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Cuscuta

Cuscuta is a genus of approximately 200 species of obligate parasitic flowering plants in the family Convolvulaceae, commonly known as dodder. These annual vines are characterized by slender, thread-like, twining stems that range from yellow to orange in color due to the lack of chlorophyll, and they possess no true roots or expanded leaves, instead relying entirely on host plants for sustenance through specialized penetrating structures called haustoria.^[1]^[2]^[3] The life cycle of Cuscuta species is adapted to their parasitic nature, beginning with seed germination near the soil surface during warmer seasons such as spring or summer. Upon germination, seedlings emerge with ephemeral root-like organs that enable limited independent growth, but they must locate and attach to a compatible host plant within 5 to 10 days, forming haustorial connections to penetrate the host's vascular tissue for water, nutrients, and sometimes photosynthates.^[4]^[5]^[6] Once established, the parasite coils around the host, produces small clusters of white, pink, or yellowish flowers from midsummer onward, and generates numerous tiny seeds that can remain viable in the soil for years, facilitating long-term infestations.^[7]^[8] Cuscuta exhibits remarkable host specificity variation across species, with some broadly parasitic primarily on dicots and monocots, while others are more restricted, infecting crops like alfalfa, tomatoes, and ornamentals, as well as native vegetation and weeds. Distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical regions, these plants pose significant ecological and economic challenges as invasive pests, weakening host plants, transmitting diseases, and reducing agricultural yields, though certain species have ethnobotanical uses in traditional medicine for treating ailments such as jaundice and skin conditions.^[3]^[2]^[1] Taxonomically, the genus comprises four major clades and four subgenera, reflecting its evolutionary diversification within Convolvulaceae, with molecular studies revealing an Old World origin and patterns of vicariance in its biogeography.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology and History

The genus name Cuscuta originates from the Arabic term "kushkut," meaning a twining plant, which aptly describes the species' characteristic habit of coiling around host stems.^[12] This etymology is also linked to the Hebrew or Aramaic root k-s-w-t, signifying "to cover," alluding to how the plant envelops its hosts in a dense, thread-like mass.^[13] Early botanical records trace similar names to ancient texts, where the plant was noted for its parasitic twining form, though without formal scientific nomenclature.^[14] The formal botanical history of Cuscuta began with Carl Linnaeus, who established the genus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, describing two species: C. europaea and C. americana.^[15] Linnaeus classified Cuscuta within the Convolvulaceae family, grouping it with morning glories due to shared twining stems and funnel-shaped flowers, despite its lack of leaves and roots.^[16] This placement reflected initial confusions, as the plant's vining morphology superficially resembled non-parasitic convolvolaceous climbers, leading to early misidentifications in European floras.^[12] A pivotal milestone came in 1932 with Truman G. Yuncker's comprehensive monograph, The Genus Cuscuta, which synthesized global collections and recognized three subgenera—Cuscuta, Monogyna, and Pseudogrammica—along with eight sections based on floral and fruit characteristics.^[17] Yuncker's work clarified species boundaries and distributions, building on earlier revisions and addressing the taxonomic challenges posed by the genus's morphological variability and pantropical range. Today, Cuscuta is placed in the family Convolvulaceae.^[18]

Species Diversity and Phylogeny

The genus Cuscuta encompasses approximately 100–220 species, with taxonomic revisions leading to varying estimates; a comprehensive phylogenetic classification recognized 194 accepted species as of 2015, and recent estimates indicate over 200 species as of 2024.^[15] These species exhibit a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, though the majority (about 75%) are native to the Americas.^[19] Ongoing molecular and morphological analyses continue to refine species boundaries, addressing challenges posed by cryptic speciation and hybridization within the genus.^[20] Phylogenetic studies have restructured the infrageneric classification of Cuscuta into four subgenera: Monogynella, Pachystigma, Cuscuta, and Grammica, the last of which accounts for roughly three-quarters of the species diversity. This division is supported by analyses of multiple DNA markers, including the plastid genes rbcL and matK, as well as nuclear ribosomal large subunit (nrLSU) sequences, which resolve major lineages and highlight the paraphyly of earlier subgeneric groupings like subg. Cuscuta.^[9] Subgenus Grammica, for instance, forms a monophyletic clade encompassing diverse New World taxa, while Monogynella represents the earliest diverging lineage with retained ancestral traits.^[17] Molecular phylogenies indicate that Cuscuta diverged from its non-parasitic relatives in Convolvulaceae approximately 40–50 million years ago, coinciding with the Eocene-Oligocene transition and the evolution of its holoparasitic lifestyle. Key clades within the genus, such as the C. pentagona group in subg. Grammica, demonstrate regional endemism; this North American clade includes species like C. pentagona, which is widespread across the United States and adapted to temperate habitats.^[21] These clades reveal patterns of biogeographic diversification, with multiple radiations in the Americas driving much of the genus's species richness.^[17]

