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Donkey

The donkey (Equus asinus) is a domesticated perissodactyl mammal in the family Equidae, descended from the African wild ass (Equus africanus) through a single domestication event in northeastern Africa approximately 5,000 years ago.^[1]^[2] Adapted for endurance in harsh, arid conditions, it features a robust build with long ears for heat dissipation, an erect mane, a cow-like tail, and narrow hooves suited to rocky terrain, typically measuring 90–140 cm at the withers and weighing 180–450 kg.^[3]^[4] Donkeys have served primarily as pack and draught animals, capable of carrying loads up to 20–30% of their body weight over long distances while subsisting on low-quality forage, thereby enabling ancient trade networks, agricultural labor, and human migration across Eurasia and into the Americas.^[1]^[5] Their intelligence, caution, and longevity—often exceeding 30–40 years—distinguish them from horses, though these traits can manifest as apparent stubbornness when mistreated or overburdened.^[6]

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Scientific Classification

The donkey is classified in the genus Equus of the family Equidae, with the binomial name Equus asinus Linnaeus, 1758.^[7] This species encompasses the domesticated donkey, distinct from its wild ancestor, the African wild ass (Equus africanus), although some taxonomic treatments have proposed classifying domestic donkeys as a subspecies of the latter.^[8] The complete taxonomic hierarchy for Equus asinus is as follows:

Rank	Classification
Kingdom	Animalia
Phylum	Chordata
Class	Mammalia
Order	Perissodactyla
Family	Equidae
Genus	Equus
Species	Equus asinus

This classification places donkeys among the odd-toed ungulates, sharing the family Equidae with horses and zebras.^[9]^[10] The species name asinus derives from Latin, reflecting the animal's historical nomenclature, and the domestic form lacks formally recognized wild subspecies, with variation primarily expressed through breeds developed via human selection rather than natural subspeciation.^[11]

Etymology and Terminology

The English word donkey first appeared in print around 1785, with its precise origin remaining uncertain but possibly deriving from a diminutive form of dun, referring to the animal's typical dull gray-brown coat color, or as a slang or dialectal term akin to hypocoristic names like Duncan.^[12]^[13] It was initially documented in the works of lexicographer Francis Grose, who defined it as a synonym for the ass, reflecting its emergence in colloquial English rather than classical roots.^[13] In contrast, ass represents the older and more formally correct English term for the species Equus asinus, tracing back to Old English assa (c. 900 CE), which likely entered via Celtic intermediaries from Latin asinus, denoting a small, horse-like beast of burden used since antiquity.^[14]^[15] The term asinus itself may stem from a pre-Indo-European substrate or Middle Eastern linguistic influences, predating domestication records by millennia.^[15] By the 18th century, ass had largely yielded to donkey in everyday British and American usage due to the latter's less vulgar connotations, as ass increasingly overlapped with slang for buttocks via phonetic shifts from Old English ærs.^[15] Specific gender terminology includes jack or jackass for an intact male donkey, a usage attested since the 17th century combining the common name Jack with ass to denote breeding males valued for their strength in producing hybrids like mules.^[16] The female counterpart is jenny or jennet, terms of medieval origin possibly linked to French jenet (a light horse) or as a feminine form paralleling jack, emphasizing reproductive roles in working animal husbandry.^[17]^[18] Regional variants include burro, borrowed from Spanish and Portuguese burro (from Late Latin burricus, meaning small horse), commonly applied in the Americas to smaller or feral donkey populations, particularly those descended from Spanish colonial stock in the southwestern United States.^[19] These terms distinguish domesticated working animals from wild asses but do not denote separate species, with ass retaining precedence in scientific and zoological contexts for the genus Equus asinus.^[20]

Evolutionary and Domestication History

Wild Ancestors and Origins

The domestic donkey (Equus asinus) descends from the African wild ass (Equus africanus), a species native to the arid and semi-arid regions of northeastern Africa, including parts of Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.^[21]^[22] This wild progenitor is characterized by its slender build, large ears, and adaptations for harsh desert environments, such as efficient water conservation and endurance in extreme heat, traits retained in domesticated descendants.^[23] Genomic analyses confirm that modern donkeys derive primarily from two subspecies of the African wild ass: the Nubian wild ass (E. a. africanus), once widespread along the Nile Valley, and the Somali wild ass (E. a. somaliensis), inhabiting the Horn of Africa.^[24]^[22] Evolutionary divergence of the ass lineage from other equids, including horses (Equus caballus) and zebras, occurred approximately 2-3 million years ago in Africa, with E. africanus representing the closest living relative to domesticated donkeys.^[24] Fossil evidence and ancient DNA studies indicate that wild asses maintained small, nomadic populations in fragmented habitats, making them challenging for early human capture compared to more gregarious equids.^[1] Unlike Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus), which show genetic divergence and were not involved in donkey domestication, the African species provided the foundational stock due to geographic proximity and ecological suitability for human pastoralist societies in the region.^[22] The wild ancestors' range historically extended across the Sahel and Saharan fringes during wetter climatic phases, but habitat loss and overhunting have reduced populations to critically endangered levels today, with fewer than 600 individuals remaining in the wild.^[23] This scarcity underscores the domestication process's impact, as selective breeding from these stocks led to the proliferation of donkeys far beyond their ancestral territories, while pure wild lineages nearly vanished.^[21]

Process of Domestication

The domestication of the donkey (Equus asinus) occurred through a single event in eastern Africa approximately 7,000 years ago, derived from the African wild ass (Equus africanus africanus), with genetic analyses revealing a strong phylogeographic signal supporting this origin and subsequent admixture with Nubian wild ass populations.^[1]^[25] This process likely began amid Saharan desertification between 5,000 and 7,000 years ago, as pastoralist groups transitioned from hunting wild asses to managing herds for sustainable transport and burden-bearing, driven by the need for reliable pack animals in arid environments where larger livestock struggled.^[22] Unlike horse domestication, which emphasized riding and warfare, donkey management focused on selective retention of traits like endurance, sure-footedness, and tolerance for sparse forage, with early evidence indicating herding rather than immediate morphological fixation.^[26] Archaeological indicators of the domestication process include pathological changes in metapodial bones from sites like Abydos in Egypt, dated to around 4600–4000 BCE, showing increased dorsiflexion and biomechanical stress consistent with load-carrying before overt size reduction or dental alterations typical of later domestication syndromes.^[26] These traces suggest a protracted management phase where wild-caught individuals were progressively integrated into human-controlled groups, with cross-sectional bone geometry analyses revealing shifts toward greater compressive strength in third phalanges, indicative of habitual burden use rather than free-ranging locomotion.^[27] Genetic studies corroborate this timeline, documenting reduced Y-chromosome diversity and mitochondrial haplotype clustering that point to bottlenecks during initial capture and breeding, without evidence of multiple independent domestications.^[25]^[28] The process unfolded gradually, with donkeys exhibiting behavioral plasticity—such as reduced flight responses and affiliative bonding—facilitated by human provisioning in semi-captivity, contrasting with the more aggressive dispositions of their wild progenitors.^[26] By 3000 BCE, integrated use in Egyptian and Levantine economies is evident from faunal assemblages and iconography depicting burdened animals, marking the transition to full domestication where reproduction occurred exclusively under human oversight.^[24] This causal pathway, rooted in ecological pressures and pragmatic selection, underscores donkeys' role as foundational to early trade networks, predating wheeled vehicles in many regions.^[29]

