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Dhangar

The Dhangar are a herding caste primarily located in the Indian state of Maharashtra, traditionally practicing semi-nomadic pastoralism focused on rearing sheep and goats via transhumance migration cycles between grazing pastures.^[1]^[2] With an estimated population of around 10 million, representing approximately 9% of Maharashtra's residents, they maintain a distinct cultural identity rooted in Hindu traditions, including worship of deities such as Khandoba and Vithoba, vibrant folk festivals like Haldi and Dussehra, and oral folklore preserved through songs and dances.^[1] Historically integral to the regional economy through provision of wool, dairy, meat, and leather, as well as military service in past dynasties, the community has faced socioeconomic transitions from nomadic herding to partial settlement, agriculture, and wage labor amid modernization pressures.^[1] Classified as a Nomadic Tribe (NT-C) subcategory under Other Backward Classes (OBC) in Maharashtra with a 3.5% reservation quota, Dhangars have pursued reclassification to Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to access enhanced benefits, citing inadequate representation and development opportunities in their current category, though anthropological assessments maintain their identification as a caste rather than a tribe.^[3]^[4]^[5]

Origins and Etymology

Linguistic and Semantic Roots

The term Dhangar is most commonly derived from the Sanskrit root dhan, denoting "wealth" or "small stock," reflecting the community's traditional pastoral economy centered on sheep and goats as sources of livelihood.^[6] This interpretation aligns with functional naming conventions among Indian shepherd castes, where terms evoke livestock as economic assets, as seen in analogous groups like the Kuramwārs.^[6] An alternative derivation traces it to dhenu-gar, combining dhenu ("cow") with a suffix implying "keeper" or "herder," though this has been critiqued as speculative and less fitting given Dhangars' primary focus on ovine rather than bovine husbandry.^[7]^[8] A competing theory posits origins in dhang, a Sanskrit term for "hill" or "mountain," alluding to the hilly terrains inhabited by these transhumant herders in regions like Maharashtra's Western Ghats.^[9] This topographic etymology underscores the semantic association with elevated, rugged landscapes conducive to seasonal grazing migrations, a pattern documented in ethnographic accounts of their mobility.^[10] In Marathi lexicons, dhanagara explicitly signifies a "shepherd" or "herdsman of flocks," reinforcing the occupational semantics without resolving the root ambiguity.^[11] Linguistically, the term exhibits Dravidian influences in southern variants, where shepherd nomenclature often incorporates local substrates for "flock" or "wool," but northern Indo-Aryan forms predominate in Maharashtra, suggesting historical migrations from pastoral heartlands.^[12] No single etymology commands consensus, with scholarly sources emphasizing the term's functional evolution tied to agro-pastoral realism rather than mythological constructs.^[13]

Mythological and Historical Claims

The Dhangar community preserves oral traditions tracing their mythological origins to the Mathura region, particularly Gokul and Vrindavan, sites associated with Lord Krishna's pastoral upbringing in Hindu epics, from which forebears purportedly migrated southward via Mewar and Gujarat into Maharashtra.^[14] These narratives frame Dhangars as inheritors of ancient cattle-herding practices akin to those depicted in Krishna lore, though direct textual linkages in primary scriptures like the Mahabharata or Bhagavata Purana remain interpretive rather than explicit.^[14] Etymological claims within folklore derive the term "Dhangar" from Sanskrit roots signifying cattle possession ("dhan" for wealth or cows, plus "gar" for holder) or hill-dwelling ("dhang" for mountain), positioning the group as primordial shepherds of elevated terrains.^[14] However, 19th-century ethnographer Syed ul Hassan rejected derivations like "dhenugar" (cow-herder) as contrived folk inventions lacking philological basis, favoring instead associations with pre-modern migratory pastoralism.^[14] Mythological reinforcement appears in deity worship, including Biroba as a shepherd-protector god featured in Ovi folk poetry and the Dhangari Gaja ritual dance, alongside Khandoba as a clan deity (kuldevta) at sites like Jejuri, symbolizing martial-pastoral valor.^[14] Historical assertions include 17th-century documentation of Dhangars as village headmen (Patils) in areas like Supa, per archival studies, and colonial-era characterizations by British observers as inherently truthful and diligent laborers.^[14] Subgroup traditions, such as those of the Hatkar Dhangars, recount northern Indian immigration predating the Nizam's rule in the Deccan, corroborated by accounts from administrators like Captain FitzGerald.^[14] Such claims, while central to identity formation through folklore and ethnohistory, encounter scholarly caution due to reliance on non-literate oral sources and marginalization under Brahmanical or colonial historiographies, which prioritized elite narratives over subaltern pastoral records; no independent archaeological or epigraphic evidence substantiates specific ancient lineages beyond general Indo-Aryan migratory patterns of herders.^[14]

