Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulaceae, commonly known as the morning glory family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Solanales that includes approximately 1,650 species classified into about 60 genera.^[1] These plants are predominantly twining vines and lianas, though they also encompass erect herbs, shrubs, small trees, and leafless parasitic species such as those in the genus Cuscuta.^[2] The family is characterized by alternate, simple leaves that are often cordate or arrow-shaped, funnel- or tubular-shaped flowers with a sympetalous corolla typically in shades of white, pink, purple, or blue, and fruits that are usually capsules or berries containing one to four seeds.^[3] Flowers are actinomorphic and five-merous, with five sepals, five stamens, and a superior ovary, often featuring a milky latex in stems and leaves.^[4] Distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions but extending into temperate zones worldwide, Convolvulaceae species thrive in diverse habitats from moist forests and savannas to disturbed areas and aquatic environments.^[2] The largest genus, Ipomoea, accounts for about 600 species and includes economically significant plants like the sweet potato (I. batatas), a major global crop for its edible tubers, as well as water spinach (I. aquatica), a leafy vegetable widely cultivated in Asia.^[5] Other notable genera include Convolvulus (bindweeds), known for their weedy habits in agricultural fields, and Calystegia, which features large, showy flowers.^[3] Many species are ornamental, prized for their vibrant, funnel-shaped blooms that open in the morning, while some, like certain Ipomoea species, contain alkaloids with hallucinogenic properties used in traditional contexts.^[4] The family's ecological role is significant, with species serving as pollinator attractants for insects, birds, and bats, and contributing to soil stabilization through their climbing habits.^[2] However, several members are invasive weeds, such as field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), which can reduce crop yields in temperate agriculture.^[6] Taxonomically, Convolvulaceae has been revised in recent decades, incorporating former segregate families like Cuscutaceae based on molecular phylogenetics, and it continues to be studied for its diverse breeding systems and evolutionary adaptations.^[5]

Taxonomy

Classification

Convolvulaceae is a family of flowering plants within the angiosperms, specifically placed in the core eudicots, asterids, lamiids clade, and the order Solanales according to the APG IV classification system.^[7] This placement reflects molecular phylogenetic evidence supporting its close relationship to Solanaceae and Montiniaceae within Solanales.^[8] The family comprises approximately 60 genera and 1,977 species, highlighting its significant diversity within the order.^[5]^[9] The family was first established by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789, with Convolvulus L. designated as the type genus. Historical classifications evolved from early morphological systems, such as those by Hallier f. in 1898, which divided the family based on pollen characteristics, to modern phylogenetic approaches incorporating DNA sequence data.^[10] The APG IV update in 2016 reaffirmed the family's monophyly and its position in Solanales without recognizing subfamilies, emphasizing tribal-level organization instead.^[7] Convolvulaceae is currently divided into 12 tribes based on phylogenetic analyses: Aniseieae, Cardiochlamyeae, Convolvuleae, Cresseae, Cuscuteae, Dichondreae, Erycibeae, Humbertieae, Ipomoeae, Maripeae, Poraneae, and taxa incertae sedis. This tribal framework, largely derived from Stefanović et al.'s 2003 study using plastid and nuclear markers, has seen refinements, such as the dissolution of the non-monophyletic Merremieae in 2017, with its genera redistributed among existing tribes like Ipomoeae.^[11]^[12] These tribes encompass a range of habits from herbaceous vines to woody lianas, unified by shared reproductive and inflorescence traits.

Etymology

The name Convolvulaceae is derived from the type genus Convolvulus, which originates from the Latin verb convolvere, meaning "to roll together" or "to entwine," a reference to the characteristic twining stems of many plants in this family.^[13]^[14] This family name was formally established by the French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in his seminal work Genera Plantarum, published in 1789.^[15] A common vernacular name for numerous species within Convolvulaceae, especially those in the genus Ipomoea, is "morning glory," so called because their funnel-shaped flowers typically open in the early morning and wilt by afternoon, showcasing a diurnal blooming pattern.^[16]

Phylogeny

The Convolvulaceae family occupies a well-defined position within the order Solanales, forming a monophyletic clade that is sister to the Solanaceae family.^[17] This relationship has been consistently supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses since the early 1990s, including the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classifications, with the most recent update in APG IV confirming the placement of both families within Solanales alongside Montiniaceae as a basal sister group.^[7] Early studies utilizing chloroplast genes such as rbcL and ndhF established the monophyly of Convolvulaceae and its close affinity to Solanaceae, resolving long-standing uncertainties about its ordinal placement.^[10] Key insights into intrafamilial relationships derive from cladistic analyses integrating molecular and morphological data, notably the comprehensive study by Stefanović et al. (2003), which employed sequences from chloroplast loci (rbcL, ndhF, rpl16) and the nuclear waxy gene to reconstruct a robust phylogeny.^[18] This work delineated five subfamilies and 12 tribes, including the monophyletic tribe Ipomoeeae, which encompasses diverse genera like Ipomoea and Argyreia. Subsequent molecular evidence from chloroplast DNA and nuclear genes has reinforced these tribal divisions, with studies on the Ipomoeeae clade highlighting its internal structure and biogeographic patterns through expanded sampling of plastid and low-copy nuclear markers.^[19] The evolutionary origins of Convolvulaceae trace back to the late Paleocene in East Gondwana, as evidenced by fossil leaves of an early Ipomoea-like taxon from India dated to approximately 56 million years ago, predating previous North American records and aligning with molecular divergence estimates for the family.^[20] Diversification likely accelerated during the Paleogene, coinciding with continental fragmentation and the evolution of key adaptations such as the twining vine habit for habitat exploitation and holoparasitism in the genus Cuscuta, which represents a derived lineage within the family based on phylogenetic reconstructions.^[21] These developments underscore the family's adaptive radiation across tropical and temperate regions.

