Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Cuneiform bones

The cuneiform bones are three wedge-shaped tarsal bones situated in the midfoot of the human foot, comprising the medial (first), intermediate (second), and lateral (third) cuneiforms, which collectively bridge the navicular bone posteriorly and the bases of the first three metatarsals anteriorly.^[1]^[2] These bones form a pivotal part of the distal tarsal row, contributing to the structural integrity of the foot's arches and facilitating weight distribution during locomotion.^[3] The medial cuneiform is the largest and most prominent of the three, positioned medially and articulating proximally with the concave surface of the navicular bone, distally with the bases of the first and second metatarsals, and laterally with the intermediate cuneiform.^[2] The intermediate cuneiform, the smallest and most wedge-like, lies between the medial and lateral cuneiforms, articulating with the navicular posteriorly, the base of the second metatarsal anteriorly, and adjacent cuneiforms on its sides.^[2] The lateral cuneiform, broader than the intermediate, connects posteriorly to the navicular, anteriorly to the bases of the second, third, and fourth metatarsals, laterally to the cuboid bone, and medially to the intermediate cuneiform.^[2] All three receive blood supply primarily from branches of the dorsalis pedis artery and are innervated by the deep fibular nerve along with medial or lateral plantar nerves, depending on their position.^[2] Functionally, the cuneiform bones are essential for maintaining the transverse arch of the foot—particularly the medial cuneiform's plantar projection—and supporting the medial longitudinal arch through ligamentous and tendinous attachments, such as those from the tibialis anterior and posterior tendons.^[3]^[2] They enable smooth force transmission from the hindfoot to the forefoot, absorbing shock and stabilizing the midfoot during gait.^[1] Clinically, these bones are susceptible to stress fractures, osteochondrosis, and bipartite variants, particularly in athletes or individuals with repetitive midfoot loading, which can lead to pain, instability, or midfoot arthritis if untreated.^[4]^[5]

Anatomy

Overview and nomenclature

The cuneiform bones are a set of three wedge-shaped tarsal bones located in the midfoot of the human foot, consisting of the medial (first), intermediate (second), and lateral (third) cuneiforms.^[2] These bones are positioned distally to the navicular bone and proximally to the bases of the first, second, and third metatarsals, contributing to the structure of the medial longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot.^[6] The medial cuneiform is the largest and most prominent of the three, situated on the medial side of the foot, while the intermediate cuneiform is the smallest and the lateral cuneiform is intermediate in size.^[2]^[6] The term "cuneiform" derives from the Latin words cuneus (wedge) and forma (shape), reflecting the bones' characteristic wedge-like morphology that aids in forming the foot's arches.^[7]^[8] They are also referred to by their positional names—medial, intermediate, and lateral—to distinguish their anatomical roles and relationships within the tarsus.^[6] The cuneiform bones were first described in ancient Greek and Roman anatomical texts, such as those by Galen in the 2nd century AD, with shape-based nomenclature for tarsal bones evolving through Renaissance anatomists like Andreas Vesalius in the 16th century.^[8] Modern standardized terminology for these bones was established in the 19th century through efforts like the Nomina Anatomica, formalizing their designation in anatomical literature.^[9]