Historical Development

Ancient and Medieval Occupations

The Dhangar community, primarily located in the Deccan region including Maharashtra, engaged in pastoralism as their core occupation from ancient times, with evidence of cattle-grazing activities inscribed as "Dangar" in Buddhist caves, indicating early herding practices tied to livestock wealth.^[10] Their traditional roles encompassed rearing sheep, goats, cattle, and buffaloes, often in semi-nomadic patterns suited to the arid and semi-arid landscapes of western and southern India.^[15] Limited archaeological and textual references suggest supplementary activities like basic farming in fertile valleys such as the Karha, but herding dominated due to the ecological demands of transhumance.^[15] In the early medieval period (circa 6th–13th centuries CE), Dhangars maintained sheep herding as the principal economic pursuit in Maharashtra, managing flocks averaging 350 sheep per unit of five to seven families to optimize mobility and sustenance during seasonal migrations ahead of the monsoon.^[16] This pastoralism involved annual transhumance cycles, with herders providing essential sheep manure to sedentary agricultural communities in regions like Konkan, fostering symbiotic economic ties despite minimal social integration.^[16] Some subgroups, such as Gavli Dhangars, incorporated buffalo herding and limited shifting cultivation along coastal areas, while wool from sheep supported ancillary blanket weaving.^[17] Epigraphic records from 1189 CE reference pastoral cults like Biroba, the sheep-keepers' deity, underscoring the centrality of herding in their cultural and occupational identity.^[16] Claims of widespread warrior roles lack direct inscriptional support and appear rooted in later community narratives rather than primary historical evidence.^[16]

Migrations and Transhumance Patterns

The Dhangar pastoralists of Maharashtra engage in transhumance, a form of seasonal livestock migration synchronized with regional climate and forage availability. Herders typically depart from base villages during the dry period, spanning November to May, traversing over 400 kilometers across traditional routes that historically included access to communal grazing lands now fragmented by development.^[18] These paths often extend beyond Maharashtra into Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, leveraging fallow agricultural fields and crop residues to sustain sheep and goat flocks of varying sizes, with movements guided by rainfall patterns and pasture regeneration cycles.^[19] In the monsoon season from June to September, migrations cease as herders return to lowland base areas where abundant post-rain grasses support stationary grazing, avoiding flooded terrains and adhering to temporary forest department bans on movement.^[18] This annual cycle, practiced for generations, integrates Dhangar mobility with the Deccan Plateau's agrarian rhythm, where herds fertilize fields through natural manuring and control weed growth in exchange for access to stubble.^[19] Specific routes, such as those originating in Buldhana district villages like Nandri and Hivarkhed, exemplify these patterns but face interruptions from barriers like the Dnyanganga Wildlife Sanctuary, designated in 1996, which has reduced accessible grazing by up to 70% in affected locales.^[18] Adaptations to disruptions include shortened migrations or herd reductions, though core transhumance persists as a resilient strategy amid shrinking commons, with demands for dedicated corridors underscoring the continuity of these routes since pre-colonial eras.^[20]

Military Roles in Regional Empires

The Dhangar community contributed substantially to the Maratha military establishment during the 17th and 18th centuries, leveraging their pastoral lifestyle's demands for physical resilience and mobility in guerrilla warfare. Under Chhatrapati Shivaji (r. 1674–1680), Dhangars formed part of the Mavalas, irregular foot soldiers recruited from the Sahyadri hill regions, who excelled in ambushes and rapid maneuvers against larger Mughal armies; their endurance from transhumant herding made them ideal for such tactics in rugged terrain.^[21] Historical accounts note that Shivaji's forces drew heavily from Dhangar recruits, who provided both combat personnel and logistical support, such as wool for uniforms and provisions from their flocks.^[22] The Hatkar subgroup of Dhangars, specialized in sheep-rearing, distinguished themselves early in Maratha service, enlisting in large numbers under Shivaji and earning titles like Naik and Rao for leadership in infantry units; their initial adoption of military roles set precedents for community-wide participation in imperial campaigns.^[23] By the era of Peshwa Baji Rao I (r. 1720–1740), Dhangar contingents bolstered Maratha expansions northward, with their familiarity with Deccan landscapes aiding in battles like the 1737 conquest of Bhopal. Prominent Dhangar lineages elevated to command positions within the Maratha Confederacy, most notably the Holkars of Indore. Malhar Rao Holkar (1694–1766), originating from a Dhangar shepherd family in Maharashtra, rose from peasant roots to become a subadar under the Peshwas, commanding cavalry and infantry in over 70 campaigns, including defenses against Afghan invasions in 1739 and territorial consolidations in Malwa by 1740.^[24] His successors, including Ahilyabai Holkar (r. 1767–1795), sustained this military legacy, integrating Dhangar recruits into the Indore state's forces while prioritizing defensive strategies amid Confederacy infighting; by 1800, Holkar armies numbered around 20,000, reflecting sustained Dhangar martial involvement despite the community's primary pastoral identity.^[22]