Global Spread and Breed Development

Domestication of the donkey (Equus asinus) occurred once in East Africa around 5000 BCE, after which the species dispersed across Eurasia via ancient trade networks, facilitating human expansion in arid and semi-arid environments.^[21] Genomic analysis of ancient and modern specimens traces two primary lineages: one from Nubian wild asses spreading northward to the Near East and Mediterranean by the early third millennium BCE, and another from Somali wild asses extending eastward into Arabia and beyond.^[1] Archaeological remains, including donkey bones and harness artifacts from Egyptian sites dated to circa 3000 BCE, confirm their integration into Nile Valley agriculture and transport, from where they proliferated to Mesopotamia and the Levant.^[30] By the late Bronze Age, donkeys had reached southern Europe, with evidence of their use in Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece around 2000–1500 BCE, likely via Phoenician maritime trade.^[31] Roman expansion further disseminated them across the empire from the 1st century BCE, where selective breeding emphasized traits for pack-carrying and mule production—crosses with horses yielding hybrids vital to military logistics between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE.^[32] In Asia, genetic markers indicate arrival in the Arabian Peninsula by 2000 BCE, followed by diffusion along Silk Road precursors to Central and East Asia, where they supported nomadic pastoralism and caravan trade.^[33] Introduction to the Americas began with Iberian explorers in the 1490s, as Spanish vessels carried donkeys to the Caribbean and mainland for mining and agriculture; by the 16th century, populations numbered in the thousands across Mexico and Peru.^[34] Recent excavations at Jamestown, Virginia, uncovered donkey remains dated to 1607–1610, indicating English colonists acquired them en route—possibly from Spanish sources—decades earlier than previously documented, supplementing horse imports for colonial labor.^[35] Parallel to this dispersal, breed development arose through human selection for local adaptations, yielding morphological diversity without multiple domestication events.^[22] African lineages retained compact builds suited to desert endurance, averaging 90–120 cm at the withers, while Eurasian introductions underwent enlargement—European breeds like the Poitou donkey reaching 140–150 cm by the medieval period for enhanced draft capacity and mule output.^[5]^[32] In Asia, regional variants diverged under climatic pressures, with Central Asian types emphasizing resilience to altitude and cold; overall, over 100 recognized breeds today reflect these gradients, classified into Somali, Nubian, and Arabian clades via mitochondrial DNA.^[22]^[36]

Physical Characteristics

Anatomy and Morphology

The donkey (Equus asinus) possesses a compact, sturdy skeletal framework optimized for endurance and stability under load, featuring seven cervical vertebrae, eighteen thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae, and 15 to 17 caudal vertebrae.^[37] This configuration results in a shorter spine relative to horses, with prominently developed dorsal vertebrae contributing to a strong, straight back capable of supporting substantial weights.^[38] The musculoskeletal system mirrors that of equines generally, with robust leg bones, dense cortical bone in long bones for weight-bearing, and well-developed epaxial muscles along the spine and pelvis to facilitate load distribution and locomotion over uneven terrain.^[39]^[40] Limbs exhibit straight alignment and a more upright shoulder angle than in horses, enhancing sure-footedness and reducing energy expenditure during prolonged travel; forelimbs connect via a pronounced scapular tuber, while hindlimbs feature a relatively straight hock for efficient propulsion.^[41] Hooves are characteristically U-shaped, narrower mediolaterally than those of horses, with elongated anteroposterior dimensions, rounded toes, and upright walls that promote wear resistance in arid environments but require specific trimming to prevent imbalances.^[42] The neck displays a robust muscular structure with distinct lymphatic and vascular arrangements differing from horses, supporting resilience to environmental stressors.^[41] Cranial morphology includes an elongated skull with pronounced occipital crest and large auditory bullae, housing extended pinnae that exceed 25 cm in length for enhanced heat dissipation via increased vascular surface area.^[43] The forebrain, as visualized in magnetic resonance imaging, features gyri and sulci patterns adapted for sensory processing suited to foraging and predator detection in open habitats.^[44] Dermal layers vary regionally in collagen density, with higher concentrations in load-bearing areas like the back, conferring toughness against abrasions and harness friction.^[45] Gastrointestinal morphology emphasizes a capacious hindgut for fibrous diet fermentation, with esophageal pigmentation and a buccinator-reinforced cheek aiding bolus manipulation of coarse vegetation.^[46]

Size, Coat, and Distinctive Markings

Donkeys exhibit significant size variation depending on breed, with miniature varieties measuring under 36 inches (91 cm) at the withers, standard donkeys ranging from 36 to 48 inches (91 to 122 cm), and mammoth breeds exceeding 54 inches (137 cm) for females or 56 inches (142 cm) for males.^[47]^[48] Adult weights typically span 100 to 500 kg (220 to 1,100 lbs), with standard donkeys averaging 180 to 270 kg (400 to 600 lbs) and influenced by factors such as sex, nutrition, and regional adaptation; males generally possess denser bone structure and slightly greater mass than females within the same breed category.^[49]^[50] The coat of domestic donkeys is generally short and dense, adapted for thermoregulation in arid environments, though some breeds feature longer, coarser hair or seasonal shedding patterns.^[4] Predominant colors include gray (most frequent), followed by brown, black, and roan dilutions; rarer variants encompass bay with black points, smoky shades approaching black, and spotted or dun patterns, with pure white being exceptional and genetically recessive.^[51]^[52] Coat genetics in donkeys parallel those in horses but show reduced diversity due to selective breeding focused on utility rather than aesthetics. Distinctive primitive markings, retained from wild ancestors, characterize most donkeys irrespective of base color: a dorsal stripe of darker hair extends from the poll along the spine to the tail, intersected by a transverse shoulder stripe at the withers forming a cross-like pattern.^[53] Additional features often include zebra-like barring on the legs, dark edging on ears, and pale "light points" such as white muzzles or circumocular rings, which enhance camouflage in natural habitats and persist even in solid-colored individuals.^[54] These markings arise from agouti and dun gene expressions, providing empirical evidence of Equus asinus's evolutionary ties to African wild asses.^[53]

Behavior and Temperament

Donkeys are highly social herd animals, exhibiting a stronger propensity for social interaction than horses, with herd sizes in the wild varying based on food availability, typically ranging from small family units to larger groups of up to 30 individuals.^[55] Their social structure demonstrates marked flexibility, influenced by resource distribution, habitat size, and topography, allowing adaptation to diverse environments while maintaining stable, long-lasting preferential bonds that are more pronounced than in many other equids.^[56] Unlike the more rigidly hierarchical herds of horses, donkey groups often feature less linear dominance structures, with donkeys showing lower overall dominance compared to horses or mules in mixed-species settings, prioritizing affiliative bonds over aggressive competition.^[57] Donkeys form strong pair bonds, often selecting a preferred companion—typically another donkey—with whom they engage in mutual grooming, vocal communication, and synchronized behaviors, which serve to reduce stress and enhance welfare; isolation from conspecifics can lead to behavioral issues such as depression or stereotypic actions.^[58] These bonds reflect a high degree of social plasticity, enabling donkeys to integrate with other species like horses or goats when donkey companions are unavailable, though optimal well-being requires interaction with their own kind.^[59] Cognitively, donkeys possess abilities comparable to horses, with scientific assessments indicating no significant inferiority in spatial intelligence, learning, or memory; for instance, studies using detour tasks have demonstrated their capacity for problem-solving and route optimization similar to equine peers.^[60] They exhibit object permanence understanding and short-term memory retention of at least one minute, as shown in controlled experiments with miniature donkeys, underscoring their perceptual and mnemonic strengths.^[61] Donkeys also display operant conditioning responsiveness, learning associations between actions and rewards effectively, which supports their historical utility in complex tasks requiring decision-making and environmental adaptation.^[62] Personality variations influence cognitive styles, with some individuals showing optimistic judgment biases in ambiguous situations, correlating with traits like boldness and sociability.^[63] Historical underestimation of donkey intelligence likely stems from anthropomorphic biases rather than empirical deficits, as psychometric evaluations reveal cognitive variation patterns akin to those in humans when scaled appropriately.^[64]

Adaptability and Environmental Interactions

Donkeys demonstrate exceptional adaptability to arid and semi-arid environments, originating from the physiological traits of their wild ancestors, the African wild ass, which inhabit desert regions. These traits include efficient water conservation mechanisms, such as the ability to tolerate significant dehydration—up to 30% body weight loss—while maintaining functionality, followed by rapid rehydration without adverse effects upon water access.^[65] ^[66] Donkeys possess kidneys that produce highly concentrated urine, minimizing water loss, and they exhibit behavioral adaptations like reduced activity during peak heat to conserve energy.^[67] In terms of dietary resilience, donkeys thrive on poor-quality forage, including thorny shrubs and dry vegetation that other equids avoid, due to slower gastrointestinal transit times that enhance nutrient extraction from low-energy feeds. This allows them to sustain themselves in regions with sparse vegetation and during droughts, where cattle populations fluctuate markedly but donkey numbers remain stable.^[66] Their lower metabolic rate and energy expenditure during foraging further reduce maintenance requirements compared to larger livestock.^[67] Donkeys tolerate high temperatures and low humidity effectively, with studies indicating physiological stress peaks in hot-dry seasons but overall superior heat endurance over horses, seeking shelter primarily during rain or cold rather than heat.^[68] ^[69] While they prefer warm climates and show less insulation from their coarse coat in extreme cold, they adapt behaviorally by increasing forage intake for thermogenesis.^[70] Environmental interactions reveal donkeys as low-impact grazers in native habitats, with selective browsing that promotes vegetation diversity, though in non-native areas like protected zones, their hard hooves can contribute to soil erosion and weed seed dispersal via fur and manure.^[4] In semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa, their survival advantages over other species stem from combined physiological efficiency and opportunistic habitat use, enabling persistence in marginal lands unsuitable for intensive agriculture.^[71]