Morphology and Life Cycle

Physical Structure

Cuscuta species are obligate holoparasites characterized by their highly reduced morphology, adapted for a twining, stem-dominated lifestyle without functional photosynthesis. Lacking significant chlorophyll, their stems typically exhibit yellow, orange, or red coloration, though rare green variants occur in some species due to minimal chlorophyll presence. These stems are slender and filiform, measuring 0.1–1 mm in diameter and capable of extending up to several meters in length, with limited branching to facilitate coiling around hosts.^[22]^[23]^[4]^[24] The leaves of Cuscuta are vestigial, reduced to tiny, triangular scale-like bracts that are 1–2 mm long and inconspicuous, serving no photosynthetic role and blending into the stem surface. Flowers are small, typically 1–5 mm in length, with five sepals and petals forming a bell- or urn-shaped corolla that ranges from white to pink or cream in color; they occur in dense clusters along the stems to maximize reproductive output in their ephemeral lifecycle.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[4] Internally, Cuscuta exhibits simplified anatomy suited to parasitism, with vascular tissues predominantly composed of phloem strands—often lacking or reduced xylem—and originating from a central stele that connects via haustoria to host vasculature for nutrient acquisition. Seedlings initially possess a vestigial root lacking a meristem or cap, which senesces shortly after host attachment, rendering the mature plant rootless and entirely dependent on stem-based parasitism. The epidermis is a single layer with a thin cuticle and no trichomes, while cortical tissues are minimal, emphasizing the streamlined structure for attachment and translocation.^[24]^[28]^[29]

Germination, Growth, and Reproduction

Cuscuta seeds exhibit physical dormancy caused by a water-impermeable seed coat, which prevents germination until the coat is breached.^[30] Scarification, either mechanical or chemical, effectively breaks this dormancy by creating openings in the seed coat, allowing water uptake.^[31] In some species, such as C. epithymum, scarified seeds further require cold stratification at approximately 5°C for 8 weeks to alleviate any underlying physiological dormancy, after which nearly all viable seeds germinate when incubated at 23°C.^[32] Germination typically occurs near the soil surface in spring, producing a thread-like seedling with thread-shaped hypocotyls but lacking true roots or expanded cotyledons, relying instead on a vestigial rootlike structure for initial anchorage.^[33]^[28] The growth of Cuscuta seedlings begins with exploratory coiling and twining movements, enabling the stem to extend up to 10 cm or more in search of a suitable attachment point before host contact.^[34] This phase involves active directional growth influenced by light cues, such as red light, which straightens the hypocotyl hook and promotes stem elongation.^[35] Upon attachment to a host, the lower portion of the seedling withers and detaches from the soil, while the upper stem undergoes rapid twining and expansion, forming dense coils that can cover the host and spread to nearby plants under favorable conditions.^[5] This accelerated post-attachment growth supports the parasite's leafless, twining morphology, which maximizes surface contact for nutrient acquisition.^[36] Sexual reproduction in Cuscuta occurs through small, hermaphroditic flowers arranged in clusters along the stems, which are pollinated by insects or self-pollinate depending on the species' mating system.^[37] Fertilized flowers develop into capsules containing 2–4 seeds on average, with a single plant capable of producing thousands of seeds over its lifecycle.^[36]^[38] Seed dispersal occurs primarily via water due to the buoyant capsules, as well as through human activities such as contaminated equipment and irrigation, with secondary mechanisms including wind, animal-mediated endozoochory where seeds pass intact through digestive tracts of birds and mammals, and agricultural practices.^[39]^[40]^[2] Asexual reproduction in Cuscuta is rare and limited to vegetative fragmentation in certain species, where stem breakage allows fragments to regenerate new plants upon reattachment to hosts. This clonal propagation contributes minimally to population spread compared to sexual reproduction, as fragments depend on immediate host proximity for survival.^[19]

Parasitic Biology

Host Location and Attachment

Cuscuta seedlings employ chemosensory mechanisms to detect potential hosts through airborne volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plants, guiding directed growth toward suitable targets. These VOCs, such as green leaf volatiles including (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, trigger positive chemotropism in the parasite, enabling it to distinguish between host and non-host species even at distances of several centimeters. In laboratory experiments, Cuscuta pentagona seedlings exhibited oriented growth toward tomato plants releasing these cues, with response rates significantly higher than to artificial or non-emitter controls. Upon physical contact with a host, Cuscuta transitions to thigmotropism, where touch stimuli cause the seedling's coiling stem to wrap around the host tissue. The apical cells at the contact point secrete cell wall-loosening enzymes, such as expansins and pectinases, which degrade the host's epidermal layer and facilitate initial penetration without immediate vascular connection. This mechanical and enzymatic attachment process ensures secure anchorage, allowing the parasite to withstand environmental stresses during establishment.^[41] Attachment success in controlled lab settings typically ranges from 20% to 50%, varying with host type and seedling vigor, and is notably influenced by light quality—low red-to-far-red ratios enhance location and coiling—while gravity modulates overall seedling orientation through negative geotropism. Full superficial attachment, prior to deeper invasion, is generally achieved within 24 to 48 hours of initial contact, marking the transition to haustorium development.^[42]^[43]