Characteristics

Morphology

Members of the Convolvulaceae family exhibit a diverse range of growth habits, predominantly as herbaceous twining vines that climb using their stems, though they also include prostrate herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, and rarely trees such as Humbertia madagascariensis.^[22]^[23] The stems are typically slender, herbaceous, and either winding or prostrate, often becoming woody with age in lianas up to 35 cm in diameter; they twine clockwise without stipules or tendrils and may contain milky sap or articulated laticifers.^[22]^[23] Leaves are simple and alternate, frequently cordate or ovate with pinnate venation, though shapes vary from lanceolate to trilobed and may be coriaceous in woody species; in parasitic genera like Cuscuta, leaves are reduced to minute scales.^[22]^[24]^[23] Flowers are actinomorphic and bisexual, featuring a sympetalous corolla that is funnel-shaped or campanulate, formed from five fused petals often with colorful mid-petaline bands in shades of white, pink, blue, or purple.^[22]^[23] The calyx consists of five free or basally fused sepals, while the androecium includes five epipetalous stamens that are equal or unequal in length and inserted at the corolla base or throat.^[22]^[24] The gynoecium features a superior, bicarpellate ovary (rarely tricarpellate) with two locules, each containing two ovules.^[23] Inflorescences are typically axillary cymes that may be simple, compound, or rarely racemose, though flowers can also occur solitary on long peduncles.^[22]^[24] Fruits are diverse, most commonly loculicidal or septicidal capsules that are globose or ovoid and contain 1–4 seeds per locule, though some are baccate berries or indehiscent nuts; seeds are often pubescent or hairy and may be winged for dispersal.^[22]^[24]^[23] Parasitic species, particularly in the genus Cuscuta, deviate significantly by lacking chlorophyll, featuring yellow-orange stems with haustoria for attachment, reduced or absent leaves, and minute flowers and fruits.^[22]^[23] Anatomically, non-parasitic members often possess intraxylary phloem, successive cambia producing anomalous secondary growth, and extrafloral nectaries.^[23]

Reproduction

The Convolvulaceae family primarily reproduces sexually through perfect, bisexual flowers that are actinomorphic and typically 5-merous, featuring both stamens and pistils within the same floral structure. These flowers are often self-compatible, enabling autogamous pollination in many species, though the degree of reliance on external pollinators varies across genera such as Ipomoea. Pollen grains in Convolvulaceae are characteristically trinucleate at dispersal, a feature linked to their gametophytic development and compatibility systems that promote efficient fertilization.^[25]^[26] Following pollination, seed development involves endosperm formation, which provides nourishment to the embryo and is often starchy or oily in composition, supporting the large, straight or curved embryos typical of the family. In species like those in the genus Ipomoea, seeds exhibit physical dormancy mechanisms, primarily due to impermeable hard seed coats that prevent water uptake and imbibition until scarification occurs, enhancing long-term viability in the soil seed bank. This dormancy is widespread in the subfamily Convolvuloideae and contributes to the persistence of species in diverse environments.^[27]^[28] Asexual reproduction occurs in several Convolvulaceae species through vegetative propagation, bypassing sexual processes to facilitate rapid clonal spread. For instance, the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is commonly propagated via its tuberous storage roots, which develop adventitious buds that sprout into new plants, a method central to its cultivation. Similarly, species like field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) employ extensive rhizomes for underground vegetative growth, allowing the formation of new shoots and roots from fragmented rhizome segments, which bolsters invasiveness in disturbed habitats.^[29]^[30] Fruit and seed dispersal in Convolvulaceae is adapted to various mechanisms, with most species producing dry, dehiscent capsules that split open to release seeds. These capsules often exhibit explosive dehiscence, propelling seeds ballistically over short distances to reduce competition and promote establishment, as observed in genera like Ipomoea. In contrast, some taxa, such as Argyreia, develop fleshy berries that attract animals for endozoochorous dispersal, where seeds pass through digestive tracts unharmed, aiding long-distance spread.^[31]^[32]^[4]

Distribution and Ecology

Geographic Distribution

The Convolvulaceae family displays a predominantly pantropical distribution, encompassing tropical, subtropical, and extending into temperate regions worldwide, with the greatest species richness in the Americas and Africa.^[5]^[2] In the New World, approximately 500 species occur, with notable concentrations in Mexico hosting over 300 species, including diverse Ipomoea assemblages that exemplify regional hotspots around 20–25° N latitude.^[33]^[34]^[35] Africa features high diversity in its tropical zones, with about 115 species documented in southern regions such as the Karoo and Northern Cape, where Ipomoea dominates as the most speciose genus across the continent.^[36]^[37] Asia supports roughly 300 species, distributed across tropical and subtropical areas, as seen in China with 129 species and Thailand with 119.^[38]^[39] In contrast, Europe and Australia harbor fewer species, with Australia recording about 155 (134 native) primarily in warmer coastal and inland areas, and Europe limited to around 20–30 native taxa mainly in Mediterranean climates.^[40]^[41] Endemism is pronounced in Madagascar, home to the monotypic woody genus Humbertia, and on oceanic islands, where isolated evolution has produced numerous endemic Ipomoea species.^[42]^[43] The family's global spread likely originated through long-distance dispersal, including buoyant seeds transported by ocean currents, enabling pantropical colonization over millions of years, with some species later introduced anthropogenically as weeds.^[44]^[45]

Habitat and Adaptations

Members of the Convolvulaceae family inhabit a broad spectrum of environments, including tropical and subtropical forests, open grasslands, arid deserts, and wetlands, reflecting their versatility across moisture gradients and soil types. Many species prefer disturbed habitats such as roadsides, agricultural fields, and riverbanks, where they can establish quickly in nutrient-poor or compacted soils. For example, Ipomoea aquatica, a semi-aquatic species, thrives in freshwater wetlands, canals, ditches, and shallow ponds, growing as a floating or trailing herb with hollow stems that root at nodes to exploit shallow water bodies.^[46]^[47]^[48] A prominent adaptation in the family is the twining or climbing habit, which enables many herbaceous vines to ascend supporting vegetation and compete effectively for light in shaded or dense understories. This coiling growth allows species like Convolvulus arvensis to physically overtop competitors, reducing shading stress and enhancing photosynthetic efficiency. Drought tolerance is another key trait, facilitated by deep, extensive root systems that access subsurface moisture; for instance, field bindweed persists in dry, sandy, or moderately moist soils during extended arid periods by storing carbohydrates in its perennial roots.^[49]^[50]^[49] The genus Cuscuta exemplifies extreme specialization within Convolvulaceae through obligate holoparasitism, where plants lack roots and chlorophyll, instead forming haustoria—specialized stem appendages that penetrate host tissues to extract water, minerals, and organic nutrients via direct vascular connections. These haustoria establish symplastic continuity with the host's phloem and xylem, supporting the parasite's leafless, twining habit across various habitats.^[51]^[52]^[53] Many Convolvulaceae respond to environmental cues with diurnal flowering patterns, where corollas open at dawn in response to light signals, aligning anthesis with peak pollinator activity and minimizing nocturnal exposure.^[54] Coastal species, such as Ipomoea pes-caprae, exhibit salt tolerance through osmotic adjustments and ion compartmentalization, enabling survival in saline dune and beach habitats subjected to spray and inundation.^[55]^[56]