Reproduction and Genetics

Mating, Gestation, and Offspring

Donkeys (Equus asinus) exhibit polyestrous reproduction, with jennies (females) typically ovulating monthly during the breeding season, which peaks in spring from late March to early June when daylight length increases, aligning with their long-day breeder physiology.^[72]^[73]^[74] Jennies reach sexual maturity around 1.5 years but commonly begin breeding at 2 to 3 years of age, while jacks (males) display territorial behaviors, including prolonged courtship with vocalizations, flehmen response, and mounting attempts during estrus, which lasts 5 to 7 days.^[72]^[75]^[76] Mating involves the jack mounting the jenny after excitation, with copulation often requiring multiple attempts due to the species' non-harem social structure and jacks' slower arousal compared to horses.^[77]^[78] Gestation in jennies averages 365 days, ranging from 11 to 14 months (approximately 360 to 375 days or occasionally longer), exceeding that of horses by about one month due to physiological differences in uterine development and fetal growth rates.^[79]^[80] During this period, jennies maintain normal activity levels unless complications arise, with fetal viability monitored via ultrasound detecting heartbeat from day 25 onward; single births predominate, though twins occur rarely and often result in dystocia.^[81]^[82] Offspring, termed foals, are precocial: healthy donkey foals stand within 2 hours of birth, nurse colostrum within 2 to 4 hours (critical for passive immunity transfer), and exhibit alert behavior soon after.^[83]^[84] Jennies provide milk for 4 to 6 months, during which foals begin grazing solid forage around 2 weeks and wean fully by 6 months; rapid early growth includes faster hoof development requiring trimming every 4 to 8 weeks.^[85] Foals remain dependent on maternal protection for the first 2 to 4 weeks, vulnerable to chilling if exposed to wet conditions without shelter, and achieve sexual maturity by 2 years, perpetuating the cycle.^[86]^[87]

Hybridization Capabilities

Donkeys (Equus asinus), possessing 62 chromosomes, can hybridize with horses (Equus caballus, 64 chromosomes) to produce mules or hinnies, both typically sterile due to the resulting 63 chromosomes disrupting meiosis.^[88] A mule results from a male donkey (jack) bred to a female horse (mare), inheriting the donkey's strength and endurance alongside the horse's size; these hybrids have been bred for millennia for labor, with mules generally more common and viable than hinnies because female horses exhibit higher fertility and receptivity to donkey sires compared to male horses with female donkeys (jennies).^[89] Hinnies, the reciprocal cross of a male horse (stallion) and female donkey, are smaller and less frequently produced due to challenges in stallion-jenny mating success, though they share similar hybrid vigor traits like hardiness and longevity.^[89] While male mules and hinnies are invariably sterile, rare cases of fertile female mules have been documented historically, enabling limited backcrossing to parent species, but such fertility remains exceptional and unconfirmed in controlled modern studies.^[90] Donkeys also hybridize with zebras (Equus spp.), yielding zonkeys or zedonks, which exhibit striped patterns from the zebra parent overlaid on donkey-like conformation; a zonkey typically arises from a male zebra and female donkey, while a zedonk involves the reverse.^[91] These zebra-donkey crosses are genetic rarities, often requiring artificial insemination or managed conditions due to behavioral incompatibilities, and the offspring are almost always sterile for the same chromosomal mismatch reasons as equine hybrids, limiting their propagation beyond first-generation (F1) individuals.^[92] Documented examples include natural matings in regions like Ethiopia, where a zedonk foal was reported from escaped animals, highlighting occasional spontaneous occurrence but underscoring the hybrids' novelty rather than practical breeding utility.^[93] Hybridization with other equids, such as onagers or hemiones (Equus hemionus), has historical precedent in ancient Mesopotamia, where "kungas"—elite draft hybrids—were produced from female donkeys and male hemiones for warfare and prestige, as confirmed by ancient DNA analysis of burials dating to circa 2500 BCE.^[94] Modern attempts yield infertile or inviable offspring due to greater genetic divergence, though crosses with closely related wild asses (Equus africanus) can produce fully fertile hybrids, reflecting the donkey's domesticated origins from African ass lineages.^[95] Overall, donkey hybridization demonstrates hybrid vigor in traits like resilience but is constrained by sterility, rendering it unsuitable for sustained breeding lines without advanced interventions.

Economic and Practical Uses

Labor and Transportation Roles

Donkeys have functioned as essential draft and pack animals for over 5,000 years, enabling human expansion through agriculture, trade, and migration in arid and mountainous regions where larger equines like horses falter.^[32] Their domestication in ancient Northeast Africa around 4000 BCE supported early civilizations by transporting goods across deserts and facilitating the spread of farming practices.^[96] In labor roles, donkeys pull plows, carts, and sleds for tilling fields, hauling water, and moving harvests, particularly in small-scale farming where tractors are unaffordable or impractical on uneven terrain.^[97] A typical working donkey, weighing 200-400 kg, can sustain loads of 20-30% of its body weight—often 40-120 kg depending on fitness and balance—over distances up to 20-30 km daily, outperforming human porters in efficiency for bulk transport.^[98] ^[99] For transportation, donkeys excel as pack animals in pathless areas, carrying salt, firewood, building materials, and market goods in rural Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where they navigate narrow trails inaccessible to vehicles.^[100] Their sure-footedness, derived from narrow hooves and strong ligaments, allows traversal of rocky slopes, while low water and forage needs suit sparse environments.^[32] Globally, around 43 million donkeys, concentrated in countries like Ethiopia (over 10 million) and Sudan (nearly 8 million), perform these roles, directly aiding over 600 million people in low-income households by reducing manual labor burdens and enabling economic access.^[101] ^[102] ^[103] Mechanization has diminished their use in industrialized areas since the 20th century, yet in developing regions, donkeys persist as cost-effective alternatives, requiring minimal veterinary input and thriving on marginal diets.^[104]

Military and Historical Warfare Applications

Donkeys have served in military logistics since antiquity, primarily as pack animals capable of carrying loads up to three times their body weight over difficult terrain where wheeled vehicles or horses proved inadequate.^[105]^[106] Their sure-footedness and ability to forage on minimal vegetation enabled sustained operations in arid or mountainous regions, though pure donkeys were often supplemented by stronger mule hybrids for heavier duties.^[107] In ancient Mesopotamia around 2500 BCE, selective breeding produced "kungas"—hybrids of domesticated donkeys and wild onagers—for pulling war chariots, marking an early engineered adaptation for battlefield mobility predating horse domestication in the region by centuries.^[108] By 520 BCE, donkeys appeared in documented military exploits, such as aiding Persian forces in supply transport during campaigns.^[109] The Roman legions employed donkeys from circa 200 BCE onward for hauling provisions, tools, and equipment, leveraging their endurance despite preferring mules for artillery and bulkier loads in extended marches.^[107] Medieval European armies utilized donkeys to draw carts laden with arms, armor, foodstuffs, cooking gear, tents, and even personnel, facilitating sieges and field maneuvers across varied landscapes.^[110] During World War I, donkeys proved indispensable in trench warfare and rough fronts like Gallipoli and the Middle Eastern theater, transporting ammunition, water, rations, and medical evacuations where mechanized options failed; Allied forces alone requisitioned about 80,000 donkeys and mules, contributing to the estimated 8 million equine deaths from exhaustion, disease, and combat.^[111]^[112] A emblematic case involved Australian stretcher-bearer John Simpson Kirkpatrick and his donkey (variously named Duffy or Murphy) at Gallipoli from May to August 1915, who ferried over 300 wounded soldiers from Shrapnel Gully to aid stations under fire until Simpson's fatal wounding on August 6.^[113] In World War II, donkeys supported Allied logistics in theaters like North Africa, Italy, and Burma, carrying supplies through jungles, mountains, and deserts inaccessible to trucks; thousands were shipped from the United States and other Allied nations for these roles, often shielding troops from shrapnel as improvised barriers.^[114]^[115]^[106] Their low maintenance relative to horses—requiring less water and grain—sustained operations amid fuel shortages and supply disruptions.^[106]