Clan Subdivisions and Endogamy

The Dhangar community in Maharashtra is structured around a hierarchy of endogamous sub-castes and exogamous clans, reflecting pastoral traditions that emphasize lineage purity and resource sharing within groups. Ethnographic and biological studies identify 20 to 23 distinct endogamous divisions within the Dhangar caste-cluster, primarily among semi-nomadic shepherds in the state's coastal and inland regions.^[25]^[26] These sub-castes, such as the prominent Hatkar group, function as primary marriage pools, with unions outside them rare and often socially restricted.^[2] Endogamy at the sub-caste level enforces genetic and social cohesion, as demonstrated by patterns of anthropometric variation and consanguinity rates averaging 26.4% across 22 surveyed endogamous castes, indicating frequent intra-group marriages including uncle-niece and first-cousin unions.^[26] Within sub-castes, however, clans or gotras—numbering up to 108 exogamous units—prohibit marriages between patrilineal kin sharing the same lineage, a rule rooted in ancient textual prescriptions against gotra-endogamy to mitigate inbreeding risks.^[27] Violation of clan exogamy traditionally invokes remedial rituals, underscoring a balance between sub-caste closure and internal lineage diversity. This structure has persisted amid migrations, with sub-caste endogamy adapting to transhumance patterns while clan rules preserve broader kinship networks for alliance and conflict resolution among herders.^[28] Recent socio-economic shifts have slightly relaxed strict endogamy in urbanizing areas, though core practices remain evident in genetic clustering and marriage preferences.^[26]

Distinction from Yadavs: Evidence and Disputes

The Dhangars of Maharashtra maintain a distinct caste identity from Yadavs, primarily through endogamous marriage practices, specialized pastoral occupations, and regional linguistic variations, despite shared mythological assertions of descent from the ancient Yadava clan associated with Krishna.^[29] Anthropological studies treat Dhangars as a separate endogamous cluster, with subcastes exhibiting higher differentiation in anthropometric traits (F_ST = 0.068) compared to genetic markers (F_ST = 0.023), reflecting localized adaptation rather than broad Yadav amalgamation.^[30] Yadavs, concentrated in northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, have historically shifted toward agriculture and Yadav surname adoption post-Mandal Commission (1990s), while Dhangars remain tied to transhumant sheep herding in the Deccan plateau, with no evidence of routine inter-caste alliances or shared gotras beyond symbolic claims.^[31] Genetic analyses of autosomal microsatellite loci across Indian populations sample Dhangars (n=112 from Maharashtra) and Yadavs (e.g., n=44 from Bihar) as discrete groups, showing population-specific allele frequencies and no clustering indicative of recent common ancestry beyond broader Indo-European linguistic affiliations.^[29] Y-chromosome haplogroup distributions further position Dhangars alongside central Indian Indo-European speakers but distinct from northern Yadav profiles, underscoring geographic and historical divergence rather than unified descent.^[32] Linguistic evidence supports separation: Dhangars speak a Marathi dialect infused with pastoral terminology, contrasting with the Hindi-based variants of Gangetic Yadavs, with no mutual intelligibility or shared subdialects documented in ethnographic surveys.^[33] Disputes arise mainly in reservation politics, where pan-Yadav organizations, such as those promoting Yadav unity since the 1920s, assert inclusion of Dhangars to consolidate OBC votes, citing mythological texts like the Mahabharata for shared Yaduvanshi heritage—a claim lacking empirical corroboration and rejected by Dhangar leaders as diluting their push for Scheduled Tribe (ST) status.^[34] Dhangars argue they represent the primitive "Dhangad" tribe (listed as ST in neighboring states like Madhya Pradesh since 2003), alleging a 1950s clerical error conflated them with OBC "Dhangar" (sometimes linked to Yadavs), supported by 1931 Census records distinguishing nomadic Dhangad pastoralists from settled Yadavs.^[35] This contention intensified in Maharashtra's 2024 agitations, where Dhangar groups demanded separate ST enumeration (citing ~9% state population, or 1.2 crore), opposing Yadav merger that would cap benefits under OBC quotas; Bombay High Court dismissed such pleas in February 2024, upholding existing listings absent new ethnographic proof of tribal primitiveness.^[36] Tribal communities, including Bhils, protested Dhangar ST inclusion in October 2024, viewing it as encroaching on indigenous slots without comparable vulnerability metrics like forest dependency.^[37] These conflicts highlight how Yadav sanskritization efforts, often amplified by northern political lobbies, clash with Dhangar assertions of autochthonous Deccan identity, prioritizing empirical separation over narrative unity.