Osteology and articulations

The cuneiform bones, consisting of the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms, are three wedge-shaped tarsal bones located in the midfoot, positioned between the navicular proximally and the metatarsals distally.^[10] Their osteology reflects their role in forming the transverse arch of the foot, with varying degrees of wedging that contribute to the medial longitudinal arch.^[11] Each bone exhibits distinct surfaces adapted for articulation and soft tissue attachment, with the medial cuneiform being the largest, the intermediate the smallest, and the lateral intermediate in size.^[12] The medial cuneiform is the largest of the three, featuring a rectangular base and a prominent tubercle on its plantar surface for attachment of the tibialis anterior tendon.^[11] Its dorsal surface is narrow and convex, while the plantar surface is flat and broader, accommodating a slip of the tibialis posterior tendon.^[10] The medial surface is rough and subcutaneous, presenting a vertical convexity with an impression for the tibialis anterior muscle; the lateral surface includes dorsal facets separated by ridges for articulation and a groove for the peroneus longus tendon.^[11] Proximally, it has a pyriform (pear-shaped) facet, and distally, a reniform (kidney-shaped) surface.^[11] The intermediate cuneiform is the smallest and most wedge-shaped, with a narrow plantar base that enhances its tapered form.^[12] Its dorsal surface is rectangular and rough, the plantar surface narrow and receiving a slip of the tibialis posterior tendon, and the proximal surface features a concave triangular facet.^[13] The distal surface is also triangular, while the medial and lateral surfaces are partly articular with appositional contact to the adjacent cuneiforms and include L-shaped facets medially.^[13] A unique feature is its formation of a mortise-like structure that partially encases the base of the second metatarsal.^[10] The lateral cuneiform is the most distinctly wedge-shaped, with a dorsal convexity and a rectangular rough dorsal surface.^[12] Its plantar surface is narrow, giving origin to the flexor hallucis brevis muscle and attachment for the tibialis posterior tendon, while the medial surface articulates with the intermediate cuneiform via two small facets.^[14] The lateral surface presents a facet for the cuboid, the proximal surface a triangular articulation, and the distal surface contacts the bases of the second and third metatarsals.^[14] It lies with its edge downward, positioned between the intermediate cuneiform and cuboid.^[14] All three cuneiform bones articulate proximally with the navicular bone via three separate concave facets, one on each bone, forming the cuneonavicular joints.^[15] Distally, the medial cuneiform articulates with the base of the first metatarsal (and dorsomedially with the second), the intermediate with the second metatarsal, and the lateral with the bases of the second and third metatarsals, comprising the tarsometatarsal joints.^[10] Intercuneiform joints exist between the medial and intermediate cuneiforms, and between the intermediate and lateral cuneiforms, with the lateral cuneiform additionally articulating laterally with the cuboid via the cuneocuboid joint.^[15] These synovial joints are reinforced by interosseous ligaments.^[13] Ossification of the cuneiform bones occurs postnatally, with primary centers appearing in the first few years of life: the lateral cuneiform at approximately 1 year, the medial at 3 years, and the intermediate at 3-4 years, often being the last tarsal to ossify.^[16] Each bone typically develops from a single ossification center, though the medial may have two, and full ossification is generally complete by late childhood, around 10-12 years.^[10]

Ligaments and soft tissue relations

The cuneiform bones are stabilized by a network of ligaments that connect them to adjacent tarsal and metatarsal bones, ensuring midfoot integrity. The dorsal and plantar cuneonavicular ligaments reinforce the articulations between the navicular bone and the three cuneiforms, providing anterior-posterior stability while allowing limited flexion and extension. Interosseous ligaments bind the non-articular surfaces between the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms, limiting excessive lateral or medial translation during weight-bearing activities. Cuneometatarsal ligaments, including dorsal, plantar, and interosseous components, link the distal surfaces of the cuneiforms to the bases of the first through third metatarsals, distributing compressive forces across the transverse arch. Central to this ligamentous complex is the Lisfranc ligament, an oblique band arising from the lateral plantar surface of the medial cuneiform and inserting onto the medial base of the second metatarsal. This ligament, comprising dorsal, interosseous, and plantar components, acts as the primary restraint against midfoot diastasis. The surrounding soft tissues include the proximity of the tibialis anterior tendon along the dorsomedial aspect of the medial cuneiform and the peroneus longus tendon near its lateral surface, which contribute to dynamic stabilization without direct bony insertion in this region. Attachments to the plantar fascia occur via extensions that blend with the cuneiform bases, supporting the medial longitudinal arch. Fat pads and bursae in the midfoot, particularly beneath the cuneiforms, provide cushioning against shear forces during gait. Biomechanically, these ligaments prevent dorsal displacement of the metatarsals relative to the cuneiforms and maintain longitudinal arch alignment under load. The Lisfranc joint complex forms a "Roman arch" configuration, where the recessed intermediate cuneiform and second metatarsal base serve as the keystone, with the Lisfranc ligament anchoring the medial pillar to resist plantarflexion and abduction stresses. This setup enhances overall foot rigidity, particularly in propulsion phases of walking. Pathological ligament laxity, often seen in hypermobile feet, can compromise cuneiform stability, leading to excessive first ray motion and predisposition to midfoot deformities such as flatfoot or hallux valgus.