Alternative Products and Modern Economies

Donkey milk serves as a niche dairy product, prized for its similarity to human milk in composition, including low casein content and high lactose levels, making it suitable for individuals with cow milk allergies or in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Global production remains limited due to the animal's low yield—approximately 1-2 liters per day per donkey—necessitating specialized farming in regions like Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa. The market, valued at USD 32.6 million in 2023, is projected to reach USD 69.07 million by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 8.5%, driven by demand for functional foods and skincare applications.^[116] In Italy and Cyprus, small-scale operations supply premium products, with prices often exceeding €10 per liter, reflecting high production costs and targeted marketing to health-conscious consumers.^[117] Donkey meat consumption occurs primarily in cultural contexts in China, where it is valued for purported medicinal properties and as a delicacy, and in parts of Italy and South America. Annual slaughter in China reached 1.47 million donkeys in 2023, accounting for a significant portion of global supply, though overall per capita consumption remains low compared to pork or beef.^[118] The global donkey meat market was estimated at USD 0.6 billion in 2024, with forecasts to USD 1.1 billion by 2033 at a CAGR of around 7%, supported by fragmented small-scale producers in Asia and export dynamics from countries like Belgium and Uruguay.^[119] ^[120] Production efficiency lags behind other meats due to slower growth rates and smaller carcass yields, typically 40-50 kg per animal, limiting scalability in industrialized systems.^[121] Donkey hides represent a high-value byproduct, primarily processed into ejiao, a gelatin used in traditional Chinese medicine for purported blood-tonifying effects, with global demand surging since the 2010s. China, facing domestic donkey shortages, imports skins from Africa and South America, where trade volumes have escalated, driving skin prices from under USD 1 per kg in 2010 to over USD 5 by 2020 in exporting regions.^[122] This market, tied to ejiao production valued in billions indirectly through pharmaceutical sales, has prompted economic incentives for farmers in countries like Kenya and Tanzania, where selling hides supplements income amid declining draft animal utility.^[123] However, supply constraints—global donkey populations fell by 10% from 2010 to 2020—have inflated live animal prices, creating short-term gains but risking local herd depletion without breeding programs.^[124] In modern economies, donkey-derived products sustain marginal livelihoods in low-mechanization areas of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, where over 90% of the estimated 50 million donkeys provide indirect economic value through byproducts rather than primary labor in urbanizing contexts.^[125] Mechanization has reduced traditional roles in wealthier nations, shifting focus to specialty markets, yet overall industry growth faces sustainability challenges from overexploitation and regulatory gaps in international trade.^[126] Empirical assessments indicate that while product trades generate revenue—e.g., household income boosts from hide sales in exporting nations—they correlate with reduced long-term asset ownership for the poorest, as donkeys embody multi-year utility supplanted by one-time sales.^[123] Emerging initiatives, such as value-added processing in Europe, aim to balance extraction with conservation, though data on net economic contributions remain sparse outside niche sectors.^[127]

Welfare Considerations and Controversies

Health Challenges in Working Donkeys

Working donkeys, predominantly utilized in low-income countries for transport and labor, commonly suffer from musculoskeletal injuries due to overloading and improper harnessing, with studies reporting wound prevalence rates of up to 45% in examined populations. These injuries often manifest as skin lesions, girth sores, and tail damage, exacerbated by loads exceeding 50% of body weight in over 87% of cases observed in field assessments.^[128] Overwork contributes to chronic fatigue and limb trembling, correlating with cumulative clinical scores for forelimb issues like knuckling.^[129] Lameness affects a significant proportion of working donkeys, with prevalence ranging from 14% to over 40% across various studies in regions like Ethiopia and Pakistan, often linked to hoof neglect, conformational abnormalities, and repetitive strain from draught tasks.^[130] ^[131] In non-intervention areas, lameness rates can reach 25.5%, more than double those in managed groups, highlighting causal factors such as prolonged weight-bearing and inadequate farriery.^[132] Poor body condition, observed in many working equids, amplifies these risks, as underfed donkeys exhibit reduced resilience to mechanical stress.^[133] Gastrointestinal parasitism poses another prevalent threat, with helminth burdens like strongyles and cyathostomes infecting up to 73% of donkeys in endemic areas, leading to weight loss, anemia, and colic through nutrient malabsorption and intestinal damage.^[134] In developing countries, where deworming is infrequent, these parasites compound malnutrition effects, as donkeys rely on fibrous, low-quality forage that fails to offset energy deficits from heavy labor.^[135] Hyperlipemia and colitis, tied to dietary imbalances and stress, further impair gut function, with clinical signs including dehydration and metabolic derangements.^[136] Environmental stressors such as heat exposure and water scarcity intensify these challenges, promoting dehydration and heat stress in overworked animals, while infectious diseases like epizootic lymphangitis cause debilitating skin and ocular lesions in untreated herds.^[137] Management deficiencies, including underage working and fear-inducing handling, elevate overall morbidity, underscoring the need for load regulation and veterinary interventions to mitigate causal pathways from exploitation to pathology.^[133]

Debates on Meat, Skin, and Export Trades

The global trade in donkey meat remains limited compared to other livestock, with consumption primarily in regions such as China, parts of Africa, and historically in Europe, where it is valued for its lean protein content similar to horse meat.^[138] Debates center on animal welfare during slaughter, with studies in Ghana documenting inadequate stunning and handling practices leading to distress, though nutritional assessments indicate many working donkeys arrive at abattoirs in fair body condition prior to processing.^[139] Proponents argue that utilizing end-of-life donkeys for meat provides economic value to impoverished owners without incentivizing overbreeding, while critics from welfare organizations highlight inconsistent compliance with humane slaughter standards in informal markets.^[140] The donkey skin trade, driven predominantly by demand for ejiao—a gelatin derived from hides used in traditional Chinese medicine—has escalated dramatically, with China producing approximately 5,000 tons annually, requiring an estimated 4 to 6 million skins per year.^[141] ^[142] This demand has led to widespread slaughter in exporting countries like those in Africa and Latin America, where reports document inhumane practices including beating, overuse of blunt force, and occasional live skinning by untrained personnel, contravening animal welfare laws in multiple jurisdictions.^[124] ^[143] However, such accounts predominantly originate from advocacy groups like The Donkey Sanctuary, which may emphasize negative outcomes over contextual factors like resource constraints in low-income settings where donkeys function as disposable draft animals. Export trades involve live shipments from Africa to Asia for slaughter, often via smuggling routes that exacerbate welfare issues through overcrowding and prolonged transport without food or water, prompting bans in several nations. Nigeria prohibited donkey exports in 2019, followed by domestic slaughter bans in Ghana and Kenya, culminating in the African Union's continent-wide prohibition on skin exports and slaughter for trade purposes in February 2024.^[122] ^[144] These measures address population declines—potentially halving Africa's donkey numbers by 2040 without intervention—but have sparked debates over enforcement amid ongoing illegal trade valued at millions in skins.^[145] Controversies pit sustainability and welfare concerns against economic imperatives in developing regions, where donkeys support 158 million people by enabling transport and income for the poorest households, correlating with reduced poverty and improved food security.^[146] The trade offers short-term revenue for disposing of aged or injured animals, yet informants in affected communities report net losses from theft, reduced working stock, and declining livelihoods, underscoring the causal trade-off: while ejiao demand depletes essential assets without scalable domestic breeding in source countries, abrupt bans risk uncompensated economic harm absent alternatives like regulated farming or synthetic substitutes.^[147] ^[125] Empirical assessments reveal no evidence of equivalent cruelty amplification beyond standard livestock practices in under-regulated markets, though the trade's scale—killing nearly 6 million donkeys yearly—renders it ecologically untenable given stagnant global populations around 50 million.^[148]