Nutrient Uptake and Haustoria

Once attached to a host stem, Cuscuta develops haustoria, which are multicellular, peg-like organs specialized for invasion and resource extraction. These structures arise from the parasite's stem tissue, initially forming a holdfast that encircles the host, followed by intrusive hyphae that penetrate the host's epidermis and cortex. The haustoria extend inward as multicellular endophytes, directly accessing the host's xylem and phloem for nutrient acquisition. Histologically, the haustorium consists of differentiated tissues including tracheary elements and sieve tubes that align with the host's vascular system, establishing continuous conduits for transport. Connections between parasite and host cells occur via symplastic pathways, including de novo formation of plasmodesmata at the interface, which allow the passage of solutes beyond simple apoplastic diffusion. This endophytic portion of the haustorium integrates seamlessly into host tissues, minimizing physical barriers while maximizing contact area for exchange.^[44]^[45] Nutrient uptake primarily involves the absorption of water and inorganic ions from the host xylem, alongside organic compounds such as sugars and amino acids from the phloem. Phloem-derived carbohydrates, including sucrose, are actively transported into the parasite via upregulated sugar transporters in haustorial cells, supporting Cuscuta's carbon demands. Amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds follow similar symplastic and apoplastic routes, enabling the parasite to bypass its own limited photosynthetic capacity. Additionally, haustoria facilitate the uptake of plant hormones like auxin and cytokinins, with polar auxin transport genes highly expressed to establish concentration gradients that enhance the haustorium's sink strength and direct resource flow from the host.^[44]^[46] As an obligate holoparasite, Cuscuta derives virtually 100% of its nutritional requirements—water, minerals, and organics—from the host through these haustorial connections, often resulting in significant depletion of host resources and eventual weakening. This efficiency stems from the haustorium's ability to manipulate host physiology, creating a strong sink that overrides host transport priorities without requiring independent nutrient acquisition.

Ecological Interactions

Host Range and Specificity

Cuscuta species demonstrate a broad host range, capable of parasitizing plants from numerous families worldwide, encompassing both wild and cultivated species such as tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and various ornamentals like chrysanthemums. This versatility allows Cuscuta to exploit a diverse array of dicotyledonous hosts, with records indicating infections across herbaceous plants, shrubs, and even some trees, though monocots are rarely affected due to biochemical incompatibilities. The genus's ability to infect such a wide spectrum underscores its status as one of the most polyphagous parasitic plant groups, posing significant challenges to agriculture and natural ecosystems.^[6]^[47] Host specificity varies considerably among Cuscuta species, with some acting as generalists and others showing relative preferences for certain host groups. For instance, C. gronovii is a notable generalist, documented to parasitize at least 175 host species across multiple families, enabling it to thrive in diverse habitats from wetlands to agricultural fields. In contrast, species like C. japonica exhibit more restricted preferences, primarily targeting legumes (Fabaceae) and other herbaceous dicots, with observations of around 36 host species, though it can occasionally infect woody plants and ferns. These differences in host preference are not absolute, as no Cuscuta species is physiologically confined to a single host, but they reflect adaptations to local flora and environmental conditions.^[48]^[49]^[47] Several factors influence the host range and specificity of Cuscuta, including host surface chemistry, phylogenetic relatedness, and geographic overlap. Parasites detect suitable hosts through volatile chemical cues emitted from host leaves and stems, which guide seedling attachment and penetration, with surface waxes and secondary metabolites playing key roles in compatibility. Phylogenetic proximity often favors dicot hosts over monocots, as shared biochemical pathways facilitate nutrient uptake, while geographic co-occurrence limits interactions to regionally available plants, leading to location-specific host preferences observed in field studies. These elements collectively determine infestation success, with abiotic soil factors like mineral composition further modulating habitat suitability and thus effective host availability.^[47]^[6]^[50] In specific ecosystems like coastal wetlands, Cuscuta species can profoundly alter community dynamics through targeted parasitism. For example, C. salina in California salt marshes preferentially infects the dominant competitor Plantago maritima, reducing its fitness and indirectly promoting coexistence among subordinate species by alleviating competitive exclusion. This selective pressure highlights how host specificity contributes to biodiversity maintenance, though heavy infestations can still weaken overall wetland vegetation resilience. Such case studies illustrate the ecological ramifications of Cuscuta's host interactions beyond mere parasitism.^[51]