Ecological Interactions

Members of the Convolvulaceae family exhibit diverse pollination strategies, primarily relying on animal pollinators such as bees, moths, and hummingbirds, though some species are wind-pollinated.^[57] Day-opening flowers, characteristic of many genera like Ipomoea, attract diurnal pollinators including bees and hummingbirds through nectar rewards and colorful corollas, facilitating cross-pollination in tropical and subtropical environments.^[58] Nocturnal species, such as certain Calonyction vines, are adapted for moth pollination, with white flowers emitting scents to draw in sphingid moths during evening hours.^[59] In rare cases, bat pollination has been documented in genera like Merremia, where large, durable flowers produce copious nectar to support these mammalian visitors.^[60] Herbivory poses a significant threat to Convolvulaceae, prompting the evolution of chemical defenses centered on alkaloid production, particularly pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and ergolines, which deter generalist herbivores by disrupting their physiology.^[61] These alkaloids, biosynthesized via pathways like homospermidine synthase, accumulate in leaves and seeds, reducing palatability and toxicity to insects and mammals.^[62] A key mutualistic interaction enhances this defense: many species form symbioses with clavicipitaceous fungi, such as those in the genus Periglandula, which colonize seeds and vegetative tissues to produce ergoline alkaloids vertically transmitted to offspring.^[63] This fungal symbiosis not only boosts alkaloid levels for herbivore resistance but also illustrates a co-evolutionary partnership where the fungi gain nutrients from the host plant.^[64] Within the family, the genus Cuscuta represents a parasitic extreme, functioning as holoparasites that lack chlorophyll and roots, instead attaching via haustoria to extract water, nutrients, and carbohydrates from host plants, including legumes like alfalfa and clover.^[65] These twining parasites can severely impact agriculture by reducing crop yields—up to 20% in infested alfalfa fields—and increasing management costs through their rapid spread and broad host range exceeding 150 species.^[66] Cuscuta's parasitism alters host physiology, suppressing growth and photosynthesis while promoting its own proliferation, often leading to weakened or dead hosts in unmanaged systems.^[67] Beyond pollination, Convolvulaceae engage in mutualisms that support ecosystem stability, with nectar secretion providing essential rewards to pollinators, thereby enhancing plant reproductive success and pollinator foraging efficiency.^[68] Vining growth habits in genera like Ipomoea and Convolvulus contribute to soil stabilization, particularly in coastal dunes and riparian zones, where sprawling roots and stems bind sandy substrates, preventing erosion and aiding habitat restoration.^[69] For instance, Ipomoea pes-caprae, known as railroad vine, effectively anchors beach sands against wave action and storm surges, underscoring the family's role in geomorphic processes.^[70]

Diversity

Genera

The Convolvulaceae family encompasses approximately 57 genera, contributing to its overall diversity of about 1,955 species worldwide.^[23] These genera exhibit a range of growth forms, from herbaceous vines and shrubs to woody climbers and parasites, reflecting the family's adaptability across tropical and temperate regions. The classification into tribes highlights phylogenetic relationships, with most genera aligned within monophyletic groups based on molecular and morphological evidence.^[5] The largest genus, Ipomoea, comprises 500–650 species of primarily twining vines and herbs, accounting for a significant portion of the family's species richness and distributed pantropically.^[71] It dominates the tribe Ipomoeeae, which includes over 800 species and represents nearly half of Convolvulaceae's total diversity, underscoring the tribe's central role in the family's evolutionary radiation.^[72] Other prominent genera in this tribe and beyond include Convolvulus, with around 250 species of perennial bindweeds known for their trailing or climbing habits in temperate zones; Cuscuta, encompassing about 200 species of obligate parasitic, leafless vines that lack chlorophyll and attach via haustoria to host plants; and Calystegia, featuring approximately 25 species of hedge bindweeds characterized by large, funnel-shaped flowers and robust stems.^[73] These genera collectively illustrate the family's morphological variation, from free-living climbers to specialized parasites. Notable genera outside the core diversity hubs include Erycibe, a group of about 70 woody climbers or scandent shrubs native to tropical Asia, distinguished by their lenticellate stems and often reddish tomentose indumentum.^[74] In contrast, Humbertia stands out as a monotypic genus, represented solely by H. madagascariensis, an endemic tree in Madagascar's dry forests, notable for its primitive traits and basal position in the family's phylogeny.^[42] Endemic genera further enhance regional biodiversity, such as Astripomoea with 12 species restricted to tropical and southern Africa, including the Arabian Peninsula, where they occur as geoxylic suffrutices or perennial herbs adapted to arid environments.^[75] Together, these genera highlight Convolvulaceae's ecological versatility and biogeographic patterns.

