, including grass snakes (Natrix natrix), frequently prey on adults during foraging near water bodies.^[65] Birds of prey such as tawny owls (Strix aluco) and herons capture frogs at night or along pond edges, while mammals like foxes (Vulpes vulpes), otters (Lutra lutra), badgers (Meles meles), and stoats (Mustela erminea) opportunistically hunt them in damp habitats.^[66] In urban environments, domestic cats (Felis catus) pose an additional risk to adults, amplifying predation through human proximity.^[9] To counter these threats, common frogs employ defensive behaviors tailored to life stages, such as the unken reflex in adults, where the frog arches its body to expose bright ventral coloration as a warning or deimatic display against visual predators.^[67] Tadpoles, vulnerable to invertebrate ambushes like those from dragonfly nymphs, respond to chemical cues by altering swimming patterns or seeking refuge in deeper water.^[68] These interactions underscore the common frog's position in complex food webs, where predation shapes population dynamics across aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.^[69]

Environmental threats

The common frog (Rana temporaria) faces significant threats from climate change, which alters breeding phenology and habitat conditions. Warmer spring temperatures and earlier snowmelt have advanced egg-spawning dates by approximately 1.4 days per year in low-elevation populations over the 2009–2019 period, potentially leading to mismatches between larval development and peak food availability such as algal blooms.^[43] This shift increases the risk of frost exposure for eggs and tadpoles, particularly at higher elevations where delayed snowmelt can still result in breeding misalignment with environmental cues.^[43] Additionally, accelerated pond drying due to reduced precipitation and higher evaporation rates has caused complete tadpole mortality in affected wetlands during dry years, such as 2017 and 2019 in alpine regions.^[43] Pollution poses direct risks to embryonic and larval stages of the common frog, impairing viability and development. Acidic precipitation, with pH levels below 5.5, reduces fertilization success and increases fungal infections on eggs, leading to higher embryonic mortality in affected ponds.^[70] Laboratory studies confirm that exposure to low pH combined with aluminum, common in acidified waters, inhibits hatching and larval growth, with survival rates dropping significantly at pH 4.5.^[71] Pesticides from agricultural runoff further exacerbate these issues, causing biochemical stress in tadpoles such as glycogen depletion and elevated phosphate levels, indicating metabolic disruption.^[72] Habitat fragmentation, driven by human infrastructure, disrupts migration and increases mortality for the common frog. Roads and motorways fragment breeding ponds from terrestrial habitats, with annual traffic kills accounting for about 10% of adult populations near high-traffic areas, based on monitoring from 1994–1998 in Denmark.^[73] This mortality is particularly acute during spring migrations, where crossing probabilities exceed 89% on busy highways, hindering gene flow between populations.^[73] Invasive species, such as the American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), compete for resources in fragmented wetlands, though phenological differences may partially mitigate impacts by reducing overlap in breeding times.

Conservation

Status and protection

The common frog (Rana temporaria) is classified as Least Concern on the global IUCN Red List, reflecting its extensive range across much of Europe and western Asia, with a large and stable overall population. This assessment was conducted in 2008 and published in 2009, and the status has remained unchanged as of 2025, based on ongoing evaluations that confirm no substantial threat to its global persistence.^[1] In Europe, the species is also assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, with the regional evaluation from 2009 indicating a similar low extinction risk due to its adaptability and abundance in suitable habitats. However, population trends show stability in the core range but local declines in some regions, including western Europe according to surveys monitoring breeding sites and abundance.^[74]^[1] Legally, the common frog is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, which applies in parts of Europe and mandates the regulation of exploitation and trade through monitoring and reporting by member states. In the United Kingdom, it is scheduled under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Schedule 5), prohibiting its sale, advertisement for sale, or possession for commercial purposes without a license. These measures aim to prevent overexploitation and support population monitoring amid localized pressures.