Plant Defenses and Coevolution

Host plants have evolved multiple physical barriers to resist infection by Cuscuta species, primarily targeting the parasite's haustoria penetration attempts. Constitutive defenses include thick, waxy cuticles and dense trichomes on stems and leaves, which physically obstruct the parasite's coiling and tissue invasion. For instance, in Solanum species such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), long multicellular type I glandular trichomes effectively deter attachment by Cuscuta pentagona by entangling or damaging the searching hyphae-like structures of the parasite.^[52] Additionally, rapid wound sealing through lignification of cell walls or deposition of callose and suberin at penetration sites prevents haustoria establishment, as observed in resistant accessions of crops like alfalfa and tomato.^[53] Chemical defenses further bolster resistance by producing secondary metabolites that inhibit Cuscuta growth, attachment, or nutrient uptake post-penetration. Host plants often accumulate phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids in response to Cuscuta attack, activating jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) signaling pathways to deter parasitism.^[54] Glucosinolates in Brassicaceae hosts, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, similarly limit Cuscuta gronovii growth by hydrolyzing into toxic isothiocyanates that the parasite partially detoxifies but still experiences reduced vigor from.^[55] A hallmark of active defense in certain hosts is the hypersensitive response (HR), which triggers localized cell death at the attachment site to isolate and kill invading Cuscuta tissues. In cultivated tomato, this HR-like reaction occurs early during Cuscuta reflexa penetration, preventing vascular connections and parasite spread, particularly in older plants.^[27] This response mirrors pathogen defenses and is mediated by recognition of Cuscuta cell wall epitopes, leading to reactive oxygen species accumulation and programmed cell death.^[56] Coevolutionary dynamics between Cuscuta and its hosts exemplify an ongoing arms race, evidenced by genetic adaptations in both. Molecular studies reveal host resistance genes, such as the CuRe1 receptor-like kinase in tomato, which evolved from wild relatives (Solanum pennellii) to detect Cuscuta as a non-self pathogen via its cell wall protein Mg3.^[56] This has enabled breeding of resistant cultivars, demonstrating reciprocal selection where Cuscuta populations adapt to overcome defenses, as seen in local adaptation studies across host races.^[57] Phylogenetic analyses of Cuscuta genomes further support host shifts driving diversification, with parasite virulence factors evolving in tandem with host resistance loci.^[58]

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range

Cuscuta species, commonly known as dodder, are native primarily to temperate and tropical regions worldwide, with the highest diversity concentrated in the Americas, where approximately 75% of the nearly 200 recognized species occur, including over 50 species in North America alone.^[59]^[60] In North America, species are widespread across the continent, particularly in the southwestern United States, where biodiversity hotspots support numerous endemics and regional variants adapted to diverse ecosystems. Central America also hosts significant diversity, with species richness comparable to tropical areas in southern Mexico and extending into northern South America. Europe and Asia feature native populations, though with lower species counts, often in Mediterranean and Eurasian temperate zones.^[61]^[62] Several Cuscuta species exhibit distinct distribution patterns, such as C. epithymum, which is prominently native to the Mediterranean region, spanning southern Europe, North Africa, and parts of western Asia, where it commonly parasitizes herbaceous hosts in coastal and inland habitats. In contrast, C. campestris demonstrates extensive invasive potential, having been introduced and established in over 50 countries across temperate and subtropical zones, including widespread occurrences in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. This species, originally native from Canada to Guatemala and parts of the Caribbean and western South America, now infests agricultural and natural areas globally due to its broad host range and seed dispersal mechanisms.^[63]^[64]^[65] The historical spread of Cuscuta has been largely anthropogenic, facilitated by international trade in contaminated seeds and agricultural products, originating from primary centers in North America and disseminating to all continents over the past centuries. Contemporary range expansions are increasingly influenced by climate change, with models predicting broader suitable habitats for multiple species due to shifting temperature and precipitation patterns, potentially enhancing invasion risks in previously marginal areas. Patterns of endemism are notable in biodiversity hotspots like the southwestern U.S. and Central America, where localized speciation reflects long-term isolation and host specialization.^[66]^[67]^[68]