Empirical Assessments of Utility vs. Suffering Claims

In developing countries, donkeys contribute substantially to household economies, with an estimated 50 million donkeys worldwide primarily serving as draft animals for transport, agriculture, and income generation.^[149] Ownership enables multiple income streams, including direct earnings from hiring out donkeys for carting goods—reported to yield higher returns than alternative labor in rural Kenya—and indirect savings on fuel or human transport costs, conferring up to six distinct benefits such as market access and crop hauling.^[150]^[151] In Ethiopia, donkey-dependent households derive measurable socio-economic value, with owners reporting enhanced livelihoods through plowing and pack transport, where quantitative valuations link ownership to poverty alleviation via increased productivity.^[152] These utilities are particularly pronounced in sub-Saharan Africa, where over 7 million Kenyans directly benefit from working donkeys, facilitating food security and resilience in areas lacking mechanized alternatives.^[153] Empirical welfare assessments of working donkeys reveal prevalent health issues, including wounds in 31-42% of cases, ectoparasite infestations in 65%, thin body condition in 85%, and hoof or limb pathologies exceeding 90% prevalence across low-income regions.^[154]^[155]^[156] Lameness affects over one-third of equids, often exacerbated by overloading, extended work hours, and inadequate care, with donkeys showing poorer outcomes than horses or mules due to harsher usage patterns.^[157]^[158] These metrics, derived from field surveys in Kenya, Ethiopia, and brick kiln operations, indicate suffering linked to environmental stressors, owner practices, and poverty-driven overload rather than labor per se.^[159] Comparative studies balance these against utility, finding that health impairments impose economic costs—such as lost workdays from disease—outweighing baseline labor strains, with interventions like veterinary care yielding net gains in both productivity and condition scores.^[160] In smallholder Kenyan systems, donkey benefits (e.g., 20-30% household income from hire or traction) persist despite challenges like theft or parasites, as alternatives like tractors remain unaffordable, rendering removal counterproductive to human welfare.^[161] Rural Ethiopian analyses show owners prioritizing economic roles, with welfare varying by attitude and location but correlating positively with utility when management improves, suggesting suffering claims overlook contextual necessities where donkeys avert greater human hardship.^[162]^[163] Overall, data affirm donkeys' net positive impact in resource-scarce settings, though biased welfare-focused sources may amplify suffering without quantifying offsetting livelihood enhancements.^[164]

Husbandry and Management

Nutritional Requirements

Donkeys require a diet primarily composed of low-energy, high-fiber forages to align with their efficient hindgut fermentation, which allows greater nutrient extraction from poorer-quality feeds compared to horses.^[165] Unlike horses, donkeys thrive on mature grass hay, straw, or other fibrous materials, with recommended daily intake of 1.3% to 1.7% of body weight on a dry matter basis for maintenance, adjusted downward for sedentary animals to prevent obesity.^[50] A common maintenance ration consists of approximately 75% straw and 25% moderate-quality grass hay, providing sufficient energy while minimizing risks of laminitis or excessive weight gain inherent to their thrifty metabolism.^[165] Donkeys require about 75% of the energy needs of a comparably sized horse, reflecting their lower basal metabolic rate and superior digestive efficiency for low-nutrient forages.^[166] ^[167] Protein needs are modest, with preliminary data indicating lower requirements than horses; for a 225 kg adult donkey at maintenance, approximately 90 grams of crude protein daily suffices, typically met through mixed grass hay without concentrates.^[50] Grains or high-protein feeds should be avoided except in cases of underweight animals or lactation, as donkeys digest fiber more effectively than starch, reducing the necessity for energy-dense supplements.^[168] Forage-only diets often fall short in micronutrients, necessitating supplementation with loose minerals such as copper, manganese, zinc, selenium, iron, cobalt, and iodine to support immune function, hoof health, and reproduction.^[169] ^[170] Vitamins, particularly A, D, and E, may also require fortification via ration balancers if hay quality is suboptimal, though specific donkey requirements remain unestablished in formal guidelines like those from the National Research Council, which adapt equine standards downward.^[171] ^[172] Access to clean water is critical, with donkeys consuming 3 to 10 liters per 100 kg body weight daily depending on environmental temperature and workload, as dehydration impairs digestion and electrolyte balance.^[173] Overfeeding lush pasture or alfalfa can lead to hyperlipemia, a fat metabolism disorder more prevalent in donkeys than horses due to their predisposition for insulin resistance.^[174] Monitoring body condition score—ideally 5 on a 9-point scale—guides adjustments, prioritizing ad libitum access to low-calorie fiber over restricted feeding to mimic natural grazing behaviors and sustain gut health.^[175]

Veterinary Care and Farriery

Veterinary care for donkeys emphasizes preventive measures due to their stoic nature, which often masks early signs of illness such as colic or hyperlipemia.^[176] ^[177] Routine annual examinations by a veterinarian are recommended, including assessments of body condition, dental health, and parasite load via fecal egg counts to guide targeted deworming with agents like ivermectin.^[178] ^[179] Vaccinations typically include core protections against tetanus, administered as a primary series of two doses four to six weeks apart followed by annual boosters, and region-specific vaccines such as rabies or West Nile virus where endemic risks exist.^[180] ^[181] Dental care is critical, as donkeys possess hypsodont teeth prone to uneven wear, hooks, and ramps that impair mastication and lead to weight loss if untreated.^[182] Young donkeys require examinations twice yearly until full adult dentition develops around age five, with floating procedures to correct sharp edges using specialized power floats adapted for their anatomy.^[183] ^[184] Common health challenges include gastrointestinal disorders like impaction colic, often linked to inadequate fiber intake, and external parasites such as lice, necessitating vigilant monitoring and prompt intervention to prevent secondary infections.^[185] ^[186] Farriery practices for donkeys prioritize natural wear and minimal intervention, as their hooves are thicker and more resilient than those of horses, featuring a U-shaped wall and straighter pastern angles that support barefoot lifestyles in arid environments.^[187] ^[188] Hooves should be picked daily to remove debris and checked for thrush or abscesses, with professional trimming every six to eight weeks to maintain balance and prevent cracks or white line separation exacerbated by wet conditions.^[189] ^[190] ^[191] Shoeing is rarely required except for working donkeys on hard surfaces, using lighter, concave designs to accommodate their upright conformation and reduce laminitis risk, which though less prevalent than in ponies, demands early dietary management in obese individuals.^[192] ^[178]

Breed Conservation Initiatives

Conservation efforts for donkey breeds focus on preserving genetic diversity amid declining populations driven by agricultural mechanization and reduced traditional uses. Organizations such as The Livestock Conservancy maintain a conservation priority list that includes several donkey breeds classified as critical, including the Poitou, American Mammoth Jackstock, and Miniature Donkey, emphasizing independent registries and breeding protocols to prevent extinction.^[193]^[194] The Poitou donkey exemplifies successful international recovery programs; by the 1970s, fewer than 80 individuals remained worldwide, prompting dedicated breeding at facilities like the Asinerie du Baudet du Poitou in France.^[195]^[194] Current global populations hover around 300 to 500, with approximately 70 purebreds in the United States, supported by cross-border transfers and censuses coordinated by groups like The Livestock Conservancy.^[196]^[197] In Italy, the Martina Franca breed faces endangerment, with genetic analyses and targeted breeding programs underway to sustain its agricultural and therapeutic roles, highlighting the need for empirical monitoring of population structure.^[198] Broader initiatives, such as the Worldwide Donkey Breeds Project, facilitate global collaboration among researchers to model demographic evolution and implement sustainable conservation for small, genetically isolated populations like the Andalusian donkey.^[199] The Donkey Sanctuary contributes through research on vulnerable breeds, analyzing extinction risks from mechanization and promoting biodiversity via natural grazing programs that integrate conservation with habitat management.^[200]^[201] Regional efforts, including those for Sicilian and Pega donkeys, underscore breed-specific registries and cultural heritage preservation to counter biodiversity loss.^[202]^[203]

Feral Populations and Ecology

Locations and Population Dynamics

Feral donkey populations, consisting of free-roaming descendants of domesticated Equus asinus, are primarily found in arid and semi-arid regions where they were introduced for labor in mining and transport before becoming established without human management. These populations thrive due to high adaptability to dry environments, lack of natural predators, and reproductive rates that can exceed 20% annually in unmanaged settings.^[204]^[205] Australia hosts the largest feral donkey population, estimated at over 5 million individuals, concentrated in central and northern areas including the Kimberley pastoral district of Western Australia and the Victoria River region of the Northern Territory. These groups exhibit stable to increasing dynamics in rugged, water-scarce terrains, with densities varying from low in expansive deserts to higher near permanent water sources, driven by broad dietary flexibility and social herd structures that enhance survival.^[206]^[204]^[207] In the United States, feral burros occupy public rangelands in the Southwest, with key populations in Arizona, Nevada, California, and Utah managed under the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act. As of March 1, 2025, the on-range population stood at 19,333, far exceeding the Bureau of Land Management's appropriate management level of approximately 2,919, prompting ongoing gathers and fertility controls to curb growth rates of 15-25% per year.^[208]^[209] Smaller feral herds persist in isolated locations such as the Karpaz Peninsula in Cyprus, where populations remain unquantified but ecologically significant, and hyper-arid zones in Namibia with densities around 1 donkey per km², reflecting localized expansion tempered by human interventions and environmental constraints.^[205]^[210] Overall, global feral donkey numbers are dwarfed by domestic stocks but pose management challenges through rapid proliferation in suitable habitats absent predation or control measures.^[205]