Disease and urbanization impacts

The common frog (Rana temporaria) faces significant threats from emerging infectious diseases, particularly chytridiomycosis caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). This pathogen, which invades amphibian skin and disrupts electrolyte balance leading to cardiac arrest, was first detected in wild common frog populations in Sweden in 2010. Subsequent spread has been documented across northern Europe, contributing to localized population declines through skin infections and increased mortality rates.^[75] Additionally, ranavirus infections have caused outbreaks in common frog larvae, resulting in systemic hemorrhaging, organ necrosis, and mass die-offs; a notable example occurred in 2012 in alpine lakes of the French Alps, where high larval mortality was linked to ranavirus.^[31] Urbanization exacerbates these pressures through habitat loss and alteration, with development directly reducing breeding sites such as ponds critical for common frog reproduction. In the UK, where the species is widespread, lowland pond surveys indicate a net loss of approximately 2,000 ponds between 1990 and 1996 due to infilling and land conversion, despite some new creations, contributing to ongoing fragmentation of aquatic habitats.^[76] Light pollution from urban expansion further disrupts breeding choruses by altering nocturnal activity patterns and mate attraction in anurans, potentially reducing calling efficiency and fertilization success under artificial illumination. Long-term effects of these combined threats include reduced genetic diversity in urbanized populations, as habitat fragmentation limits gene flow and increases isolation, leading to smaller effective population sizes in affected common frog groups. Climate change synergizes with diseases by warming temperatures that favor pathogen proliferation; for instance, 2022 studies highlight how elevated environmental temperatures enhance ranavirus transmission and survival in amphibian hosts across Europe, amplifying infection risks for species like the common frog. This interaction, coupled with urbanization, heightens vulnerability to multi-pathogen exposures, potentially eroding population resilience over time.

Human interactions

Cultural significance

In European folklore, the common frog (Rana temporaria) has long been regarded as a symbol of fertility and renewal, linked to its explosive breeding activity following spring rains, which was interpreted as heralding agricultural abundance and new life.^[77] This association appears in various regional myths, where frogs embody transformative forces tied to the cycles of nature and human prosperity.^[78] A prominent example is the "Frog Prince" fairy tale, with roots in a 13th-century German literary narrative written in Latin, later popularized by the Brothers Grimm in 1812,^[79] portraying a frog's enchantment and subsequent transformation into royalty as a metaphor for inner worth and redemption. The tale, drawing on widespread European motifs of animal-human metamorphosis, underscores the frog's role as a bridge between the mundane and the magical in cultural storytelling.^[80] In modern literature, the common frog features in Beatrix Potter's 1906 children's book The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher, where the titular character, an anthropomorphic frog residing by a pond, embarks on humorous fishing escapades, reflecting Potter's keen observations of British wildlife and endearing the species to generations of readers.^[81] Beyond fiction, the common frog has become a focal point in conservation campaigns across the UK, such as those by Froglife and the Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust, which promote habitat creation like garden ponds and public awareness to counter population declines.^[82]^[83] Scientifically, the common frog served as a key model organism in pioneering embryology research during the 1920s, particularly in Hans Spemann's experiments involving embryo manipulation, which elucidated induction processes and earned him the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering the "organizer effect" in amphibian development.^[84] These studies highlighted the frog's accessibility for dissecting early developmental mechanisms, influencing subsequent biological inquiries.^[85]

Farming and captivity

Captive breeding of the common frog (Rana temporaria) is primarily conducted in laboratory settings for scientific research, including studies on reproductive technologies and conservation genetics. Hormone treatments, such as high-dose luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analog (LHRHa) at 1.2 μg/g body weight, have been used to induce spermiation in males, yielding sperm concentrations up to 650 × 10⁶/ml with high motility rates of 76–90%.^[86] Cryopreservation techniques for hormonally induced sperm have also been developed using R. temporaria as a model species to support amphibian conservation efforts.^[87] Commercial frog farming of R. temporaria has been explored in Europe, though it remains limited and largely historical due to challenges in feeding and scaling. Research has focused on improving pellet consumption by adults, which naturally prefer moving live prey; adding fly larvae to pellets increased intake to levels comparable to live crickets, while mechanical stirring did not.^[88] Darker-colored xenopus pellets were preferred over pale trout pellets, suggesting optimizations like dyeing could enhance viability for food production, but widespread adoption has not occurred.^[88] In the pet trade, R. temporaria is occasionally kept, though it is not well-suited to confinement owing to its migratory instincts and sensitivity to dry conditions. Vivaria must mimic cool, moist wetland habitats with ample shade, vegetation for cover, and access to shallow water, but permanent enclosure often leads to stress and escape attempts.^[89] Garden ponds with native plants and gentle slopes are recommended over tanks for semi-captive setups, allowing natural foraging on invertebrates like slugs and insects.^[90]