Rajputisation and Status Elevation Attempts

Certain subgroups of the Dhangar caste-cluster, notably the Shegar Dhangars, have pursued status elevation by reidentifying as Sagar Rajputs, asserting descent from historical Rajput lineages while rejecting ties to the pastoral Dhangar occupation. This shift, documented among communities traditionally classified as Shudra by varna due to shepherding, involved fabricating or emphasizing martial genealogies to claim Kshatriya equivalence during the colonial and post-independence periods.^[38]^[39] Such efforts mirror Rajputisation processes seen in other Indian pastoral groups, where adoption of Rajput-like customs—such as endogamous clan structures mimicking septs (e.g., Powar, shared with Rajput groups) and narratives of warrior ancestry—aimed to transcend occupational stigma. Community publications explicitly position Dhangars as Kshatriyas alongside Rajputs and Marathas, invoking Indo-Scythian origins for the latter to legitimize parity, though these assertions lack corroboration from pre-colonial records and serve primarily as identity mobilization tools.^[40] Parallel to Rajputisation, broader Sanskritisation trends among subgroups like the Dange Dhangars reflect adaptive responses to socio-economic pressures, including sedentarization from transhumance due to environmental degradation and modern infrastructure, prompting emulation of upper-caste practices for ritual purity and social mobility. These attempts have not altered official classifications, with Dhangars remaining under Nomadic Tribes (NT-C) in Maharashtra's OBC framework, underscoring the limits of self-ascribed elevation absent state validation.^[41]^[33]

Cultural Practices

Pastoral Traditions and Economy

The Dhangar community maintains a longstanding tradition of pastoral nomadism, centered on the herding of sheep and goats in Maharashtra's semi-arid landscapes. This involves transhumant practices where families migrate seasonally with their flocks—typically numbering in the hundreds per household—to exploit available pastures, moving from lower plains in the dry season to higher grounds during monsoons for regenerative grazing. Such mobility supports ecological balance by preventing overgrazing and enriching soils with manure, as flocks rotate across communal lands.^[42]^[43]^[2] Economically, Dhangars derive primary sustenance from livestock products, including wool, milk, and meat, which form the backbone of their livelihood in both nomadic and semi-sedentary variants. Sheep provide wool shorn twice yearly—once in March-April and again in September-October—averaging 600-700 grams per animal of short-staple variety sold locally or to traders. Milk from goats and sheep supports household consumption and occasional sales of dairy items like curd, while selective breeding and veterinary knowledge passed down generations enhance flock resilience against diseases and fodder scarcity. Average monthly earnings from such activities can reach ₹40,000 for a herder managing a substantial flock, underscoring the viability of pastoralism despite modernization pressures.^[44]^[45]^[1] These traditions integrate animal husbandry with rudimentary crop cultivation in settled phases, where herders grow millets or pulses on marginal lands to supplement pastoral income, reflecting adaptive strategies honed over centuries. However, reliance on open grazing exposes the economy to vulnerabilities like land encroachment and erratic monsoons, prompting gradual shifts toward stall-feeding in some areas without fully eroding core herding practices.^[46]^[47] The Dhangar community observes several festivals centered on their pastoral deities, including the annual Vitthal Birdev Yatra at Pattan Kodoli in Maharashtra's Satara district, a seven-day event known as the "yellow festival" for its extensive use of turmeric (haldi) in rituals symbolizing purification and prosperity for livestock.^[48] Participants offer turmeric-smeared ombil (sacred threads), perform processions with music and umbrellas, and conduct pilgrimages to honor Birdev, regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva who protects shepherds from demons.^[49] Dussehra holds particular significance, marked by vibrant communal celebrations in hilly regions of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka, often involving livestock blessings and dances to invoke victory over evil.^[50] Other observances include fairs for caste gods like Biroba and Khandoba, featuring sheep sacrifices to ensure flock health, a practice rooted in agrarian cycles.^[9] Dhangar folklore preserves oral traditions through ovi poetry, a form of rhythmic couplets composed during transhumance, extolling forests, pastures, and devotion to deities like Biruba (Biroba), who features in epics as a guardian emerging from pastoral crises.^[14] These narratives blend Vedic influences with local myths, tracing community origins to ancient Aryan shepherds in the Rigveda and epics like the Mahabharata, where figures like Krishna embody protective roles akin to Birdev's lore of slaying threats to sheep herds.^[9] Women transmit such tales via folk songs during rituals, reinforcing cultural continuity amid migrations.^[51] Social customs emphasize endogamy within clans and joint family structures, with marriages typically solemnized at the bride's paternal home through exchanges of betel nuts and coconut kernels to seal alliances.^[52] The groom arrives adorned in a special hat, dhoti, and turban, while the bride dons a sari; ceremonies involve cloth partitions and vows under canopies, sometimes beneath banyans, followed by feasts avoiding meat during mourning periods marked by vegetarian observance.^[53] Communal dances like Dhangari Gaja, an energetic performance with footwork mimicking herding, and Gondhal rituals with tali lifting and huik chants accompany festivals, preserving devotion to deities such as Mariaai via sheep slaughter and carriage processions.^[9] Polygamy occurs infrequently, and women uphold traditions through rangoli and ovi recitation, sustaining pastoral ethos despite modernization.^[9]