Species Diversity

The Convolvulaceae family encompasses approximately 1,955 accepted species distributed across 57 genera, predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.^[23] As of 2024 (per Plants of the World Online), this reflects 295 new species described since 2000, with ongoing molecular studies suggesting further generic reclassifications. This diversity is unevenly distributed, with the largest concentrations in the Neotropics, where the genus Ipomoea has experienced a major evolutionary radiation, accounting for around 425 species in the New World, many endemic to biodiversity hotspots like the Cerrado and Andean regions.^[35] The Old World tropics also represent a key center of diversity, particularly for the Ipomoeeae tribe, which includes numerous climbing and herbaceous forms adapted to varied ecosystems. Speciation patterns within Convolvulaceae are notably high among vining species, which dominate the family and facilitate rapid adaptation and diversification in tropical forests and open habitats through climbing habits that enhance access to light and dispersal. The parasitic genus Cuscuta, comprising about 200 species, exemplifies specialized evolution, with many taxa exhibiting narrow host ranges that restrict their distribution to specific plant communities and contribute to localized endemism.^[76] Conservation challenges are acute for Convolvulaceae, driven primarily by habitat loss from agricultural expansion, urbanization, and deforestation, which fragment populations and reduce suitable environments for these often habitat-specific plants. A significant number of species have been assessed as threatened by the IUCN Red List, with examples including the critically endangered Convolvulus argyrothamnos in Europe, a shrubby endemic restricted to cliff habitats in Crete, Greece, where ongoing habitat degradation exacerbates its vulnerability.^[77]^[78]

Human Uses and Significance

Economic Importance

The Convolvulaceae family holds substantial economic value through its food crops, with the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) serving as a primary example of a global staple tuber. Annual worldwide production was approximately 86 million metric tons as of 2022, with over 95% occurring in developing countries, underscoring its role in food security and agriculture in tropical and subtropical regions.^[79] Ranked as the seventh most important food crop globally, sweet potato contributes significantly to caloric intake and export revenues in major producers like China and Nigeria.^[80] Another key food crop is water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), a semi-aquatic vegetable prized in Asian markets for its nutrient-rich shoots and leaves, which are harvested as a fast-growing leafy green. Its high yield potential and adaptability to wetland conditions make it a profitable specialty crop in Southeast Asia, supporting local economies through fresh produce sales and culinary applications.^[81]^[82] In horticulture, species such as the morning glory (Ipomoea tricolor) are widely cultivated as ornamentals for their striking, trumpet-shaped flowers in shades of blue, purple, and white, enhancing gardens, trellises, and containers. These vines provide aesthetic value in landscaping and are commercially propagated for the nursery trade, contributing to the global ornamental plant industry.^[4] Conversely, certain Convolvulaceae species pose economic challenges as invasive weeds in agriculture; field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), for instance, infests crops like wheat and reduces yields by 50-60% in dense stands due to its aggressive rhizomatous growth and competition for resources.^[83] This perennial weed necessitates costly control measures, including herbicides and tillage, amplifying production expenses for farmers in temperate regions.^[84] Beyond food and ornamentals, some Convolvulaceae species offer industrial potential through fiber extraction; for example, beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae) yields natural cellulosic fibers suitable for textiles, ropes, and composite materials after chemical treatments to improve tensile strength.^[85] Additionally, sweet potato tubers exhibit promise as a biofuel feedstock, with varieties yielding up to 82 grams of ethanol per kilogram of fresh root through fermentation processes, positioning them as a sustainable alternative in bioenergy production. Recent breeding efforts focus on biofortified varieties to combat vitamin A deficiency in Africa and Asia.^[86]^[87]

Medicinal and Cultural Uses

The roots of Ipomoea purga, commonly known as jalap root, have been utilized historically as a potent purgative in European and colonial medicine, originating from Spanish American trade routes where they were valued for inducing peristaltic movements to balance bodily humors.^[88] Resin glycosides extracted from these roots contribute to their laxative effects, making them a key ingredient in traditional remedies for digestive disorders.^[89] In Ayurvedic medicine, Argyreia speciosa (known as Vriddhadaru) is employed as a rejuvenator for conditions involving inflammation, such as rheumatoid arthritis and edema, with root extracts demonstrating significant anti-inflammatory activity in animal models by inhibiting paw edema and granuloma formation.^[90] Psychoactive properties in the family stem from ergoline alkaloids, such as those in the seeds of Ipomoea tricolor (ololiuqui), which were used by Aztecs in divinatory rituals to induce hallucinations, as documented in 16th-century accounts.^[91] These alkaloids hold pharmaceutical potential, serving as precursors for drugs treating migraines, Parkinson's disease, and endocrinological disorders, with biosynthetic pathways in Convolvulaceae enabling their accumulation in plant tissues.^[92] Culturally, morning glories symbolize rebirth in various folklores, representing renewal through their daily cycle of blooming at dawn and withering by dusk, evoking themes of life's transience and resurgence.^[93] Ornamentally, they feature prominently in festivals, such as Japan's Iriya Morning Glory Festival, an Edo-period tradition revived post-World War II, where over 1,000 varieties are displayed to honor summer aesthetics and deities like Kishimojin for protection and fertility.^[94] Historically, species like Calystegia soldanella have been incorporated into traditional Chinese medicine as an edible and therapeutic herb to alleviate rheumatic arthritis, sore throat, dropsy, and scurvy.^[95]

Toxicity and Risks

Members of the Convolvulaceae family produce several toxic compounds, including ergoline alkaloids such as ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA) found in Ipomoea species, which can induce hallucinations and vasoconstriction upon ingestion.^[96] These alkaloids, structurally similar to LSD, originate from symbiotic fungi in the plant tissues and pose risks to both humans and animals.^[97] Additionally, some genera contain tropane alkaloids like tropine and pseudotropine, particularly in Convolvulus species, contributing to their poisonous effects.^[98] Livestock poisoning from Convolvulus arvensis (field bindweed) manifests as vomiting, ataxia, weight loss, colic, and digestive disturbances due to the tropane alkaloids disrupting normal gastrointestinal function.^[99] In humans, ingestion of Ipomoea seeds, often for their psychoactive properties, leads to symptoms including nausea, diarrhea, disorientation, tremors, rapid heartbeat, and hallucinations, with effects varying by dose and individual sensitivity.^[100] Severe cases may require medical intervention for dehydration or cardiovascular complications.^[101] Invasive weeds within the family, such as Convolvulus arvensis, exacerbate toxicity risks by contaminating pastures and spreading alkaloids to grazing animals, potentially causing chronic health issues in herds.^[98] The genus Cuscuta (dodder), a holoparasitic member of Convolvulaceae, acts as a vector for plant pathogens including viruses, fungi, bacteria, and phytoplasmas, transmitting them between host plants and amplifying disease spread in agricultural settings.^[102] Management of these risks includes detoxification methods like applying fungicides to Ipomoea asarifolia, which eliminates ergoline alkaloids by targeting the associated fungal symbionts in leaf glands, thereby reducing plant toxicity.^[103] For psychoactive species, regulatory measures in various jurisdictions ban or restrict the sale and distribution of seeds containing high levels of LSA, such as those from Ipomoea tricolor, to prevent abuse and associated health hazards, with LSA itself classified as a controlled substance under Schedule III in the United States.^[104] Preventive strategies for livestock involve pasture management to control invasive species and prompt veterinary care for affected animals.^[99]