Ecological Impacts and Management

Feral donkeys, as invasive herbivores in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, primarily impose negative ecological effects through intensive grazing, trampling, and resource competition. In hyper-arid regions like the Arabian Peninsula, feral donkey densities averaging 1.03 individuals per km² (SE 0.19) lead to overgrazing, habitat fragmentation, and displacement of native species from water and forage resources.^[211] Similar degradative impacts occur in Australia, where donkeys introduced in 1866 now number in the tens of thousands, exacerbating soil erosion, waterway degradation, weed dispersal, and suppression of native plant regeneration.^[212] In sparse dry landscapes, donkey grazing reduces overall plant cover, altering vegetation structure and favoring less palatable species over time.^[205] In the United States Southwest, feral burros concentrate activity around riparian wetlands, resulting in bare ground expansion, trail proliferation, and diminished canopy cover unless mitigated by predators such as cougars.^[213] Cougar predation shifts donkey behavior, reducing herbivory and disturbance near water sources, thereby enhancing vegetation recovery and wetland integrity in affected areas.^[214] While some observations suggest donkeys create incidental water holes by pawing, facilitating access for wildlife in extreme deserts, empirical evidence indicates these benefits are context-specific and insufficient to offset widespread habitat degradation.^[215] Management strategies prioritize population reduction to curb ecological harm, employing lethal and non-lethal methods tailored to regional contexts. Ground shooting targets feral donkeys in Australia, particularly during droughts to avert prolonged starvation, with protocols emphasizing humane dispatch and carcass disposal to minimize secondary risks.^[216] Trapping and chemical immobilization using medetomidine-ketomidine combinations enable capture for relocation or euthanasia in accessible populations.^[217] Emerging approaches include immunocontraceptives, tested in U.S. burro herds to suppress reproduction without removal, though scalability remains limited by delivery challenges in free-roaming groups.^[218] Integrated efforts monitor density and impacts, adjusting interventions to balance conservation goals with animal welfare considerations.^[205]