Vascular and neural supply

The cuneiform bones receive their arterial supply from branches of the dorsalis pedis artery, which provides blood to the dorsal aspects via the medial and lateral tarsal arteries.^[17] These arteries anastomose with branches from the medial plantar artery, which supplies the plantar surfaces, forming arcades around the tarsometatarsal joints that ensure comprehensive perfusion of the midfoot region.^[17] For the medial cuneiform specifically, a middle pedicle branch from the dorsalis pedis contributes to the dorsal supply, while the medial and superficial medial plantar arteries nourish the plantar aspect, supported by a dense intraosseous capillary network with one major nutrient artery and several minor ones.^[18] Venous drainage of the cuneiform bones parallels the arterial supply, occurring through the dorsal and plantar venous plexuses of the foot.^[19] These plexuses ultimately drain into the great saphenous vein medially and the small saphenous vein laterally, facilitating return of deoxygenated blood to the lower limb venous system.^[20] Sensory innervation to the cuneiform bones arises from the deep peroneal nerve on the dorsal side and the medial and lateral plantar nerves on the plantar side, providing periosteal sensation to these skeletal structures.^[19] As non-muscular elements, the cuneiform bones receive no significant motor innervation.^[10] Notably, the intermediate cuneiform is susceptible to avascular necrosis following fractures.^[21]

Function

Biomechanical role in the foot

The cuneiform bones play a pivotal role in forming the arches of the foot, which are essential for maintaining structural integrity and dynamic function. The medial and intermediate cuneiforms are key components of the medial longitudinal arch (MLA), forming its anterior pillar alongside the navicular bone and the first three metatarsals, while all three cuneiforms contribute to the transverse arch through their wedge-shaped morphology that elevates the central foot region.^[22] This wedged configuration, with the base of each cuneiform oriented dorsally, creates a stable yet resilient framework that supports the foot's adaptability to varying loads.^[6]^[23] During gait, the cuneiform bones facilitate efficient load transmission by transferring weight from the talus and navicular proximally to the metatarsals distally across the tarsometatarsal joints, which exhibit slight mobility to absorb impact forces. This mechanism allows the midfoot to act as a shock absorber, dissipating vertical ground reaction forces during the stance phase and enabling smooth propulsion in the push-off phase.^[22] The interlocking articulations between the cuneiforms and adjacent bones, reinforced by ligamentous tension such as the Lisfranc ligament complex, establish a rigid platform that enhances overall foot stability while permitting controlled pronation and supination to adapt to terrain irregularities.^[24]^[6] In pathomechanics, misalignment of the cuneiform bones, as seen in flat feet (pes planus), disrupts normal arch geometry, leading to altered stress distribution where loads are unevenly shifted from the cuneiforms to the navicular and other midfoot structures, potentially causing overload and compensatory strain on adjacent bones and soft tissues.^[25] This redistribution increases the risk of midfoot instability and pain, particularly under dynamic loading like walking or running, as the reduced arch height diminishes the foot's natural shock-absorbing capacity.^[26]

Muscle and tendon attachments

The cuneiform bones serve as key attachment sites for several extrinsic and intrinsic foot muscles, facilitating movements such as dorsiflexion, inversion, eversion, and plantarflexion while contributing to the stability of the transverse and medial longitudinal arches of the foot. The medial cuneiform, in particular, receives the primary insertion of the tibialis anterior tendon on its medial and plantar surfaces, enabling dorsiflexion and inversion of the foot during the swing phase of gait.^[2]^[3] A slip from the tibialis posterior tendon also inserts on the plantar surface of the medial cuneiform, supporting inversion and arch maintenance, while the peroneus longus tendon attaches to its base and that of the first metatarsal, promoting eversion and plantarflexion to balance medial forces.^[6]^[2] The intermediate cuneiform has more limited muscular attachments, primarily receiving a second slip of the tibialis posterior tendon on its plantar surface, which reinforces the medial arch and aids in controlled inversion during weight-bearing activities.^[2] In contrast, the lateral cuneiform features an origin site for the flexor hallucis brevis muscle on its plantar aspect, allowing this intrinsic muscle to flex the proximal phalanx of the hallux and stabilize the forefoot during toe-off in the gait cycle.^[3]^[6] Tendon relations further integrate the cuneiform bones into foot dynamics. The dorsal surfaces of the cuneiforms provide supportive relations for tendons like those of the extensor digitorum brevis, though primary attachments remain on adjacent structures. These muscular interfaces enable fine-tuned adjustments, such as coordinated propulsion in gait, where imbalances in tibialis anterior or peroneus longus tension can alter forefoot alignment.^[6] Anatomical variations in attachments are uncommon but include occasional accessory slips of the tibialis posterior to the intermediate or lateral cuneiforms, or rare sesamoid bones embedded near the peroneus longus insertion on the medial cuneiform, potentially affecting local biomechanics.^[2]