Contemporary Demographics and Challenges

Population Distribution and Socio-Economic Data

The Dhangar community is predominantly distributed across Maharashtra, where estimates place their population at approximately 1 crore individuals, constituting about 9% of the state's total populace of roughly 11.2 crore as per the 2011 census baseline.^[54] ^[55] Smaller pockets exist in adjacent states including northern Karnataka, Goa, and Madhya Pradesh, though Maharashtra accounts for the overwhelming majority.^[56] Within Maharashtra, concentrations are highest in western districts such as Ahmednagar, Pune, Satara, Sangli, and Kolhapur, reflecting historical transhumance routes tied to rainfall patterns and grazing lands.^[2] ^[57] Exact figures remain estimates due to the absence of comprehensive caste-specific enumeration in India's decennial census beyond Scheduled Castes and Tribes, leading to variances such as lower tallies around 1.4 million from certain ethnographic surveys.^[58] Socio-economically, Dhangars derive primary livelihood from pastoralism, centered on sheep and goat rearing via semi-nomadic herding, with supplementary income from rain-fed agriculture, dairy, and seasonal wage labor in rural economies.^[1] ^[59] Household incomes typically range from modest levels, with surveys indicating averages of Rs. 50,000–60,000 annually in Marathwada regions as of early 2010s data, often insufficient for basic needs amid fluctuating wool and livestock markets; larger herds or landholdings yield relative prosperity, but overall dependency on vulnerable pastoral assets persists.^[60] ^[61] Literacy rates lag behind state averages, constrained by mobility disrupting schooling—community-wide education levels remain low, with nomadic patterns fostering limited formal attainment and perpetuating cycles of underdevelopment.^[62] ^[21] Modernization pressures, including land encroachment and urbanization, drive gradual diversification into non-pastoral occupations, yet structural barriers like inadequate infrastructure in grazing corridors hinder equitable progress.^[59]