References

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At the southern limit of its range, the Common Frog is distributed unevenly and there is a tendency towards decline and extinction of some geographical ...
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Rana temporaria | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Rana temporaria is a common terrestrial frog in Great Britain, Europe and northwestern Asia. In continental Europe they are referred to as grass frog or brown ...
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Rana temporaria - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Rana temporaria is a frog species that can survive prolonged submersion in hypoxic waters without losing skeletal muscle ATP or creatine phosphate, ...
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Orientation in the European common frog Rana temporaria during ...
Adult common frogs orient towards the wintering lake from a distance of up to 230 m, regardless of the side of the lake they were released on (Pasanen and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Rana temporaria Linnaeus, 1758 | Amphibian Species of the World
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Taxonomy browser (Rana temporaria) - NCBI
Lineage (full): cellular organisms; Eukaryota; Opisthokonta; Metazoa; Eumetazoa; Bilateria; Deuterostomia; Chordata; Craniata; Vertebrata; Gnathostomata; ...
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Phylogeographic Substructuring in the Southernmost Refugium of ...
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Jul 20, 2023 · ... (Rana temporaria) up to 5–7 days. The aim of the current study was to ... The weight of the animals was 42 ± 2.5 grams for males and 52 ± 3 grams ...
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The late stage tadpole develops the three-chambered heart typical of the adult frog with two atria and a single ventricle. Despite the single ventricle, Mayer ( ...
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[PDF] related melanism in the common frog Rana temporaria - bioRxiv
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The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe.
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Behavioural adaptations of Rana temporaria to cold climates
R. temporaria is found from north of the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia to northern Spain, and in mountainous regions up to an elevation of 2600 m (Gasc et al ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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European phylogeography of the common frog (Rana temporaria)
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European common frog (Rana temporaria) recolonized Switzerland ...
Nov 2, 2021 · We show that the complex colonization history of Rana temporaria across the Alps has resulted in unusually high genetic diversity within Switzerland.
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High degree of population subdivision in a widespread amphibian
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The close resemblance of Rana sylvatica and Rana temporaria has been noted by many authors. This resemblance could be an indication of ge- netic similarity or ...
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(PDF) Staying warm or moist? Operative temperature and thermal ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We determined the operative temperature of common frogs (Rana temporaria) by placing 3% agar models in different microhabitats and measuring ...
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Thermal influences on the habitat preference and the diurnal activity ...
The northern species R. temporaria exhibited a distinctive behavioural thermoregulation including cooling behaviour at high temperatures and warming behaviour ...Missing: optimal burrowing
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An integrative study of the temperature dependence of whole animal ...
Aug 5, 2025 · The jumping and swimming performance of Rana temporaria was analyzed at 5, 10, 15 and 20 °C. Muscle fiber bundles were isolated from lateral ...Missing: burrowing | Show results with:burrowing
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Migratory behaviour during autumn and hibernation site selection in ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Aquatic and terrestrial hibernation have both been reported for Rana temporaria, but it is as yet unclear which factors influence ...
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Breeding phenology in Rana temporaria. Local variation is due to ...
In the case of R. temporaria, it draws the attention to the possible importance of hibernation sites and migration for phenology.
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The effect of temperature and photoperiod on gas exchange in the ...
1. 1. Determinations of pulmonary and cutaneous gas exchange (V̇O2 and V̇O2) were made on frogs acclimatized to temperatures of 5°, 15° and 25°C at 8-hr and 16-hr ...
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Behavioural adaptations of Rana temporaria to cold climates
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Behavioural and physiological adaptations to low-temperature ...
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RANAVIRUS CAUSES MASS DIE-OFFS OF ALPINE AMPHIBIANS ...
Apr 1, 2016 · temporaria adults migrate in autumn to aquatic hibernation sites where they aggregate (even in amplexus) for the duration of the winter ...
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Acoustic communication in the grass frog (Rana t. temporaria L.)
The grass frog's vocal repertoire includes mating and territorial calls, as well as release and warning calls. These may be distinguished by differences in ...
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[PDF] a-computational-model-for-the-study-of-release-call-in-the-pyrenean ...
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[PDF] RANA TEMPORARIA L. - The British Herpetological Society
Also, as no territorial pattern was established, the frogs remained mobile. According to Wells ( 1977), the mate-locating behaviour among explosive breeders ...
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[PDF] THE PROBLEM OF FOOD COMPETITION IN AMPHIBIANS
behaviour during feeding, and hierarchical feeding be haviour (Boice & Williams, 1971 ... Aggressive behavior of Rana temporaria at the presence of food.
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metamorphosis - Froglife
They will spend the rest of the summer and autumn foraging and feeding on small invertebrates in preparation for the winter. However, a number of common frog ...