Clinical relevance

Injuries and disorders

The cuneiform bones are susceptible to various traumatic injuries, primarily fractures that occur due to direct trauma or repetitive stress. Avulsion fractures of the medial cuneiform tubercle are uncommon but can result from forceful contraction of the tibialis anterior tendon, pulling a bone fragment at its insertion site.^[27] Stress fractures of the cuneiform bones are rare and can affect any of the three, often seen in runners or athletes subjected to high repetitive loading, leading to microtrabecular failure over time.^[4] Fractures of the lateral cuneiform are rare in isolation and typically occur in conjunction with cuboid injuries, such as in high-energy midfoot trauma involving compression or nutcracker mechanisms.^[28] Osteochondrosis of the cuneiform bones is a rare, self-limiting condition primarily affecting children, characterized by aseptic necrosis that can cause midfoot pain and a limp, typically resolving spontaneously within months.^[29] Bipartite cuneiforms, most commonly of the medial cuneiform, are rare anatomical variants with a prevalence of approximately 0.8-2%, which may be asymptomatic but can lead to chronic midfoot pain or be mistaken for fractures due to non-fusion of ossification centers.^[30] Lisfranc injuries represent a spectrum of midfoot trauma involving the tarsometatarsal joints, where the cuneiform bones articulate with the metatarsals, often resulting in sprains, fractures, or dislocations. These injuries disrupt the stability of the medial (first), intermediate (second), and lateral (third) cuneiform-metatarsal articulations, with the second metatarsal base serving as a keystone for alignment. The original classification by Quenu and Kuss categorizes these as homolateral (all metatarsals displaced in the same direction), isolated (single metatarsal affected), or divergent (first metatarsal medially displaced with others laterally).^[31] Degenerative and congenital disorders also impact the cuneiform bones, altering midfoot biomechanics. Osteoarthritis commonly develops at the inter-cuneiform joints, characterized by cartilage loss and osteophyte formation, often secondary to prior trauma or chronic overload.^[32] Tarsal coalition, a congenital fusion anomaly, infrequently involves the cuneiforms, with reported cases of intermediate-lateral cuneiform synostosis leading to restricted motion and pain during adolescence or early adulthood.^[33] Stress reactions, precursors to full fractures, manifest in athletes as periosteal edema in the cuneiforms due to repetitive impact, particularly in the medial or intermediate bones. Risk factors for cuneiform injuries and disorders include participation in high-impact sports like running or basketball, which impose repetitive axial loading on the midfoot. Systemic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis predispose to inflammatory arthropathy in the inter-cuneiform joints, accelerating degenerative changes. Biomechanical abnormalities, notably pes planus (flatfoot), increase vulnerability by altering load distribution across the cuneiforms and tarsometatarsal complex.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Diagnosis and management

Diagnosis of cuneiform bone-related issues begins with a thorough clinical evaluation, focusing on patient history and physical examination to identify midfoot pathology. Patients often present with localized midfoot pain exacerbated by weight-bearing, swelling, ecchymosis, and tenderness upon palpation over the cuneiforms or tarsometatarsal joints. For Lisfranc injuries involving the cuneiforms, specific tests include the pronation-abduction drawer test, which assesses instability by applying anterior-posterior and rotational stress to the midfoot, and the single-leg heel-rise test, where inability to rise on toes indicates disruption. Gait analysis may reveal biomechanical abnormalities contributing to stress on the medial column, such as excessive pronation or arch collapse.^[37]^[38] Imaging modalities are essential for confirming diagnosis, as initial plain radiographs may miss subtle injuries. Weight-bearing anteroposterior and lateral X-rays are first-line, revealing key signs such as the fleck sign—an avulsion fracture from the medial cuneiform base indicating Lisfranc ligament disruption—or diastasis greater than 2 mm between the first and second metatarsal bases. If non-weight-bearing views are inconclusive, computed tomography (CT) provides detailed assessment of fracture extent, displacement, and joint involvement, particularly for isolated cuneiform fractures where occult lesions occur in up to 73% of initial radiographs. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is preferred for evaluating soft tissue and ligament damage, such as intercuneiform or tarsometatarsal ligament tears, while ultrasound aids in detecting dynamic instability during stress maneuvers. For tarsal coalitions involving cuneiforms, CT delineates bony bridging, with MRI assessing associated cartilage or soft tissue changes. Diagnostic delays average 65 days for isolated medial cuneiform fractures due to subtle findings.^[37]^[39]^[40] Management strategies depend on injury stability, displacement, and patient factors, prioritizing restoration of midfoot alignment and function. Conservative approaches are indicated for nondisplaced or stable injuries, including immobilization in a short-leg cast or walking boot with non-weight-bearing for 4-6 weeks, followed by progressive weight-bearing and orthotics to support the longitudinal arch. Stress fractures of the cuneiforms respond well to this regimen, often resolving within 4-6 weeks with protected activity. For tarsal coalitions causing pain, initial nonsurgical management involves orthotics, activity modification, and anti-inflammatory measures. Surgical intervention is required for displaced fractures, unstable Lisfranc injuries, or irreparable joint surfaces, typically involving open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) with transarticular screws or dorsal plates to maintain medial column length and tarsometatarsal stability. In cases of severe comminution or coalitions with degenerative changes, arthrodesis of the affected joints is performed to achieve fusion and alleviate pain. Primary fusion may be considered for high-energy injuries with ligamentous incompetence.^[41]^[39]^[42] Outcomes vary by injury type and timeliness of intervention, with conservative management yielding good results in reported cases of nondisplaced isolated cuneiform fractures, allowing return to full activity within 3-6 months without complications. Surgical ORIF for Lisfranc injuries achieves anatomical reduction in most cases, with favorable functional scores in stable postoperative patients, though risks include posttraumatic arthritis in 20-40% long-term. Rehabilitation protocols emphasize early mobilization post-immobilization, incorporating physical therapy for strengthening, proprioception, and arch-supportive orthotics to prevent recurrence. Delayed diagnosis increases complication rates, underscoring the need for vigilant evaluation.^[39]^[38]^[43]