Environmental Adaptations

Cuscuta species exhibit a strong preference for sunny, open, and disturbed habitats, such as agricultural fields, roadsides, riverbanks, and meadows, where host plants are abundant and competition from other vegetation is reduced.^[69] This adaptation allows the parasite to maximize exposure to light for initial seedling orientation and host-seeking, as the twining stems rely on phototropism to locate suitable attachment points. Post-germination, Cuscuta achieves soil independence by developing rudimentary, ephemeral roots that are quickly replaced by haustoria, which extract water and nutrients directly from host vascular tissues, enabling survival in nutrient-poor or compacted soils.^[4] Its tolerance to drought is facilitated through this host-dependent water uptake, allowing persistence in arid or seasonally dry environments where free-living plants would struggle, though overall viability remains tied to host hydration status.^[70] Optimal growth and germination of Cuscuta occur within a temperature range of 20–30°C, with peak rates around 28–30°C under alternating day-night conditions, supporting rapid seedling elongation and haustorium formation.^[71] Below 20°C, germination rates decline sharply, while temperatures exceeding 35°C inhibit development, reflecting an adaptation to temperate and subtropical climates where hosts are actively growing during warmer months.^[72] Certain coastal species, such as Cuscuta salina, demonstrate specialized adaptations to high-salinity environments, thriving in salt marshes and alkaline flats with NaCl concentrations up to 250 mM, where they parasitize halophytic hosts like Salicornia and Beta species.^[73] This tolerance involves maintained fecundity and stem conductivity under saline stress, contrasting with the sensitivity of inland Cuscuta taxa, whose germination drops by up to 70% above 200 mM NaCl.^[74] Altitudinally, Cuscuta extends from sea level to over 4,000 m in regions like the Himalayas and Andes, with some populations in high-elevation cold deserts such as Ladakh, where they exploit sparse herbaceous hosts amid low temperatures and low oxygen.^[75] These patterns contribute to its broad global distribution across diverse biomes.^[69] Climate warming is projected to enhance Cuscuta invasiveness in certain regions by expanding suitable niches and increasing environmental niche overlap with host crops under future scenarios.^[68]

Human Impacts and Uses

Agricultural Challenges and Management

Cuscuta species, commonly known as dodder, pose significant agricultural challenges as obligate parasitic weeds that infest a wide range of crops, including alfalfa, clover, soybeans, and hops. These parasites attach to host plants via haustoria, draining water, nutrients, and carbohydrates, which can lead to substantial yield reductions; for instance, C. campestris has been reported to decrease alfalfa forage yield by up to 57% over two years. In soybeans, heavy infestations in regions like China result in large economic losses due to reduced productivity. Similarly, in clover and hops, dodder can cause significant yield declines under severe conditions by weakening host plants and complicating harvest processes.^[76]^[77] Detection of dodder infestations often begins with scouting for the characteristic twining, leafless yellow-orange stems on host plants, but a primary concern is seed contamination in crop harvests, which facilitates long-distance spread. Dodder seeds are tiny and mix easily with crop seeds, remaining viable in soil for over 10 years, making prevention critical. Many countries enforce strict regulations to mitigate this; for example, the European Union and other regions prohibit the import of dodder-contaminated seeds and require certified crop seeds to be free of dodder, with zero tolerance for noxious weed seeds in certified lots. In the United States, state noxious weed seed laws similarly mandate dodder-free seeds for crops like alfalfa to prevent establishment.^[5]^[78]^[79] Management of Cuscuta relies on integrated approaches combining cultural, chemical, and biological methods to suppress populations and prevent seed production. Cultural practices include using certified dodder-free seeds, implementing crop rotation with non-host plants to deplete soil seed banks, and deep plowing to bury seeds beyond germination depth; these strategies can substantially reduce infestation risks when consistently applied. Chemical control involves selective herbicides such as glyphosate for non-legume crops or imazethapyr for legumes like soybeans and alfalfa, which inhibit dodder growth when applied post-emergence, though timing is crucial to avoid host damage. Biological options include the use of fungal pathogens like Alternaria alternata or Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which have shown promise in field trials by infecting and killing dodder vines in some legume crops without harming hosts. Recent research as of 2025 explores host-specific fungal bioherbicides for more sustainable control.^[5]^[62]^[2] Integrated pest management (IPM) programs for dodder emphasize prevention and monitoring, incorporating resistant crop varieties—such as dodder-tolerant alfalfa cultivars—that limit parasite attachment and reduce yield losses compared to susceptible types. Success in IPM depends on combining these elements; for example, in cranberry and clover systems, integrating resistant varieties with pre-emergence herbicides and sanitation has sustained control over multiple seasons. Overall, while complete eradication is challenging due to dodder's persistent seed bank, proactive IPM can minimize economic impacts effectively.^[80]