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Jun 19, 2020 · The average gestation period is typically between 360 to 375 days, although it can extend beyond that. I recommend having a veterinarian examine ...
[81]
A Review of Reproductive Biology and Biotechnologies in Donkeys
Donkey reproduction has similarities to horses, but jennies have longer cycles and gestation. Artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used, but frozen ...
[82]
Reproductive Disorders in Donkeys: Current Evidence and Update
Aug 28, 2024 · The reproductive anatomy and physiology of the donkey are similar to that of the horse, but it is necessary to realize certain unique ...
[83]
The Care of the Foal | IVIS
Normal donkey foals stand within 2 hours of birth and nurse from the mare soon after. They should be bright and alert with slightly different physiological ...Missing: offspring | Show results with:offspring
[84]
Care of Donkey Foals - The Sathya Sai Sanctuary
Within the first 12 hours of life colostrum must be administered to the foal. Ideally the first feed should be given during the first 2-4 hours after birth.Missing: offspring | Show results with:offspring
[85]
[PDF] The-Donkey-Care-and-Feeding.pdf
Ideally hooves should be trimmed every four to eight weeks depending on age and speed of growth. The hooves of foals generally grow faster than those of adult ...
[86]
The Donkey Neonate | IVIS
Donkey foals are not very hardy and require suitable shelter especially for the first two to four weeks of life. If the foal becomes soaked with rain, this ...Missing: offspring | Show results with:offspring
[87]
Reproductive parameters of donkey jacks undergoing puberty
In donkeys, the average volume of testicular parenchyma increased three folds from 1.5 to 5 years of age (Nipken and Wrobel, 1996), however nothing is knows ...
[88]
Testicular Characteristics and the Block to Spermatogenesis in ... - NIH
Most hinnies (female donkey×male horse) and mules (female horse×male donkey) are sterile with few reports of equine fertile hybrids. The main cause of this ...
[89]
Hinny vs. Mule: Different Donkey-Horse Hybrids | HowStuffWorks
May 29, 2025 · Breeding mules is more successful because female horses are more fertile and accepting of donkey sires. Breeding hinnies is more challenging ...
[90]
ACCOUNTS OF FERTILE MULES AND HINNIES - THE MESSYBEAST
Donkeys have 62 chromosomes while horses have 64 chromosomes; hybrids are less likely where the male has more chromosomes than the female. REMARKABLE NATURAL ...
[91]
Zebra-donkey Hybrids (Zonkeys) - Macroevolution.net
This hybrid (Equus asinus × Equus burchelli) is known as a zonkey (or zedonk, zebrass, zeedonk, zebradonk, zebrinny, zenkey, zebronkey, or deebra).
[92]
The Zonkey Has a Donkey Mom and Zebra Dad | HowStuffWorks
Nov 15, 2024 · Today, "zonkey" more accurately describes hybrids from a male zebra and female donkey, while "zeedonk" refers to the reverse pairing. Historical ...Hybrid Nature · Zoo Origins · Life Cycle · Viability in the WildMissing: zedonk | Show results with:zedonk
[93]
A mysterious zebra-donkey hybrid (zedonk or zonkey) produced ...
Aug 9, 2025 · This is the first record in Ethiopia documenting a zebra-donkey hybrid (Zedonk) produced under natural mating. The male hybrid was foaled from a ...
[94]
The genetic identity of the earliest human-made hybrid animals, the ...
Jan 14, 2022 · We conclude that kungas were F1 hybrids between female domestic donkeys and male hemippes, thus documenting the earliest evidence of hybrid animal breeding.
[95]
OTHER EQUID HYBRIDS, ZEBRA X ZEBRA HYBRIDS
Hybrids between Equus africanus (wild African ass) x Equus asinus (domestic donkey) hybrids are fully fertile. The onager (Equus hermionus) is an Asiatic ass or ...
[96]
(PDF) Donkeys in transition: changing use in a changing world
Aug 9, 2025 · For thousands of years, the donkey (Equus asinus) has played an essential role in human society, underpinning the earliest forms of civilisation ...
[97]
The humble donkey has been the backbone of agriculture for years
Jun 10, 2025 · From plowing fields and hauling water to carrying crops to market, the donkey's role in agriculture is deeply rooted and far-reaching. ... modern ...Missing: current capacity
[98]
Welfare Concerns for Mounted Load Carrying by Working Donkeys ...
May 27, 2022 · The maximum load recommended for a fit donkey in the UK, with a well-balanced load, is 50 kg (20), which is approximately 28% of an adult ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[99]
Animals That Carry Loads - Rogue Scholar
Jan 6, 2024 · Donkeys have been used for centuries to carry loads. Their load-carrying ability is quite impressive. A healthy donkey can carry up to 125 ...Missing: historical current
[100]
Labour-saving technologies and practices: pack animals and animal ...
Advantages. Labour-saving. Substantially reduces drudgery and much higher loads can be transported using draught animals compared to manual methods.<|control11|><|separator|>
[101]
A Comparison Between Working and Nonworking Donkeys Welfare ...
There are approximately 43 million donkeys in the world [1]. Most of them contribute to developing countries' livelihoods, both directly and indirectly [2].
[102]
Donkey Population by Country 2025
Donkey Population by Country 2025 ; Ethiopia. 10,668,986 ; Sudan. 7,666,017 ; Pakistan. 5,830,000 ; Chad. 4,676,320 ; Mexico. 3,300,639 ...
[103]
The Donkey Project Update - July 2023 - Brooke USA
For 600 million people in some of the poorest places in the world, 100 million donkeys and other equines are the backbone of communities and their best means of ...<|separator|>
[104]
[PDF] Donkeys in transition: changing use in a changing world
Jul 3, 2021 · While donkey use has declined since the era of mechanization and modern farming practices, the animals are still used in rural areas for ...
[105]
Donkeys in WW1 | ww1-ride - Wix.com
Donkeys were routinely loaded with at least 3 times their own body weight. Pictures and stories show donkeys carried food supplies, clothing, pots and pans, ...
[106]
Donkey and Mule Soldiers: The Unsung Heroes - Photorientalist
Mar 30, 2024 · They were also often the first line of defense protecting soldiers from shrapnel when bombs landed nearby.
[107]
The donkey in human history: an archaeological perspective
Donkeys were used by the Roman army from c. 200 BC but mules, the hybrid offspring of a male donkey and a female horse, were to become the most important ...
[108]
These Ancient 'War Donkeys' Were Likely The 1st Human-Bred ...
Jan 15, 2022 · Mesopotamians were using hybrids of domesticated donkeys and wild asses to pull their war wagons 4,500 years ago – at least 500 years before ...Missing: armies | Show results with:armies
[109]
https://thesassyass.com/blogs/news/donkey-history
[110]
Remembering Donkeys and War #1
Nov 8, 2020 · In the Middle Ages, donkeys were used to pull carts and transport items required for war – arms, armour, food, cooking utensils, tents, people.
[111]
Donkeys, so often waiting in the wings, take rightful centre stage
May 30, 2022 · According to the Imperial War Museum around 80,000 donkeys and mules were recruited by the Allies. Even though mules and donkeys were slower ...
[112]
Horses, mules contributed to Allied war effort | Article - Army.mil
Jul 13, 2017 · More than 8 million horses, mules and donkeys died in World War I alone. These rugged animals transported ammunition and supplies over landscapes that vehicles ...
[113]
John Simpson Kirkpatrick: Simpson and his donkey
Jan 3, 2020 · In August 1914 he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, serving at Gallipoli the ... Forging the nation: Simpson and his donkey (Australian ...
[114]
12 Ways Animals Have Helped The War Effort | Imperial War Museums
Horses, mules, donkeys and oxen were used for heavy labour throughout the First and Second World Wars. They would be used in constructing roads and railways, or ...
[115]
https://historybymail.com/blogs/news/wwii-animals-1941-1945
[116]
Donkey Milk Market Growth, Size, and Technology Outlook
Global Donkey Milk Market size was valued at USD 32.6 million in 2023 and is poised to grow from USD 35.44 million in 2024 to USD 69.07 million by 2032, ...
[117]
Determining donkey milk value propositions and identifying possible ...
This study aimed to determine marketable value propositions, competitive pricing levels for donkey milk, and possible early adopters.
[118]
Global Donkey Meat Slaughtering by Country - ReportLinker
In 2023, China's donkey meat slaughtering stood at 1.4712 million heads, representing a slight decrease of 1.25% from the previous year.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics<|separator|>
[119]
Donkey Meat Market Size, Growth, Share, & Analysis Report - 2033
Feb 1, 2025 · The donkey meat market is valued at approximately USD 0.6 billion in 2024 and is anticipated to reach around USD 1.1 billion by 2033, ...
[120]
Donkey Meat global exports and top exporters 2024 - Tridge
In 2023, Belgium was the top exporting country of Donkey Meat, followed by Poland, Uruguay, Spain, Argentina, Romania, Netherlands, France, Canada, Brazil. This ...
[121]
Donkey Meat Strategic Insights: Analysis 2025 and Forecasts 2033
Rating 4.8 (1,980) Apr 25, 2025 · Donkey meat production is highly fragmented, with a large number of small-scale producers dominating the market. Concentration is geographically ...
[122]
How China's demand for donkey hide is devastating African ...
Apr 15, 2024 · How China's demand for donkey hide is devastating African communities · E-jiao products · Number of donkeys in China at year-end · Global donkey ...<|separator|>
[123]
The Emerging Trade in Donkey Hide: An Opportunity or a Threat for ...
Study explores impact of donkey hide trade on Kenyan farmers' livelihoods. Findings reveal selling donkeys for income is unsustainable long-term.
[124]
The Donkey Skin Trade: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy ...
Mar 14, 2022 · Through a combination of increased demand and a shortage of donkeys, the price of ejiao, donkey skins and donkeys have increased significantly ( ...Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
[125]
Skinned for Profit: How Global Trade Is Driving Africa's Donkeys to ...
Sep 22, 2025 · Maggs' study found that owning a donkey strongly correlates with a household's economic standing. “Poor people own donkeys in order to survive,” ...
[126]
[PDF] DONKEYS IN GLOBAL TRADE
Jun 25, 2025 · Donkey owners earn income by transporting people and goods such as construction materials and agricultural produce, and by selling donkey manure ...
[127]
(PDF) Economics of Donkey Milk Production - ResearchGate
Jun 4, 2021 · There is an increase in demand for the donkey's milk in the local market as well as the national level in the recent years.
[128]
Welfare concerns for mounted load carrying by working donkeys in ...
Mar 10, 2022 · Donkey age was associated with load carried in all models when donkeys were carrying more than 50% of their bodyweight. Younger animals between ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
[129]
Clinical abnormalities in working donkeys and their associations ...
Mar 5, 2015 · All donkeys were used to transport goods by cart or pack and were suffering from health issues including poor body condition, wounds, ocular ...Donkeys · Clinical Examination · Statistical Analysis<|separator|>
[130]
lameness and welfare problems in donkey in shashemene and ...
Aug 31, 2020 · The overall prevalence of lameness in donkeys working in the two districts was found to be 14.14%. The stepwise logistic regression reveals a ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics<|control11|><|separator|>
[131]
Assessment of Welfare and Health Conditions on Working Donkeys ...
According to this study, approximately 40.6% of the donkeys showed prevalence of lameness. Pritchard et al. (2005) reported similarly that lame donkeys were ...