References

[1]
A Bird's Eye View of the Systematics of Convolvulaceae - NIH
Jul 14, 2022 · Convolvulaceae include 1,977 accepted species, classified into 60 genera and 12 tribes (Stefanović et al., 2003; Staples and Brummitt, 2007; ...
[2]
[PDF] CONVOLVULACEAE
A predominantly tropical family of twining vines and lianas, sometimes erect herbs or shrubs (e.g.,. Evolvulus, Ipomoea, Jacquemontia, Merremia), or even trees ...Missing: botany | Show results with:botany
[3]
Convolvulaceae (morning glory family) - Go Botany - Native Plant Trust
Our species in the Convolvulaceae are annual or perennial vines. The leaves are simple and alternate in most species. The flowers may be large or small and are ...
[4]
The Convolvulaceae
Dec 1, 2010 · A family of climbers, herbs, shrubs and occasionally trees, with usually regular flowers with a sympetalous corolla with five conspicuous mid-petaline bands.
[5]
Convolvulaceae - Jepson Herbarium
Convolvulaceae, the Morning-Glory family, has twining or trailing herbs with 55-60 genera and 1600-1700 species, found from warm temperate to tropics.
[6]
update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the ...
There are at least two cases in which the APG IV classification does not reflect the results of published studies, Dioscoreales and Santalales, and in these ...Missing: Convolvulaceae | Show results with:Convolvulaceae
[7]
Angiosperm Phylogeny Website - Missouri Botanical Garden
Here I very largely follow the most recent version of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification (A.P.G. IV 2016). Any differences are not to be ...
[8]
Convolvulaceae Juss. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Classification · Kingdom Plantae · Phylum Streptophyta · Class Equisetopsida · Subclass Magnoliidae · Order. Solanales. View Order Tree opens in a new tab · Family.
[9]
Monophyly of the Convolvulaceae and circumscription of their major ...
Sep 1, 2002 · Convolvulaceae are a large family, comprising approximately 50–60 genera with some 1600–1700 species (Mabberley, 1987), exhibiting a rich ...
[10]
[PDF] Classification of Convolvulaceae: A Phylogenetic Approach
Humbertieae. 1. Plants herbs, vines, lianas, or shrubs (rarely small trees); 1–4(-6) ovules per ovary; flowers actinomorphic (rarely weakly zygo ...
[11]
Dissolution of Convolvulaceae tribe Merremieae and a new ...
Apr 17, 2017 · The tribal rank for 'Merremieae' is abandoned due to lack of morphological and molecular evidence and the constituent genera are re-assessed.
[12]
Convolvulus - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 24, 2024 · 1753. Daniel F. Austin†. Common names: Bindweed. Etymology: Latin convolvo, to entwine, alluding to twining habit of most species. Treatment ...
[13]
CONVOLVULUS Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
borrowed from New Latin, genus name, going back to Latin convolvolus "bindweed (Calystegia sepium or a related species)," from convolvere "to roll round or ...
[14]
Antonii Laurentii de Jussieu Genera plantarum
Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, 1748-1836. Publication Details. Parisiis, apud viduam Herissant et Theophilum Barrois, 1789. Year. 1789. DOI. https://doi.org/ ...
[15]
History Of Morning Glories | Gardening Know How
Mar 21, 2022 · Morning glory is aptly named for its bright white, red, pink, blue or purple funnel-shaped flowers that open in the morning, then close in ...
[16]
[PDF] Phylogeny and Provisional Classification of the Solanaceae Based ...
The Convolvulaceae are now established as the sister group to the Solanaceae; together these families comprise the order. Solanales (Olmstead & al. 1992; 1993).
[17]
(PDF) Classification of Convolvulaceae: A Phylogenetic Approach
Aug 9, 2025 · Ipomoea L. is the most diverse genus of Convolvulaceae, and it is among the most diverse of angiosperms, distributed mainly in the Tropics, ...
[18]
Full article: Molecular phylogenetic study of Argyreia (Ipomoeeae
Molecular phylogenetic study of Argyreia (Ipomoeeae: Convolvulaceae) ... Stefanović et al., Citation2003; Wilkin, Citation1999). Even if the expanded ...
[19]
Paleocene Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) from India with ... - PNAS
May 21, 2018 · We report Ipomoea leaves from the late Paleocene (Thanetian; 58.7–55.8 million years ago) of India, which was a part of East Gondwana during this time.
[20]
Paleocene Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) from India with implications ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The current fossil record suggests an origin in North America, which is in contrast to molecular data that indicate an East Gondwana origin. We ...
[21]
[PDF] Lianas and Climbing Plants of the Neotropics: Convolvulaceae
Merremia discoidesperma (Convolvulaceae) seeds as medicines in Mexico. Economic Botany 49(3): 330-332. Austin, D.F. 1999. The genus Aniseia (Convolvulaceae).
[22]
(PDF) Sweet potato, morning glories, bindweeds: an overview of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Convolvulaceae are an economically and ecologically important plant family, including the crop sweet potato, ornamental morning glories, bindweeds and dodders.
[23]
[PDF] Morphological study of some members of family Convolvulaceae ...
Aug 31, 2024 · Eight species of Convolvulaceae were studied in Punjab, India, with Ipomoea being dominant. All species are climbers and parasitic on crops.
[24]
Compatibility systems and pollinator dependency in morning glory ...
Sep 15, 2023 · Our results showed that most species are self-compatible, but the degree of pollinator dependence varies. Six species were found to be highly dependent on ...Missing: trinucleate | Show results with:trinucleate
[25]
Convolvulaceae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... trinucleate pollen. In this system, the breeding behavior of the pollen, whether compatible or incompatible, is determined by the allelic constitution at ...
[26]
[PDF] Important Seed Characters for Certain Species in Convolvulaceae ...