Comparative anatomy

Structure in other mammals

In non-human mammals, the cuneiform bones—typically the three distal tarsals (medial, intermediate, and lateral)—exhibit significant morphological variations compared to the distinct, wedge-shaped structures seen in humans, often reflecting locomotor adaptations. In carnivores such as dogs and cats, the three cuneiform bones remain distinct and unfused, forming part of the seven tarsal bones that support agile, digitigrade locomotion.^[44] These bones articulate proximally with the navicular and distally with the metatarsals, maintaining a configuration that allows for flexibility during predation and rapid directional changes. In contrast, many quadrupedal ungulates show reductions and fusions; for instance, in horses, the medial and intermediate cuneiforms are fused into a single mediointermediate bone, resulting in six tarsal bones overall, which enhances stability for high-speed galloping.^[45] Ruminants like deer and sheep further reduce the count to five tarsal bones through fusion of the intermediate and lateral cuneiforms with other elements, integrating them into a more compact structure suited to cursorial lifestyles.^[46] Articulations of the cuneiform bones also vary to accommodate species-specific demands. In felines, the lateral cuneiform articulates more extensively with the cuboid bone laterally, providing additional support for powerful leaps and pouncing, while the medial cuneiform maintains close contact with the navicular for precise foot placement.^[44] Ungulates exhibit enhanced wedge-like shapes in their cuneiforms (or fused equivalents), with broader proximal surfaces for weight distribution across fewer digits, as seen in the elongated, robust forms in deer that facilitate efficient force transmission during sustained running.^[47] Primates, particularly non-human ones, generally retain human-like separation of the three cuneiform bones, though with subtle differences; for example, in chimpanzees, the medial cuneiform displays a more convex distal facet, aiding in arboreal grasping and climbing.^[48] Functional adaptations further distinguish cuneiform morphology across mammals. In cursorial species like deer, the cuneiforms are elongated and integrated into fused complexes that prioritize rigidity and shock absorption for speed over rough terrain, minimizing lateral movement during high-velocity pursuits.^[47] Conversely, in brachiating primates such as gibbons, the cuneiforms are relatively reduced in size and contribute to a highly flexible, prehensile foot structure, with the medial cuneiform's articulation allowing greater dorsiflexion and opposition of the hallux for secure branch gripping during suspension.^[49] A striking example of extreme reduction occurs in cetaceans, where distinct cuneiform bones are absent due to the evolutionary loss of hindlimbs and tarsal elements altogether, replaced by a streamlined flipper formed primarily from modified forelimb bones.^[50] In equids, the central tarsal bone, homologous to the navicular, provides a pivotal role in the locked hock joint for propulsion.^[44]