Modern Occupations and Development Barriers

In contemporary Maharashtra, the Dhangar community continues to rely heavily on pastoralism, rearing sheep and goats, though shrinking grazing lands have prompted diversification into agriculture, daily wage labor, and limited urban employment.^[1] Approximately 56% of surveyed Dhangar households engage in daily wage labor as a primary occupation, reflecting economic pressures that force many to abandon full-time herding for unstable, low-skill work in construction or farming.^[21] This shift, while adaptive, has not yielded broad prosperity, with 65% of families earning less than ₹20,000 annually as of 2017 data, underscoring persistent income volatility tied to livestock sales and seasonal labor.^[21] Development barriers for Dhangars include low educational attainment, with literacy rates around 67.59% in regions like Beed district—below the district average of 79.05%—and roughly 70% of households having 1-3 illiterate members.^[21] Nomadic traditions exacerbate this, as families migrate for grazing, leading to high school dropouts; for instance, 65% of girls in Beed remain out of school partly due to early marriages and poverty-driven priorities.^[21] Poor infrastructure in remote areas, including overcrowded schools lacking basic facilities and government neglect of such institutions, further entrenches educational deficits.^[21] Socio-economic marginalization compounds these issues, with about 10% landlessness and widespread lack of formal land titles, resulting in conflicts over communal grazing rights amid urbanization and farmer encroachments.^[21]^[1] Climate change, including droughts that reduce water and forage availability, forces further livelihood disruptions and sedentarization without adequate support.^[1] Policy gaps hinder progress: despite 13 targeted welfare schemes, 81% of Dhangars report receiving no benefits, attributable to their classification as Vimukta Jati and Nomadic Tribes (VJNT) rather than Scheduled Tribes (ST), which restricts access to forest rights and affirmative programs essential for grazing and development.^[1]^[21] Health vulnerabilities, such as 77% prevalence of communicable diseases linked to substandard housing (72.5% in tin-sheet dwellings) and malnutrition, perpetuate cycles of poverty.^[21]

Reservation Agitations and Policy Critiques

The Dhangar community has pursued Scheduled Tribe (ST) status since at least the early 2000s, arguing that they are synonymous with the ST-listed Dhangad community but were erroneously excluded due to a typographical discrepancy in nomenclature during colonial-era listings.^[63] ^[64] Currently classified under Vimukta Jati and Nomadic Tribes (VJNT) with a 3.5% reservation quota in Maharashtra, Dhangars seek reclassification to access the 7% ST quota, citing persistent socio-economic marginalization from pastoral nomadism.^[65] Agitations intensified ahead of the 2014 state elections, when then-BJP leader Devendra Fadnavis promised cabinet-level action for ST inclusion, though no decision materialized.^[66] Protests escalated in 2018 with threats of intensified action, including attempts at self-immolation in Latur district to parallel Maratha quota demands.^[67] By November 2023, violent clashes erupted in Marathwada region, prompting the Eknath Shinde-led government to form a nine-member committee under retired judge Sandeep Bakre to examine the claim.^[68] ^[69] In September 2024, activists launched a fast-unto-death in Pandharpur, demanding recognition as Dhangads rather than outright ST merger to avoid diluting existing tribal quotas.^[70] Hunger strikes continued into 2025, with activist Dipak Borhade fasting for 17 days in Jalna in September before temporarily suspending it, citing government delays despite a Sudhakar Shinde committee report submitted in October 2024.^[71] ^[72] These actions have included road blockades and rallies, often timed with electoral cycles to pressure authorities.^[73] Policy critiques center on the rigidity of reservation categories under the Constitution, which reserve ST status for communities exhibiting primitive traits, distinct culture, geographical isolation, shyness of contact, and underdevelopment—criteria Dhangars argue they meet through nomadic herding but which courts have scrutinized for lack of empirical alignment beyond nomenclature claims.^[4] Community leaders, such as Mahadev Jankar of Rashtriya Samaj Paksha, decry successive governments for perpetuating exclusion via unaddressed clerical errors in British gazetteers, rendering VJNT benefits insufficient against competition from larger OBC groups like Yadavs.^[74] ^[75] Critics from existing ST communities, including Bhils and Pawras, oppose inclusion, warning it would redistribute the 7% quota and undermine affirmative action for "true" tribals without nomadic histories, as evidenced by tribal rallies in Nashik and Thane in October 2024.^[37] The Bombay High Court dismissed petitions in February 2024, ruling that Maharashtra lacks authority to alter the central ST list without anthropological surveys and presidential notification, and rejecting typographical error evidence as unsubstantiated despite community assertions.^[76] Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis reiterated in September 2025 that ST grants are a Union prerogative, distinct from state-level adjustments like Maratha reservations, highlighting constitutional limits on executive overreach.^[77] Broader critiques note that such demands strain Maharashtra's 52% reservation cap, already exceeded via local laws, potentially inviting Supreme Court invalidation under the 50% ceiling precedent, while failing to address intra-category inequities without data-driven reforms.^[78]