The endosperm is hard and clear or semi-transparent. Embryos in this family are large, straight or curved, with folded or coiled cotyledons (cotyledons are ...<|separator|>
[27]
Morphology and Anatomy of Physical Dormancy in Ipomoea lacunosa
Physical dormancy (PY) in seeds is caused by a water impermeable seed (or fruit) coat (Baskin and Baskin, 1998, 2004), and it is known to occur in only 16 ...
[28]
How Sweetpotato Grows - International Potato Center
The plant reproduces in three ways: from seed, from the actual storage roots, or from the plant vines. Sweetpotato is cultivated by vegetative propagation.Missing: Convolvulaceae | Show results with:Convolvulaceae
[29]
Vegetative versus sexual reproduction varies widely in Convolvulus ...
Mar 20, 2023 · As a perennial weed species, field bindweed is capacity of vegetative reproduction through rhizomes on its extensive root system and sexual ...
[30]
Convolvulaceae in Flora of China @ efloras.org
Fruit a capsule, dehiscing by valves, circumscissile, or irregularly shattering, less often a berry or nutlike. Seeds usually trigonous, smooth or pubescent.
[31]
Ipomoea quamoclit L. 'White Feather' - National Parks Board (NParks)
Seed or Spore Dispersal, Abiotic (Explosive Dehiscence). Plant Care and Propagation. Light Preference, Full Sun. Water Preference, Moderate Water. Plant Growth ...
[32]
Sinópsis de la familia Convolvulaceae en México (Synopsis of the ...
Jul 21, 2023 · La familia Convolvulaceae es un taxon diverso y está particularmente bien representada en México. El inventario realizado recoge 313 especies de ...
[33]
Notes on Ipomoea L. (Convolvulaceae) in Cuba and neighbouring ...
Sep 21, 2017 · Diversity is particularly great around the 20 – 25° latitudes in Mexico and in the southern hemisphere in southern Bolivia, northern Argentina, ...
[34]
A foundation monograph of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the New ...
Mar 16, 2020 · A monograph of the 425 New World species of Ipomoea is presented. All 425 species are described and information is provided on their ecology ...
[35]
Factsheet -Convolvulaceae - Lucid key
Distribution. This cosmopolitan family has a higher concentration of species in the warmer regions of the world. The highest density of species in southern ...Missing: geographic | Show results with:geographic
[36]
a taxonomic revision of Ipomoea L. (Convolvulaceae) from Ghana
Apr 4, 2024 · Genus comprises 635 species, widespread across all tropical regions; it is the most species-rich genus of Convolvulaceae in Tropical Africa ( ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] CONVOLVULACEAE
Fruit a capsule, dehiscing by valves, circumscissile, or irregularly shattering, less often a berry or nutlike. Seeds usually trigonous, smooth or pubescent ...
[38]
Convolvulaceae - Flora of Thailand
Fruit a capsule, berry, utricle, or nut; dehiscing longitudinally by valves, circumscissile around the top, or irregularly shattering. Seeds usually 4 (or ...
[39]
Convolvulaceae | Flora of Australia - Profile collections
Jul 20, 2022 · Dissolution of Convolvulaceae tribe Merremieae and a new classification of the constituent genera. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society ...Missing: current | Show results with:current
[40]
A foundation monograph of Convolvulus L. (Convolvulaceae) - PMC
Economic importance. Convolvulus is of relatively little economic importance. Several species are reported to be of importance for grazing in desert ...
[41]
Humbertia - Convolvulaceae Unlimited
Jun 18, 2011 · Endemic to Madagascar. map. Countries: Madagascar. Ecology: Growing on ancient basaltic flows or sometimes on white littoral sands. The plants ...
[42]
Ipomoea L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Pl.: 159 (1753), nom. cons. This genus is accepted. The native range of this genus is Tropical & Subtropical Old World, America.
[43]
Long-Distance Dispersal by Sea-Drifted Seeds Has Maintained the ...
Ipomoea pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae), a pantropical plant with sea-drifted seeds, is found globally in the littoral areas of tropical and subtropical regions.
[44]
How the temperate world was colonised by bindweeds
Jan 19, 2016 · The Convolvuleae (Choisy) Choisy is one of 12 tribes within the predominantly tropical plant family Convolvulaceae Juss. ... We first utilised a ...<|separator|>
[45]
Ipomoea L. spp. - idseed
Ipomoea species are found in a wide variety of mostly tropical and subtropical habitats, including riparian, wetland, and coastal habitats, plus moist and dry ...
[46]
swamp morning-glory (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) - EDDMapS
Native to temperate and tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. Ipomoea aquatica is an annual herb. It can be a procumbent terrestrial in wetland areas or a ...
[47]
[PDF] Weed Risk Assessment for Ipomoea aquatica Forssk ... - usda aphis
Feb 24, 2020 · BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION: Ipomoea aquatica is a freshwater, semiaquatic herbaceous vine that grows horizontally with long, hollow stems that ...Missing: grasslands | Show results with:grasslands
[48]
Species: Convolvulus arvensis - USDA Forest Service
The ability to produce buds, together with the root food reserves, favors vegetative reproduction and makes field bindweed plants persistent [74] (see Asexual ...
[49]
Bindweeds - Cornell CALS
Reproduction: Most reproduction occurs by shoots sprouting up from the spreading root system, and in field bindweed, clones can reach 20 ft (6 m) in diameter.
[50]
One organ to infect them all: the Cuscuta haustorium
The main function of haustoria is to enable the uptake of water, inorganic nutrients and, in the case of holoparasites such as Cuscuta, also organic molecules ...
[51]
An artificial host system enables the obligate parasite Cuscuta ... - NIH
The haustorium is the signature organ of parasitism in parasitic plants and is essential for uptake of water and nutrients from the hosts (Kuijt, 1977). To ...
[52]
Interspecific Signaling Between the Parasitic Plant and the Host ...