Evolutionary aspects

The cuneiform bones of mammals are derived from the distal row of tarsal elements present in reptilian ancestors, where primitive reptiles possessed up to five distal tarsals that contributed to the foundational structure of the tarsus.^[51] In early tetrapods, homologs of the cuneiforms formed part of a more extensive tarsal mosaic, with proximal elements fusing into the astragalus-calcaneus complex through ontogenetic repatterning of the tibiale, intermedium, and fibulare, as observed in taxa like Hylonomus lyelli, the earliest known amniote.^[52] This configuration diverged in therapsids, the synapsid lineage leading to mammals, where progressive reduction and specialization of distal tarsals established the seven-bone mammalian tarsus, including three distinct cuneiforms, by the late Permian to early Triassic.^[53] Bipedal evolution in hominids accentuated the wedge-shaped morphology of the cuneiforms to support longitudinal arch formation and efficient weight transfer during upright locomotion. In Australopithecus afarensis (ca. 3.0–3.4 million years ago), the medial cuneiform exhibits transitional features, such as a dorsally convex distal facet for the non-opposable hallux, indicating early adaptation for bipedal stability while retaining some arboreal capabilities.^[54] Primates generally show loss of tarsal fusion among the cuneiforms, allowing greater midfoot flexibility for grasping and varied locomotion, in contrast to artiodactyls like ruminants, where fusion of the cuneiforms with the navicular and cuboid persists, enhancing rigidity for cursorial gaits.^[50] Fossil evidence from Miocene apes, such as those from East African sites (ca. 20–14 million years ago), reveals elongated cuneiforms adapted for arboreal locomotion, with extended distal facets facilitating toe-off during suspension and climbing in forested environments.^[55] Post-Australopithecus, biomechanical shifts in the Homo lineage (ca. 1.8 million years ago onward) further refined cuneiform geometry for endurance walking, as seen in elevated arches in Homo erectus footprints from Koobi Fora (1.5 million years ago), which optimized elastic energy return and reduced metabolic cost during long-distance travel.^[56] In modern humans, vestigial features persist, such as the small size of the intermediate cuneiform, reflecting evolutionary reduction of the second ray relative to the robust medial and lateral rays, a legacy of diminished reliance on medial foot grasping in favor of bipedal propulsion.^[54]