Identity Classification Controversies

Dhangar vs. Dhangad Nomenclature Dispute

The Dhangar community in Maharashtra has asserted that the Scheduled Tribe (ST) nomenclature "Dhangad," listed in certain states' schedules, represents the same group as Dhangars, attributing the variation to a typographical error during constitutional listings that has denied them ST reservation benefits.^[69] Community leaders, including those from the All India Dhangar Mahasangh, have argued that no distinct "Dhangad" population exists in Maharashtra and that the terms are interchangeable, citing historical pastoral identities and migration patterns across states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh where similar shepherd groups are recognized under ST or related categories.^[79] This claim gained traction in agitations since the early 2000s, with demands peaking during 2023-2024 protests and fasts-unto-death in Pandharpur, where participants emphasized linguistic synonyms and demanded reclassification without sub-categorizing existing ST quotas.^[70] Opposition to this equivalence stems from anthropological distinctions and legal precedents establishing Dhangar and Dhangad as separate entities. Dhangad is officially recognized as a sub-group of the Oraon tribe, an indigenous ST community with roots in eastern India, distinct from the Dhangars' shepherding caste background in western Maharashtra; Oraon subgroups like Dhangad exhibit tribal social structures, endogamy, and cultural practices not aligned with Dhangar pastoral nomadism.^[5] In 2002, a parliamentary review concluded no similarity between the two, rejecting synonymy based on census data and ethnographic records showing separate population distributions and self-identifications.^[70] Maharashtra government committees, such as the nine-member panel formed in November 2023 under retired IAS officer Sudhakar Shinde, were tasked with examining these claims but highlighted evidentiary gaps, including invalidation of some Dhangad certificates in the state that did not resolve the core identity divergence.^[69]^[72] Judicial rulings have consistently dismissed petitions equating the names, prioritizing verifiable tribal criteria over self-assertion. The Bombay High Court, in February 2024, rejected multiple public interest litigations and writs seeking ST status for Dhangars as "Dhangad," ruling the claims "entirely without merit" due to lack of proof for typographical error and evidence of distinct communities; the court noted that Maharashtra's Dhangars are classified under Vimukta Jati and Nomadic Tribes (VJNT), not ST, and altering this would require constitutional amendment, not mere nomenclature adjustment.^[80]^[36] ST representatives, including Oraon leaders, have opposed inclusion, arguing it dilutes quotas for genuine tribals without meeting primitive traits, geographical isolation, or underdevelopment benchmarks outlined in government notifications.^[5] This nomenclature contention underscores broader reservation debates, where community-driven narratives clash with empirical caste censuses and ethnographic surveys indicating no unified historical or genetic lineage between Dhangars (OBC-like herders) and Dhangads (tribal subgroups).^[81]

ST Status Demands: Criteria and Rejections

The Dhangar community, primarily pastoralists in Maharashtra, has demanded Scheduled Tribe (ST) status since the 1990s, contending that their exclusion stems from a typographical error in central lists distinguishing "Dhangar" from "Dhangad," the latter recognized as ST in some notifications. Proponents argue this misclassification deprives them of affirmative action benefits, given their nomadic lifestyle, economic marginalization, and cultural distinctiveness as sheep herders akin to tribal groups. Agitations intensified in the 2010s, with rallies and morchas, including a major 2025 event in Jalna, pressuring the state for inclusion to access higher education and job quotas beyond their current Other Backward Class (OBC) or Vimukta Jati and Nomadic Tribes (VJNT) classifications.^[82]^[64]^[4] Eligibility for ST status under India's Constitution (Article 342) requires communities to satisfy criteria established by the Lokur Committee in 1965: indications of primitive traits, distinct culture, geographical isolation, shyness toward mainstream contact, and marked underdevelopment. Dhangar advocates claim alignment through their semi-nomadic pastoralism, reliance on livestock like sheep and ponies for sustenance, and historical marginalization in rural economies, positioning them as vulnerable to modernization's disruptions similar to recognized tribes. However, empirical assessments emphasize that these traits must reflect indigenous, pre-agricultural origins rather than caste-based occupations; Dhangars, as a Hindu endogamous group with widespread settlement and inter-community interactions, often fail to demonstrate the requisite isolation or primitiveness.^[83]^[70]^[84] Rejections have occurred repeatedly at state and central levels, with the Maharashtra government citing the non-existence of a separate "Dhangad" community within the state and insufficient anthropological evidence of tribal attributes. In 2015, the Tata Institute of Social Sciences was commissioned to evaluate Dhangar eligibility against ST benchmarks, but findings reinforced their classification as a caste rather than tribe, highlighting integration via land ownership, education access, and urban migration. Tribal Research and Training Institutes have opposed inclusion, arguing Dhangars lack tribal lineage and that granting status would encroach on quotas for genuine Adivasi groups, potentially violating constitutional intent. The Bombay High Court dismissed related petitions in February 2024, upholding that nomenclature disputes do not override substantive criteria. Authority for ST notification rests solely with the President via Parliament, precluding unilateral state action, as reiterated by Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis in September 2025.^[85]^[86]^[5]^[64]^[77]