Mar 12, 2020 · The genus Cuscuta or dodder plants, which are classified in the family Convolvulaceae, lack roots and true leaves, and are considered to be ...
[53]
Measuring Daylength: Pharbitis Takes a Different Approach - PMC
In many plants species, the initiation of flowering is determined by seasonal changes in daylength. Long-day (LD) plants, such as Arabidopsis, ...
[54]
Effects of short- and long-term salinity on leaf water relations, gas ...
This study was undertaken to investigate the salt tolerance in Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. (Convolvulaceae) under conditions in which salinity is rapidly ...
[55]
A Medicinal Halophyte Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) R. Br.
Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) R. Br. is a widely distributed halophytic plant belonging to the family Convolvulaceae. This species trails and colonizes sand dunes ...
[56]
Compatibility systems and pollinator dependency in morning glory ...
Sep 15, 2023 · The Convolvulaceae is a large family with over 1,840 known species (sensu [23]) and exhibiting diverse floral morphologies [23,24,25], breeding ...
[57]
Ipomoea bahiensis pollinators: Bees or butterflies? - ScienceDirect
Ipomoea species that open during the day are pollinated mainly by bees (Kiill and Ranga, 2003; Maimoni-Rodella and Yanagizawa, 2007), but also by hummingbirds ...
[58]
Reproductive biology and pollination ecology of Ipomoea triloba L ...
Dec 10, 2023 · Many tropical morning glory species of Convolvulaceae have been reported to be pollinated by stingless bees such as I. aquatica (Hassa et al ...
[59]
First record of bat-pollination in Merremia (Convolvulaceae) - PubMed
Apr 3, 2025 · These traits suggest that bats are likely the most important pollinators for this species. We investigated the nectar traits, volatile organic ...
[60]
The long road of functional recruitment-The evolution of a gene ...
Jul 19, 2022 · ... alkaloids (PAs), which function as a chemical defense against herbivores. In PA-producing Convolvulaceae ("morning glories"), HSS originated ...
[61]
Evolution of Homospermidine Synthase in the Convolvulaceae
Defense by pyrrolizidine alkaloids: Developed by plants and recruited by insects. ... Ipangulines, the first pyrrolizidine alkaloids from the Convolvulaceae.
[62]
Ergoline alkaloids in convolvulaceous host plants originate from ...
The colonisation of Convolvulaceae by clavicipitaceous fungi indicates the ecological role of ergoline alkaloids in a fungus-plant symbiosis.
[63]
Clavicipitaceous Fungi Associated with Ergoline Alkaloid ...
We show in the present paper that clavicipitaceous fungi are associated with four different ergoline alkaloid-containing plant taxa of the family Convolvulaceae ...
[64]
Collaborative Research: RESEARCH-PGR: The genomics of host ...
Cuscuta (common name: dodder; Convolvulaceae) is a diverse genus of parasitic plants that causes major crop losses across the US and the globe.
[65]
[PDF] Ecological and economic impact of dodder species (Cuscuta spp ...
In Romania, almost 20% of the alfalfa and red clover crops are affected by this parasitic plant; and the spreading of dodders result in annual losses of over ...
[66]
Investigating Host and Parasitic Plant Interaction by Tissue-Specific ...
Feb 9, 2022 · Parasitic angiosperms are among the worst agricultural pests, reducing the yields of agricultural crops each year by billions of dollars ...
[67]
Pollinator visitation and female reproductive success in two floral ...
Oct 22, 2020 · (Convolvulaceae) is commonly found throughout Southeast Asia and has two floral morphs in terms of corolla tube color, white and purple.
[68]
Railroad Vine (Ipomoea pes-caprae): Identification and Uses
Oct 5, 2020 · Its exact native range is obscure, but railroad vine is now found in subtropical and tropical zones worldwide, including the West Indies, the ...
[69]
Ipomoea Pes-Caprae - Railroad Vine - Sustainable Landscape ...
Nov 6, 2023 · Its fast growth, stunning flowers, and ability to stabilize sandy soils make it an invaluable asset for both conservation efforts and aesthetic ...
[70]
Phylogenetics and diversification of morning glories (tribe ...
Jan 1, 2014 · Specifically, only members of the monophyletic tribe Ipomoeeae (including members of Ipomoea, Argyreia, Stictocardia, and Turbina) have been ...
[71]
Argyreia, Stictocardia, Turbina and Astripomoea (tribe Ipomoeeae ...
Ipomoeeae, the most diverse tribe in Convolvulaceae, contains 815 species, nearly half of the species diversity of the family. Its largest genus, Ipomoea, ...
[72]
Convolvulaceae Unlimited
Fifty eight genera and an estimated 1,880 species of Convolvulaceae are currently recognised. For an introduction to the family, click here. You can find ...
[73]
The ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and ...
Oct 5, 2021 · The genus Erycibe (Convolvulaceae) contains approximately 70 species of large woody vines or climbing shrubs, which are natively distributed ...Missing: Erycibes | Show results with:Erycibes
[74]
[PDF] A Review On Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry And Pharmacological ...
Abstract: The genus Astripomoea A. Meeuse (Convolvulaceae) comprises 12 species with its centre of diversity in East Africa. Some of the species are.
[75]
A Bird's Eye View of the Systematics of Convolvulaceae - Frontiers
Jul 13, 2022 · Our study explores the benefits and limitations of increasing sequence data in resolving higher-level relationships within Convolvulaceae.Missing: Paleogene | Show results with:Paleogene
[76]
Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in Bolivia | Kew Bulletin
Sep 17, 2015 · In the neotropics Ipomoea comprises 400 – 450 species but these species are not distributed equally throughout the region. They are ...
[77]
Phylogeny, character evolution, and biogeography of Cuscuta ...
Apr 1, 2014 · Comprising some 200 currently described species, the parasitic plant genus Cuscuta (dodders) is nearly cosmopolitan in distribution but the ...
[78]
Convolvulus argyrothamnos - IUCN Top 50