References

[1]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Navicular Bone - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
### Summary of Cuneiform Bones from the Article
[2]
Cuneiform bones: Anatomy and clinical notes - Kenhub
The cuneiform (from the Latin for 'wedge') bones are a set of three bones in the medial side of the foot that articulate with the navicular proximally.
[3]
Bones of the Foot - Tarsals - Metatarsals - Phalanges - TeachMeAnatomy
### Cuneiform Bones Summary
[4]
A Middle Cuneiform Stress Fracture in an Adolescent Athlete
The cuneiforms role in maintaining the medial longitudinal arch and the transverse arch makes them a central part of the foot biomechanics exposed to both ...
[5]
The Bipartite Medial Cuneiform—A Rare Cause of Midfoot Pain - NIH
The bipartite medial cuneiform (BMC) is a rare congenital variant of the tarsus. It is described as the separation of the normal medial cuneiform into 2 ...
[6]
Cuneiforms - Physiopedia
There are three cuneiform bones: The first cuneiform (also known as the medial cuneiform) is the largest of the three bones, it is situated at the medial side ...
[7]
Cuneiform bones | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Feb 18, 2025 · History and etymology ... Cuneiform means wedge-shaped from the Latin words 'cuneus' meaning wedge and 'form' referring to shape. Incoming Links.
[8]
Musculoskeletal etymology: What's in a name? - PMC
Other tarsal bones were too named on the basis of their shapes, like navicular (small ship), cuboid (cube-like) and cuneiform (wedge-shaped). It should be noted ...
[9]
Historical evolution of anatomical terminology from ancient to modern
In the second stage, Vesalius in the early 16th century described the anatomical structures in his Fabrica with the help of detailed magnificent illustrations.
[10]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Foot Bones - StatPearls - NCBI
The midfoot consists of the five tarsal bones, three cuneiforms, the navicular, and the cuboid. The hindfoot is composed of two tarsal bones, the calcaneus and ...
[11]
Medial cuneiform | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Jul 23, 2025 · The lateral surface shows dorsal facets for the articulations with intermediate cuneiforms and second metatarsal base. ... Gray's Anatomy. (2008) ...
[12]
Bones of the Feet – Introduction to Human Osteology
Notes on Siding ; Cuneiform I, Represents the largest of the cuneiform bones. The large articulating surface is anterior, the sharp ridge superior, and the rough ...
[13]
Intermediate cuneiform | Radiology Reference Article
Feb 18, 2025 · The intermediate cuneiform is one of the tarsal bones located between the medial and lateral cuneiform bones. ... Gray's Anatomy. (2008) ISBN: ...
[14]
Lateral cuneiform | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Feb 18, 2025 · The lateral cuneiform is one of the tarsal bones located between the intermediate cuneiform and cuboid bones. ... Gray's Anatomy. (2008) ISBN: ...
[15]
Tarsal bones: Anatomy and function - Kenhub
The final set of bones of the tarsus are the cuneiform bones (medial, intermediate, lateral) which are named after their relative position. These wedge shaped ...
[16]
Ossification centers of the foot | Radiology Reference Article
Feb 18, 2025 · Primary ossification centers developing after birth Become visible on x-ray from: lateral cuneiform: 1st year. medial cuneiform: 3rd year. ...
[17]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Foot Arteries - NCBI - NIH
The vasculature of the foot is composed of arteries that originate from the anterior and posterior tibial arteries, the terminal branches of the popliteal ...
[18]
Intraosseous and extraosseous blood supply to the medial cuneiform
The medial plantar and superficial medial plantar artery supplied the plantar aspect of the bone. Intraosseous analysis showed a dense capillary network ...
[19]
Medial cuneiform | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Jul 23, 2025 · The medial cuneiform is one of the tarsal bones located between the navicular and base of first metatarsal, medial to the intermediate cuneiform bone.
[20]
Venous drainage of the foot | Radiology Reference Article
Sep 20, 2020 · Venous drainage of the foot can be divided into two main components. Plantar veins, draining the sole (plantar surface) of the foot, and the dorsal veins.
[21]
Total Loss of the Intermediate Cuneiform by Posttraumatic Avascular ...
Sep 1, 2020 · We report a unique case of the total loss of the intermediate cuneiform by posttraumatic avascular necrosis resulting from a left foot open ...
[22]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Arches of the Foot - NCBI - NIH
Aug 27, 2025 · The human foot contains 2 longitudinal arches, medial and lateral, and a transverse arch with anterior and posterior components that function ...
[23]
The Arches of the Foot - Longitudinal - Transverse - TeachMeAnatomy
### Summary: Ligaments Supporting Foot Arches Involving Cuneiform Bones
[24]
Cuneiform Bone - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cuneiform bones are defined as three wedge-shaped bones in the foot, named medial, intermediate, and lateral, which articulate with each other and with the ...
[25]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Medial Longitudinal Arch of ...
The cuneiform bones articulate with the first three metatarsals. The dorsal, interosseous, and plantar components of the Lisfranc ligament connect the medial ( ...Missing: soft | Show results with:soft
[26]
Numerical evaluations of different foot arch types: effects of loading on plantar pressure distribution and bone stress
### Summary of Findings on Stress Distribution in Low Arch Feet
[27]
Flexor hallucis longus muscle - Kenhub
Flexor hallucis longus is a posterior leg muscle involved in moving the great toe and foot. Learn more about its anatomy and functions at Kenhub!Missing: cuneiform | Show results with:cuneiform
[28]
Avulsion Fracture of Medial Cuneiform by Tibialis Anterior Tendon ...
It has been reported about the avulsion fracture and surgical repair of tibialis anterior tendon rupture at distal insertion site of medial cuneiform in Korea.