Notable Figures

Historical Warriors and Leaders

The Dhangar community contributed warriors to the Maratha military structure, particularly as irregular troops from the western ghats and providers of logistical support such as woolen supplies during campaigns. In the 17th century, Dhangars from the Maval region enlisted in Chhatrapati Shivaji's forces, leveraging their familiarity with rugged terrain for guerrilla warfare against Mughal and Bijapur adversaries.^[13]^[87] A prominent Dhangar leader was Malhar Rao Holkar (1693–1766), born to a shepherd family in Hol, near Pune, who entered Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath's service around 1716 as a cavalryman. By 1721, he commanded Maratha expeditions into Malwa, defeating Nizam-ul-Mulk's forces at several engagements, including the 1731 battle near Bhopal, and secured jagirs encompassing 9 parganas in 1733, establishing the Holkar dynasty's base at Indore. His campaigns amassed over 100,000 troops under his command by the 1750s, contributing to Maratha dominance in central India until his death in battle against Afghan forces at Panipat in 1761.^[88]^[89] Subgroups like the Hatkar Dhangars, identifiable by titles such as Rao and Patil, maintained a warrior tradition as mounted raiders known as Bargis, participating in 18th-century Maratha raids into Bengal under commanders like Raghoji Bhonsle, where they inflicted economic disruption on Mughal territories between 1741 and 1751.^[90] Local sardars, such as Indraji Gorad in the 17th-18th centuries, led Dhangar contingents in fort defenses and skirmishes, holding patil positions in Deccan villages that supplied levies to Peshwa armies.^[91] These roles underscore the community's transition from pastoralism to militarized service, though claims of ancient dynastic foundings like the Seunas remain unsubstantiated beyond community oral traditions.^[92]

Modern Activists and Professionals

Deepak Borhade, a former police constable from Jalna district who served nearly a decade before resigning in the 2010s, emerged as a prominent full-time activist advocating for the Dhangar community's inclusion in the Scheduled Tribes category. In September 2025, he undertook an indefinite hunger strike in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar, demanding ST quota recognition and warning of statewide unrest if unmet, which he suspended after 16 days following government assurances to review the demand.^[93]^[71] His actions highlight ongoing grassroots mobilization amid repeated rejections of ST claims by central authorities since the 2000s.^[94] B.K. Kokare, a Bachelor of Engineering, founded Yashwant Sena in the early 2000s as a social reform organization to unite and empower the Dhangar community, countering perceived political neglect and promoting caste pride through awareness campaigns and protests.^[95]^[96] The group, active primarily in Maharashtra, focused on issues like education, reservation rights, and cultural revival, crediting Kokare with revitalizing community identity after decades of fragmentation; he passed away in the mid-2010s, but the organization continues influencing reservation agitations.^[97] In politics, Uttamrao Jankar has risen as a key Dhangar representative in the Ajit Pawar-led Nationalist Congress Party since the 2010s, leveraging his influence in Parner constituency to push for community quotas and development; as of 2024, he was positioned as a potential bridge between NCP and BJP alliances amid election dynamics.^[98] Similarly, Gopichand Padalkar, a Bharatiya Janata Party legislator from Pandharpur elected in 2019, prioritizes Dhangar reservation demands, organizing statewide protests in 2023 and vowing intensified action if unmet, framing his role as "Dhangar first, politician later."^[99] Among professionals, successes remain sparse in documented records, reflecting the community's pastoral roots and socio-economic barriers, though individuals like Birdev Siddhappa Dhone, originating from Kolhapur's Dhangar shepherd families, achieved All India Rank 551 in the UPSC Civil Services Examination in April 2025 after multiple attempts, aspiring to administrative roles.^[100]^[101] Earlier figures include Anandrao Devkate, a Congress minister in Maharashtra governments during the 1990s-2000s, who advanced community interests through policy advocacy.^[96] These examples underscore gradual upward mobility amid persistent demands for affirmative action to bolster professional representation.

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