Traditional and Modern Applications

Cuscuta species, commonly known as dodder, have been employed in traditional medicine across various cultures for centuries. In traditional Chinese medicine, the seeds of Cuscuta chinensis, referred to as Tu-si-zi, are used to nourish and tonify the liver and kidneys, addressing conditions such as lower back pain, impotence, and urinary incontinence.^[81] Similarly, in Iranian folk medicine, Cuscuta planiflora extracts serve as a tonic, purgative, diaphoretic, anthelmintic, and diuretic, while also treating itching, bilious disorders, and jaundice.^[1] In Ayurvedic practices, Cuscuta reflexa is applied for its laxative properties to relieve constipation and support digestive health.^[82] These uses often involve decoctions or powders from seeds, stems, or whole plants, highlighting the plant's role in holistic remedies for hepatic, renal, and gastrointestinal issues.^[83] Modern pharmacological research has validated and expanded upon these traditional applications through in vitro and in vivo studies. Extracts from Cuscuta epithymum demonstrate antimicrobial, cytotoxic, anticonvulsant, anti-urease, and immune-stimulatory effects, suggesting potential in treating infections and supporting immune function.^[84] For Cuscuta reflexa, investigations reveal antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antitumor activities, attributed to bioactive compounds like flavonoids and quercetin, which mitigate oxidative stress and inflammation in models of chronic diseases.^[85] Studies on Cuscuta campestris seeds indicate benefits for reproductive health, including enhanced sexual function and protection against liver and kidney damage, aligning with traditional uses but supported by toxicity assessments and efficacy trials.^[83] Additionally, research explores Cuscuta species for neuroprotective effects, such as antidepressant and anticonvulsant properties in Cuscuta planiflora, positioning them as candidates for pharmaceutical development in psychiatric and neurological disorders.^[86] Despite promising results, clinical trials remain limited, emphasizing the need for further validation to transition these applications into standardized therapies.^[87]