Convolvulus argyrothamnos, or Silver shrubby bindweed, is a critically endangered, endemic shrubby plant with silvery hairs, found on cliffs in Crete.Missing: example | Show results with:example
[79]
Convolvulaceae of Guinea: taxonomy, conservation and useful plants
Jul 17, 2024 · However, this rich flora has been reduced and fragmented due to habitat loss from agricultural and mining practices, with up to 96% of Guinea's ...
[80]
Sweetpotato Facts and Figures - International Potato Center
More than 105 million metric tons are produced globally each year; 95% of which are grown in developing countries. Sweetpotato can grow at altitudes ranging ...
[81]
[PDF] Sweetpotato Production, Processing, and Nutritional Quality
In terms of annual production, sweetpotato ranks as the fifth most important food crop in the tropics and the seventh in the world food pro- duction after wheat ...
[82]
Ipomoea aquatica - Useful Tropical Plants
The plant roots freely at the nodes and can form large clumps of growth. The plant is a very popular leaf vegetable, especially in Asian markets.
[83]
[PDF] Ipomoea aquatica - CA.gov
4) Economic Impact: Water spinach has economic benefits as a specialty vegetable crop esteemed in. Asian cuisines. It has the ability to block canals and ...
[84]
Field Bindweed | Wheat & Small Grains | Washington State University
Dense field bindweed infestations can reduce crop yields by 50 to 60 percent. Control Methods. To successfully manage field bindweed, it is necessary to contain ...
[85]
[PDF] Field bindweed Convolvulus arvensis - Oregon.gov
This deep-rooted perennial causes significant economic harm in cereal crops, orchards, in vegetable production and mint. Organic agriculture is very difficult ...
[86]
Characterization of raw and benzoyl chloride treated Impomea pes ...
Jul 10, 2019 · These fibers are used in textile industries and for making ropes, sacks, acoustic materials etc. ... fibers for use in rotationally molded ...
[87]
The potential of sweet potato biorefinery and development of ...
Feb 18, 2021 · The ethanol production from the sweet potato variety BRS Cuia is viable, representing a sustainable alternative to fuel bioethanol, as well as an alcoholic ...Missing: tubers | Show results with:tubers
[88]
World Trade in Medicinal Plants from Spanish America, 1717–1815
Purgatives like Michoacán or jalap root (Ipomoea purga) were essential within the logic of humoral pathology, a system that considered illness to be the result ...
[89]
Profiling of the resin glycoside content of Mexican jalap roots with ...
Mexican Jalap roots, a prehispanic medicinal plant complex still considered to be a useful laxative, can be found as an ingredient in some over-the-counter ...
[90]
Argyreia speciosa (Linn. f.) sweet: A comprehensive review - PMC
This plant is pharmacologically studied for nootropic, aphrodisiac, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antihyperglycemic, ...
[91]
Psychoactive Plants
... Ipomoea tricolor and Turbina corymbosa, that have been used for their psychoactive effects, to induce hallucinations. In 1960, it was discovered that the ...
[92]
Introduction to the Toxins Special Issue on Ergot Alkaloids - PMC - NIH
Oct 20, 2015 · Ergot alkaloids are among the most relevant natural products in the history of toxins and pharmaceuticals. Until the late 20th century, ...
[93]
Through the gate and into the heart of art - Real Change News
Nov 30, 2022 · Morning glories are the flowers of death, perishing each night before they are reborn. Two red-robed arms; right hand holds a red flower, while ...
[94]
Iriya Morning Glory Festival (Asagao Matsuri) - Go Tokyo
The Iriya Morning Glory Festival, or Asagao Matsuri, is held from July 6 to 8 every year, and is the largest festival in Japan dedicated to morning glories.Missing: cultural | Show results with:cultural
[95]
Crude extract and solvent fractions of Calystegia soldanella induce ...
This plant has long been used as an edible and medicinal herb to cure rheumatic arthritis, sore throat, dropsy, and scurvy (32).
[96]
Identification and determination of ergot alkaloids in Morning Glory ...
Feb 12, 2016 · The most important ergoline derivative in Convolvulaceae is ergine (D-lysergic acid amide, LSA), together with its epimer isoergine (iso-LSA), ...
[97]
Diversification of ergot alkaloids and heritable fungal symbionts in ...
Dec 6, 2021 · This new fungal genus associated with Convolvulaceae was named Periglandula and genetic analysis grouped the fungi within the Clavicipitaceae.
[98]
Field bindweed Poisoning in Cattle - CowDVM
arvensis contains tropane alkaloids (tropine, pseudotropine, and tropinone) and pyrrolidine alkaloids (cuscohygrine and hygrine). Symptoms. Weight Loss; Colic ...Missing: livestock | Show results with:livestock
[99]
Field Bindweed | UNL Beef
Jun 1, 2020 · Field bindweed contains alkaloids that are mildly toxic to certain types of livestock and cause digestive disturbances. Productivity of ...Missing: symptoms | Show results with:symptoms
[100]
Are Morning Glories Poisonous?
They contain a chemical similar to LSD. Symptoms can range widely, from diarrhea to hallucinations. Prevent poisoning by keeping seed packets out of children's ...
[101]
GC/MS analysis of morning glory seeds freely in commerce
Oct 25, 2017 · In literature, anorexia, nausea, memory loss, dissociative reactions and schizophrenic relapse are the major psychotic adverse effects that may ...
[102]
Parasitic Plants—Potential Vectors of Phytopathogens - PMC - NIH
Jun 7, 2024 · Subsequently, the phytopathogens are transmitted through the seed bank of Cuscuta (3) or directly (4) to a non-infected host plant. However, the ...
[103]
Elimination of ergoline alkaloids following treatment of Ipomoea ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Elimination of ergoline alkaloids occurs concomitantly with loss of fungal hyphae associated with secretory glands on the upper leaf surface of ...
[104]
Ipomoea violacea: Basic Info | Psycheplants - ICEERS
... Aztec mother goddess and her priests are represented under an ololiuqui vine. The piuleros of Oaxaca used them for divination and the Mayans used the seeds ...