[29]
Cuboid and Cuneiform Fractures in Adults - DynaMed
Sep 23, 2024 · Classification of Cuneiform Fractures ; 85.1: medial cuneiform fractures. 85.1.A: avulsion fracture; 85.1.B: partial articular fracture ; 85.2: ...
[30]
In Brief: Lisfranc Fracture Dislocations - PMC - NIH
The original classification system by Quenu and Kuss [13] described injuries as homolateral, isolated, or divergent based on the direction of the displaced ...
[31]
Midfoot Arthritis - Foot & Ankle - Orthobullets
Jul 22, 2023 · Midfoot Arthritis is defined as arthritis of the midfoot which includes the following joints: naviculocuneiform joint, intercuneiform joints ...
[32]
Stress Fractures of the Foot and Ankle - OrthoInfo - AAOS
Most stress fractures are caused by overuse and repetitive activity; they are common in runners and athletes who participate in running-intensive sports, such ...Missing: intermediate | Show results with:intermediate
[33]
Midfoot arthritis- current concepts review - PMC - NIH
It occurs as a result of widening of the intercuneiform joint with disruption of the Lisfranc ligament but without injury to the TMT joints.
[34]
The injury risk associated with pes planus in athletes - PubMed
Although gender and participation in contact sports was predictive of some lower extremity injuries, the existence of pes planus as measured by medial midfoot ...
[35]
Lisfranc Injury - Foot & Ankle - Orthobullets
Oct 31, 2025 · stable osseous architecture. second metatarsal fits in mortise created by medial cuneiform and recessed middle cuneiform, "keystone ...
[36]
Lisfranc fracture-dislocations: current management - PubMed
Jul 2, 2019 · The surgical treatment we prefer is open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) with transarticular screws or with dorsal plates in cases of comminution of ...
[37]
Isolated Medial Cuneiform Fractures: A Systematic Search ... - PubMed
Jul 1, 2021 · Isolated medial cuneiform fracture is a rare but diagnostically challenging condition. Diagnostic delay in these cases may lead to delays in ideal treatment ...
[38]
Lisfranc complex injuries management and treatment - PubMed
Jun 15, 2022 · Lisfranc complex injuries are a spectrum of midfoot and tarsometatarsal (TMT) joint trauma, more frequent in men and in the third decade of life.
[39]
Treatment of Cuneiform fracture - AO Surgery Reference
Open reduction and internal fixation is generally recommended to maintain the length of the medial column and stability of the involved joints.
[40]
A Middle Cuneiform Stress Fracture in an Adolescent Athlete
Oct 8, 2019 · One factor that may protect the cuneiform bones from stress injuries is their excellent blood supply, especially when compared to the adjacent ...Missing: rheumatoid | Show results with:rheumatoid
[41]
Non-traumatic isolated medial cuneiform fracture - NIH
Dec 5, 2017 · Most cases of non-displaced medial cuneiform fracture can be treated conservatively with immobilization with a short leg cast for a period of ...
[42]
Tarsal bones - vet-Anatomy - IMAIOS
The tarsal bones (basipodium) compose the first row of the skeleton of the pes. The tarsal bones are arranged from proximal to distal into 3 rows.
[43]
Tarsal bone I and II [Mediointermediate cuneiform] - vet-Anatomy
In horses, there are 6 tarsal bones because of fusion of tarsal bones I and II (Tarsal bone I and II [Mediointermediate cuneiform])
[44]
Tarsal Bones of Ox, Horse, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Dog, Rabbit & Fowl
The first tarsal (cuneiform parvum) is a small, round piece of bone situated at the postero-medial aspect of the tarsus. The proximal face articulates with the ...
[45]
[PDF] On functional fusions in footbones of Ungulates - Zobodat
bones the tarsal joint becomes more solid. This, with the shortening of the metatarsals and the phalanges, gives a foot con- struction which is.
[46]
Shape variation in the talus and medial cuneiform of chimpanzees ...
Jun 16, 2022 · Medial cuneiforms with these features covaried with tali that have relatively higher lateral than medial trochlear rims, more concave proximal ...
[47]
The mechanics of the gibbon foot and its potential for elastic energy ...
Dec 1, 2008 · Like most arboreal primates,gibbons have a mobile, prehensile foot structure with a divergent, opposable hallux. The gibbon foot is essentially ...
[48]
Accelerated Evolution of Limb-Related Gene Hoxd11 in the ...
The study found accelerated evolution of Hoxd11 in the common ancestor of cetaceans and ruminants, coinciding with the reduction of carpal and tarsal bones.
[49]
The Osteology of the Reptiles/Chapter 5 - Wikisource
Sep 2, 2024 · Nine bones, then, we may assume was the primitive number of tarsal bones in the reptiles. A separate intermedium has been accredited to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Tarsal fusion and the formation of the astragalus in Hylonomus lyelli ...
Tarsal fusion and the formation of the astragalus in Hylonomus lyelli, the earliest amniote, and other early tetrapods · Full Article · Figures & data · References ...
[51]
THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE MAMMALIAN TARSAL BONES - PubMed
THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE MAMMALIAN TARSAL BONES. J Anat. 1964 Apr;98(Pt 2):195-208. Author. O J LEWIS. PMID: 14154422; PMCID: PMC1261275. No abstract available ...Missing: cuneiform | Show results with:cuneiform
[52]
Fossils, feet and the evolution of human bipedal locomotion - PMC
... humans and the extant primates, particularly the great apes. They addressed ... Recent multivariate analyses of the Stw 573 tarsal bones (medial cuneiform, ...<|separator|>
[53]
Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully ...
Based on our knowledge of locomotor biomechanics and ecology we predict the locomotion and posture of the last common ancestors of (a) great and lesser apes ...
[54]
Rethinking the evolution of the human foot: insights from ...
Sep 6, 2018 · The transverse arch is defined by the conformation of the cuboid and cuneiform bones, the metatarsal bases and torsion of the metatarsal shafts ...<|control11|><|separator|>