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[30]
Effect of Mechanical and Chemical Scarification on Germination of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · PDF | Experiments were carried out to evaluate the effect of seed treatment on germination of Cuscuta campestris.
[31]
Germination ecology of the holoparasite Cuscuta epithymum
Aug 7, 2025 · When scarified seeds were cold-stratified at 5°C for 8 weeks and then incubated at 23°C, essentially all the viable seeds (c. 65%) germinated.
[32]
The Parasitic Plant Cuscuta australis Is Highly Insensitive to Abscisic ...
Aug 10, 2015 · After germination, Cuscuta seedlings emerge with thread-shaped hypocotyls, and having no roots and cotyledons, they must find suitable hosts ...
[33]
[PDF] The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of ...
... host acquisition by dodder parasites (Cuscuta spp.). Recommendations for ... campestris, seedlings typically attach to hosts that are within 2.5-10 cm ...
[34]
[PDF] 17 Parasitic Plants - Daniel L. Nickrent
When they reach host vascular tissue, they connect with xylem and phloem cells. The Cuscuta vascular system originates at the parasite stele, traverses the ...
[35]
Dodder, Cuscuta spp. - Wisconsin Horticulture
Dodder is a group of ectoparasitic plants with about 150 species in a single genus, Cuscuta, in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae) or Cuscutaceae.
[36]
Diversity and evolution of pollen-ovule production in Cuscuta ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Our data strongly suggest that most Cuscuta species possess a wide range of mixed-mating systems. Whereas four ovules develop in each flower, ...
[37]
[PDF] Dodder
Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) are obligate parasitic plants consisting of yellow twining stems that produce small clusters of white flowers.
[38]
[PDF] Dodder | UMass Amherst
Dodder is an obligate parasite with yellow twining stems and white flowers. It uses haustoria to absorb nutrients from host plants and cannot complete its life ...
[39]
an overlooked long-distance dispersal vector for Cuscuta (dodder)
Sep 6, 2025 · The results showed a recovery of seeds greater than 70% in all the animals. The retention time was <24 h in the endozoochory but longer at ...
[40]
Morphological and molecular diagnosis of Cuscuta sp parasitizing ...
Dec 17, 2018 · The dodder Cuscuta campestris (Convolvulaceae) is a native holoparasite that can parasitize and suppress M. micrantha, and thus is recommended as an effective ...
[41]
One organ to infect them all: the Cuscuta haustorium - PubMed Central
Each Cuscuta haustorium develops from a tertiary meristem that is formed in the inner cortical layers of the Cuscuta stem on the host-facing side and around 2– ...
[42]
Manipulation of light spectral quality disrupts host location and ...
Feb 19, 2016 · Parasitism assay Cuscuta campestris: Almost all seedlings subjected to the control (98·9%) and low-R:FR (94·5%) treatments had reached the ...
[43]
Cuscuta epilinum | CABI Compendium
Feb 28, 2024 · In New Latin, Cuscuta directly translates as dodder. Epi means on, upon or over in Greek and the Latin linum translates as linen, flax or ...
[44]
An artificial host system enables the obligate parasite Cuscuta ... - NIH
Cuscuta campestris is an obligate parasitic plant that requires a host to complete its life cycle. Parasite–host connections occur via a haustorium, a unique ...Missing: gravity | Show results with:gravity
[45]
The Enigma of Interspecific Plasmodesmata: Insight From Parasitic ...
Mar 31, 2021 · The haustorial hyphae form physical and physiological bridges between host and parasite (Figures 1C–E) and facilitate the nutrient and water ...
[46]
A roadmap of haustorium morphogenesis in parasitic plants
Jul 24, 2023 · In Cuscuta, genes related to polar auxin transport were found to be up-regulated in haustoria (Ranjan et al., 2014). This indicates a functional ...
[47]
Host specificity of Cuscuta species: is it a cause or a consequence of ...
Jan 17, 2025 · Dodders were believed to attach to one or a few certain hosts that prefer a certain habitat (Gaertner 1950; Qasem 2006). Most Cuscuta species ...
[48]
Glucosinolates from Host Plants Influence Growth of the Parasitic ...
Many dodder parasites (Convolvulaceae; Cuscuta spp.), for example, have very broad host ranges (e.g. at least 175 host species for Cuscuta gronovii; Gaertner, ...
[49]
Cuscuta japonica (Japanese dodder) | CABI Compendium
Hosts/Species Affected. C. japonica has a relatively wide host range which includes herbs, woody plants and ferns. Liao et al. (2000) record 36 host species ...
[50]
Host specificity of Cuscuta species: is it a cause or a ... - NASA ADS
The genus Cuscuta comprises nearly 200 parasitic plant species. Sympatric Cuscuta species are considered to occur in different habitat types.<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Parasite facilitates plant species coexistence in a coastal wetland
I examined host identity and variation in host infectivity of a holoparasitic vine (Cuscuta salina) within a California salt marsh. In a two-year parasite ...
[52]
Functional aspects of solanaceae trichomes in heavy metal ...
May 24, 2021 · In tomato Solanum spp., the long multicellular type I glandular trichomes is known to effectively hinder parasitic plant Cuscuta pentagona ( ...
[53]
Host Resistance to Parasitic Plants—Current Knowledge and Future ...
Mar 25, 2023 · Another mechanism is resistance through inhibition of tissue penetration and haustoria formation. This is mainly achieved through fortification ...
[54]
Parasitism by Cuscuta pentagona sequentially induces JA and SA ...
Jan 11, 2010 · Documented host plant responses to attack by Cuscuta spp. include a hypersensitive-like response (HLR) and phytoalexin production by a non ...
[55]
Glucosinolates from Host Plants Influence Growth of the Parasitic ...
Dodder vines (Cuscuta gronovii) parasitizing Arabidopsis thaliana take up glucosinolate toxins that reduce parasite growth and modulate resistance to aphid.<|separator|>
[56]
The tomato receptor CuRe1 senses a cell wall protein to identify ...
Oct 20, 2020 · Parasitic plants of the genus Cuscuta penetrate shoots of host plants with haustoria and build a connection to the host vasculature to ...
[57]
Local adaptation of a generalist hemiparasitic plant to one of its ...
Mar 31, 2024 · Coevolution is often found in parasite–host interactions, but has not yet been described for hemiparasitic plants and their hosts.
[58]
Host Resistance to Parasitic Plants—Current Knowledge and Future ...
Mar 25, 2023 · In recent years, there have been reports from multiple studies predominantly on crop plants affected by either the root parasites Striga spp.