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[PDF] The diet of Rana temporaria Linnaeus, 1758 in relation to prey ...
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The food of the Common frog, Rana temporaria, on high moorland in ...
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The food of the Common frog, Rana temporaria, on high moorland in ...
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Drop dead! Female mate avoidance in an explosively breeding frog
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[PDF] random mating in wild male common frogs (Rana temporaria)
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Frog Factsheet - Irish Peatland Conservation Council
Rana temporaria has an extensive range of habitat – from sea level to nearly as high as the snow line on mountains 760m up. The map opposite shows the ...Missing: elevation | Show results with:elevation
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[PDF] Breeding of the common frog (Rana temporaria L.) - Antti Haapanen
exceeds 5° C. The peak is on the third day, and half of the egg clumps appear within five days. Hatching of the eggs takes 4-17 days (median 14 days).Missing: incubation | Show results with:incubation
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Quality versus quantity: The balance between egg and clutch size ...
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Presence of an alien turtle accelerates hatching of common frog
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Common frog | The Wildlife Trusts
Common frogs are amphibians found in ponds, breeding in spring, with varied colors, smooth skin, and a dark mask. They eat slugs and snails.Missing: history | Show results with:history
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Temperature, genetic and hydroperiod effects on metamorphosis of ...
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DENSITY REGULATION IN TADPOLES OF RANA TEMPORARIA: A ...
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Spawn & tadpoles FAQs - Amphibian and Reptile Conservation
Predators - both in and out of the pond, including: fish, dragonfly larvae, water boatmen, newts, grass snakes and birds. Late frosts - spawn can be extremely ...
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(PDF) Small fish (Leucaspius delineatus) that are often released into ...
Sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus) preys on common frog (Rana temporaria) eggs and tadpoles, contradicting previous beliefs. Experimental trials demonstrate ...
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Common Frog (Rana temporaria) - Woodland Trust
30-day returnsThey measure around 8–13cm in length and weigh approximately 22g. Females are larger than males. Adult frogs are slender in appearance and have smooth skin ...
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Predators. Common Frogs are eaten by many kinds of animals including Grass Snakes as well as Grey Herons and other water birds. Among the mammals partial to ...
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Common frog | Wildlife Online
Rana is the Latin for “frog”, while temporaria is “temporary”; so Rana temporaria is quite literally “the temporary frog”.
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[PDF] a note on the unkenreflex and similar defensive postures in rana ...
Many frogs show antipredator adaptations to a less dramatic degree. The classic "unkenreflex" takes its name from the European Bombinas ("Unken" in. German) ...
[70]
Different time patterns of the presence of red-eared slider influence ...
May 12, 2022 · In this study, we examine the dynamics of the ontogeny of common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles under different time patterns of an alien predator.
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Habitat duration, predation risk and phenotypic plasticity in common ...
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The effects of acid precipitation on amphibians | Ecotoxicology
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The effects of acid water and aluminium on the embryonic ...
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Subtle effects of environmental stress observed in the early ... - Nature
Mar 20, 2017 · Subtle effects of environmental stress observed in the early life stages of the Common frog, Rana temporaria ... predation. Interestingly, the ...
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[PDF] European Red List of Amphibians - IUCN Portals
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Differing long term trends for two common amphibian species (Bufo ...
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Impact of asynchronous emergence of two lethal pathogens ... - Nature
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[PDF] Lowland Pond Survey 1996 - Freshwater Habitats Trust
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Artificial light at night alters the sexual behaviour and fertilisation ...
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Frogs: Why we love them, why we don't, and the real-life Kermit frog
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Protection. In Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the common frog (and its spawn) is protected by law from trade and sale.
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Mar 23, 2018 · Common frog, common toad and natterjack toad populations have been reported as being in decline since the 1970s.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Around 1920 Hans Spemann succeeded in using fine pipettes or loops of children's hair to move around different parts of a frog embryo.
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https://www.arc-trust.org/news/hop-to-it-caring-for-the-common-frog
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[PDF] Zoo-based amphibian research and conservation breeding programs
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(PDF) Frog farming: Investigation of biological and mechanical ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This study investigated consumption of pelleted food by adult common frogs, Rana temporaria, when moved by a mechanical stirrer or by y larvae.
[93]
[PDF] THE COMMON FROG RANA TEMPORARIA: SOME NOTES ON ITS ...
Common frogs spawn in early spring, are best in garden ponds, and tadpoles need cover. They are not ideal for vivariums and are intolerant of dry conditions.
[94]
Hop to it: caring for the common frog
Mar 20, 2019 · The common frog (or Rana temporaria to use its formal scientific name) is distributed throughout the UK and Ireland and can be found almost anywhere with ...