[59]
[PDF] 2024-12-30 Scientific Name Cuscuta polygonorum Updated By
Dec 30, 2024 · The buttonbush dodder (Cuscuta cephalanthi) is a perennial, herbaceous, achlorophyllous parasitic vine in the Morning Glory Family ( ...
[60]
Five-angled Dodder (Cuscuta pentagona) - USDA Forest Service
Five-angled dodder (Cuscuta pentagona) is one of approximately 50 native and introduced dodder species found in North America.
[61]
(PDF) Convolvulaceae of Sonora, Mexico. II. Cuscuta. - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · This species richness compares with the more tropical regions of southern Mexico (e.g., Bajío region, Veracruz) and Central America (Costa Rica, ...
[62]
Methods of Control of Parasitic Weeds of the Genus Cuscuta ...
Jul 27, 2025 · Parasitism (post-attachment) ... The parasite's persistent seed bank, rapid growth, and close association with host plants make it difficult to ...
[63]
Cuscuta epithymum - VicFlora
Also naturalised WA, SA, NSW, Tas. Native to Europe and the Mediterranean region. A widespread weed often parasitic on leguminous herbs, but including a wide ...
[64]
Cuscuta campestris Yunck. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is Canada to Guatemala, Caribbean. W. South America. It is a climbing holoparasite and grows primarily in the temperate ...
[65]
Cuscuta campestris (field dodder) | CABI Compendium
As an introduced species, it is most common in temperate and sub-tropical regions and least abundant in the tropics of Central America, Africa, South-East Asia ...
[66]
[PDF] Dodders (Cuscuta Spp) of Important Crops - IISTE.org
Apr 30, 2021 · The primary center of origin for dodder is North America ... and distributed to all the continents (South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and ...<|separator|>
[67]
Golden Dodder, Common Dodder, Dodder, Field Dodder, Angel's ...
Golden Dodder has been introduced to many countries, usually as a contaminant of agricultural produce, and this is how it is thought to have come into Australia ...
[68]
Implications of climate change for environmental niche overlap ...
Aug 22, 2022 · We found that annual mean temperature and isothermality are the main bioclimatic factors determining the suitable habitats of the Cuscuta ...
[69]
Weed Gallery: Dodder--UC IPM
### Summary of Cuscuta Habitat Preferences and Environmental Adaptations (UC IPM)
[70]
Verbesina alternifolia Tolerance to the Holoparasite Cuscuta ...
Oct 18, 2013 · Both species grow in moderate to moist soils and occur in habitats that may experience prolonged or episodic drought. We applied the Wise- ...Missing: salinity | Show results with:salinity
[71]
Temperature Effects on Cuscuta campestris Yunk. Seed Germination
May 8, 2015 · The optimal temperature for germination and growth of field dodder is reported to be 30 • C [16, 32] . Higher air temperatures reduce the ...
[72]
Effect of environmental conditions on seed germination ... - bioRxiv
Jun 17, 2024 · The dodder, Cuscuta, is an obligate parasitic plant that cannot survive without a host plant and causes major damage to crop yields.Missing: optimal | Show results with:optimal
[73]
Fitness of Cuscuta salina (Convolvulaceae) parasitizing Beta ...
Jul 1, 2003 · The distribution of saltmarsh dodder (Cuscuta salina) worldwide is restricted to areas of high salinity, where it parasitizes a variety of salt ...
[74]
Salinity Effect on Germination and Further Development of Parasitic ...
It was found, that Cuscuta spp. are highly sensitive to NaCl concentration within the range of 200 mM. Germination was delayed in time and reduced by nearly 70% ...
[75]
Dodder (Cuscuta sp) enters Ladakh: Threat to biodiversity under ...
The presence of dodder (Cuscuta spp.) has shown its invasiveness with the successful entry in the cropped areas like alfalfa near Salix trees.
[76]
Cuscuta campestris - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Cuscuta campestris is a dodder that attacks forage crops like alfalfa, reducing yield up to 57%. It is a stem holoparasite with no roots or leaves.
[77]
Dodder: A parasite involved in the plant alarm system | ScienceDaily
Jul 25, 2017 · In China, dodder parasitization leads to large losses in soybean yield. Therefore the researchers used soybean plants for their experiments ...
[78]
Parasitic Higher Plants | Ohioline - The Ohio State University
Feb 10, 2017 · Strict regulations prohibit the sale of crop seed contaminated by dodder seed. Great effort should be taken to avoid planting seed that has ...
[79]
[PDF] State Noxious-Weed Seed Requirements Recognized in the ...
Dodder (Cuscuta spp.) Morning glory (Ipomoea spp.) Needlegrasses (Nassella ... Note: The Federal Seed Act does not limit the percentage of weed seeds ...
[80]
Managing Cuscuta gronovii (Swamp Dodder) in Cranberry Requires ...
3.1. C. gronovii has a wide host range [30,34] and has been observed by the author to parasitize a broad range of hosts including species of Euthamia, Cyperus, ...
[81]
Dodder: Biology and Management : Cranberry - UMass Amherst
Aug 28, 2019 · Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) are obligate parasitic plants consisting of yellow twining stems that produce small clusters of white flowers.
[82]
[PDF] Health benefits ofCuscuta - CABI Digital Library
Tu-si-zi, the seeds of Cuscuta chinensis is a traditional Chinese medicine that is commonly used to nourish and improves the liver and kidney condition in china ...
[83]
Benefits of Cuscuta - Apollo 247
Jul 23, 2025 · Some traditional remedies use Cuscuta to improve digestion and relieve constipation. It may help regulate bowel movements and support a healthy ...
[84]
An Insight into Cuscuta campestris as a Medicinal Plant - MDPI
Mar 27, 2023 · The seed of this plant is one of the most common herbal compounds used to improve liver and kidney function and other cases in traditional ...
[85]
Ethnopharmacology of Cuscuta epithymum - ScienceDirect.com
Mar 1, 2019 · In modern medicine, the extract of C. epithymum showed anti-microbial, cytotoxic, anticonvulsant, anti-urease, immune stimulatory, ...
[86]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313647539_Traditional_uses_constituents_and_pharmacological_effects_of_Cuscuta_planiflora
[87]
(PDF) Traditional uses, constituents and pharmacological effects of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The previous pharmacological investigation showed that Cuscuta planiflora possessed antidepressant, anticonvulsant, antibacterial, cytotoxic and ...
[88]
[PDF] Review on Pharmacological and Therapeutic Potential of Cuscuta ...
Nov 19, 2021 · Cuscuta approximata commonly known as alfalfa dodder native to Eurasia and Africa and also found in North America. ... Southern Europe, Asia and ...