[132]
Assessment of community-based intervention approaches to ...
Jan 21, 2024 · The prevalence of lameness in the non-intervention areas (25.5%) was over two times higher than the prevalence in the intervention areas (12%).
[133]
Causes of welfare issues in working horses and donkeys - Brooke
Welfare issues include lack of food/water, malnutrition, dehydration, disease, injury, harsh conditions, working underage, heat stress, overworking, fear, ...
[134]
Prevalence of Equine Strongyloidiasis and associated risk factors in ...
Results: The overall prevalence of Strongyloidiasis was found to be 73.3%, with donkeys exhibiting the highest infection rate (80%), followed by mules (69.5%) ...Prevalence Of Equine... · Materials And Methods · Result
[135]
[PDF] The prevalence and intensity of external and internal parasites in ...
Sep 19, 2018 · The most important problems for equines and donkeys in developing countries are gastrointestinal parasitism [3]. Donkeys harbor a large number ...
[136]
Common medical conditions of the donkey | The Donkey Sanctuary
May 2, 2024 · Modules · Dull donkey · Hyperlipaemia · Colic - approach to medical and surgical cases · Colitis - recognition and treatment · Endocrine disease ...
[137]
Infectious Diseases in Donkeys and Mules: An Overview and Update
Epizootic lymphangitis (EZL) is a major chronic contagious disease affecting horses, mules, and donkeys (which, even rarely, can infect humans) and causes ...
[138]
The Possibility of Including Donkey Meat and Milk in the Food Chain
Apr 21, 2022 · The demand for donkey products such as meat and milk has increased in recent years, as new information on the health benefits of the products is ...
[139]
Assessment of Donkey (Equus asinus) Welfare at Slaughter in Ghana
Dec 19, 2024 · This study aimed to explore factors affecting donkey welfare, both ante-mortem and at slaughter, in the Upper East region of Ghana. A total of ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[140]
meat | The Donkey Sanctuary
On the average, the assessed donkeys had a good welfare status. Most of the donkeys (80.2%) showed a good nutritional status (BCS = 3); the others tended to be ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[141]
[PDF] The donkey skin trade in Latin America: - Brooke
It is estimated that China produces 5,000 tons of ejiao each year, for which about 4 million donkey skins are needed.1 With this high demand, China's donkey ...
[142]
Factsheet on Donkey Skin Trade and Welfare of Donkeys
Apr 18, 2024 · Almost 6 million skins currently being harvested annually to be used to produce collagen for a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), called eijiao ...Missing: controversy | Show results with:controversy
[143]
Donkey Skin Trade and Its Non-compliance With Legislative ... - NIH
Mar 17, 2022 · The donkey skin trade is demonstrably unsustainable, from the ethical issues associated with poor welfare, to the biosecurity and human health risks the trade ...Missing: controversy | Show results with:controversy
[144]
'Brutal' donkey skin trade banned by the African Union - BBC
Feb 19, 2024 · Campaigners against the skin trade say it is inhumane and unsustainable. Animal welfare charities have welcomed an Africa-wide ban on the controversial donkey ...
[145]
Charities issue donkey skin trade warnings - Vet Times
Jun 27, 2025 · New analysis has suggested Africa's donkey population could be halved by 2040 unless moves to ban a controversial trade are enforced.<|separator|>
[146]
China's demand for Africa's donkeys is rising. Why it's time to control ...
Feb 7, 2023 · Donkeys are estimated to support about 158 million people in Africa. In rural areas, the presence of a donkey in a household helps to alleviate ...<|separator|>
[147]
Social and economic impacts of the donkey skin trade on donkey ...
Jun 26, 2025 · Informants reported that the loss of income from donkey-related work led to a decline in the living standards of their households. Working with ...
[148]
A shocking six million donkeys are now killed every year for the skin ...
Feb 16, 2024 · The Donkey Sanctuary's latest report on the skin trade reveals that at least 5.9 million donkeys are now slaughtered every year to meet escalating demand for ...Missing: practices verified
[149]
Global donkey and mule populations: Figures and trends - PMC
Feb 25, 2021 · This paper is an update focusing on global, regional and country level donkey and mule populations to understand if there have been any changes in the trends.
[150]
[PDF] The Economic Contributions of Working Donkeys, Horses and Mules ...
The study reported a link between donkey ownership and an income increase. Hiring out donkeys to a contractor was found to bring higher income than gathering ...
[151]
Donkey Ownership Provides a Range of Income Benefits to the ...
Nov 4, 2021 · Donkey ownership confers up to six different income benefits in comparison to non-donkey owners. Female owners of donkeys reported that donkeys ...
[152]
[PDF] Socio-economic valuation of donkey ownership in Ethiopia
Jul 7, 2023 · Ethiopia, there is very little quantitative data on the specific socio-economic value of donkey ownership. The objective of this study was ...
[153]
[PDF] Analysis of the Socio-economic contribution of donkey ownership ...
Jun 19, 2020 · Donkey welfare indicators such as working hours, number of donkeys per load, and frequency of veterinary care are important proxies to ...
[154]
Common clinical findings identified in working equids in low
Jun 5, 2024 · A higher proportion of wounds (mean proportion 41.7%; SD±0.2) was recorded in donkeys than mules or horses (P<0.001). Mules had higher reported ...Missing: metrics suffering
[155]
Assessing donkey health and welfare, and donkey owners ...
Oct 6, 2025 · Results: of the 80 working donkeys examined, approximately 31% suffered from various wounds, 65% had ectoparasite infestations, 11.3% ...
[156]
Environmental and demographic risk factors for poor welfare in ...
The majority of the estimated 94 million horses, donkeys and mules in developing countries (FAOSTAT, 2006) are used for work in transporting goods by pack or by ...<|separator|>
[157]
Assessing the impact of draught load pulling on welfare in equids
Donkeys often have a lower welfare standard than horses, with the most common issues being poor physical condition and injuries (3). This could be due to the ...
[158]
Prevalence and Factors Associated with Working Equid Lameness ...
We found that over one third of working equids are reported to have lameness-related issues and that older, thinner animals, as well as those working every day ...Missing: suffering | Show results with:suffering
[159]
Assessing environmental factors and human practices on the ...
May 12, 2025 · This study aimed to assess the role of environmental and human factors on the welfare of working donkeys in Kenya, surveying 1059 donkey owners and their ...
[160]
The Socioeconomic Impact of Diseases of Working Equids in Low ...
Working equids are horses, donkeys and mules providing draught power and transportation for income-generating activities and domestic purposes [1,2]. There are ...
[161]
Analysis of the benefits and production challenges of working ...
The aim of the study was to determine the benefits of keeping donkeys and associated production challenges under a smallholder farming system in Kenya.
[162]
Comparison of the socio-economic value and welfare of working ...
There are significant welfare concerns regarding the plight of working donkeys ( Equus asinus ) in developing countries. To-date, however, there has been ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[163]
Comparison of the socio-economic value and welfare of working ...
Jun 18, 2021 · Using a questionnaire, donkey owners were asked about their donkeys, their attitudes and beliefs related to donkey use and ownership, and the ...Missing: empirical utility
[164]
Understanding the socio-economic impact of donkeys
Understanding the socio-economic impact of donkeys · 1) Areas of life affected by donkey ownership identified by use of in depth interviews: · 2) A series of ...
[165]
https://www.platinumperformance.com/articles/feeding-donkeys-and-mules.html
[166]
energy requirements | The Donkey Sanctuary
Oct 30, 2006 · Current recommendations are to feed 0.75 of horse energy needs on a body weight basis. However, it has been shown that donkeys have a greater ...
[167]
Why Donkeys Need Different Feed Than Horses - Lancaster Farming
May 27, 2025 · Overall, the donkey requires fewer nutrients than the horse and is typically fed about 25% less than a horse of the same size.
[168]
Feeding Donkeys and Mules - Veterinary Partner - VIN
Aug 27, 2018 · Protein levels have not been established for donkeys but preliminary data indicates they need less protein than horses. As far as vitamins and ...
[169]
Long Ear Nutrition: Donkey Edition - Penn State Extension
Sep 30, 2024 · High levels of NSC in the diet can lead to serious health problems, like laminitis, metabolic conditions, and obesity.Missing: deficiencies | Show results with:deficiencies
[170]
Daily Diet, Treats, & Supplements For Donkeys
Feb 19, 2021 · There are many minerals that can be beneficial for a donkey, namely Copper, Manganese, Iron, Selenium, Zinc, Cobalt, and Iodine. Other ...
[171]
Donkey Nutrition and Feeding: Nutrient Requirements and ...
The donkey is able to manage temporary water deprivation without too high limitation of intake. And, it is able to rehydrate quickly. Energy and protein ...
[172]
https://tributeequinenutrition.com/blogs/news/how-to-safely-feed-donkeys
[173]
Nutrition and Feeding of Donkeys | IVIS
Good feeding keeps a donkey in good body condition. This makes it less prone to harness and saddle sores when working. Good nutrition can reduce the occurrence ...Missing: deficiencies | Show results with:deficiencies
[174]
Feeding Donkeys: Consider Their Thriftiness to Achieve Optimal ...
Apr 16, 2025 · Because of this efficiency, when donkeys are nutritionally managed in the same way as horses and ponies, they may become obese, predisposing ...
[175]
https://www.worldhorsewelfare.org/advice/donkey-and-mule-nutrition-essentials
[176]
Gastrointestinal Disorders of Donkeys and Mules - PMC
Common gastrointestinal disorders in donkeys and mules include conditions from stomach to rectum, including liver and pancreas. Colic, hyperlipemia, and dental ...
[177]
Donkey Care - Springhill Equine Veterinary Clinic
Aug 15, 2022 · Dental disease is the second most common health problem in donkeys, after foot problems. ... veterinary care. A donkey's cough reflex is ...
[178]
Caring for Senior Donkeys: A Comprehensive Guide for Donkey ...
Senior donkeys should see a veterinarian at least once a year for a full health check. This includes a general physical examination, an assessment of their ...
[179]
Techniques And Practices Necessary For Responsible Donkey Care
Jul 2, 2019 · You must create a fecal testing schedule and follow it for all donkeys in order to head off health challenges early on. Creating a plan for ...
[180]
Vaccination Guidelines - AAEP
These guidelines are intended to be a reference for veterinarians who utilize vaccines in their respective practices.Adult Horse Vaccination Chart · Foal Vaccination Chart · Principles of Vaccination
[181]
[PDF] Vaccine and Deworming Schedule - Peaceful Valley Donkey Rescue
Vaccine and Deworming Record For: Year: January. De-Wormer Ivermectin. Anthelcide. Strongid. Vaccines. Tetanus +6. West Nile.
[182]
Experts: Donkey Teeth Need Attention, Too - The Horse
Feb 17, 2022 · Donkeys have similar dental structures as horses, and they're at risk of developing many of the same kinds of dental issues.
[183]
Donkey dental care
Jan 1, 2021 · Young donkeys should have their teeth checked twice a year until they have developed a full set of adult teeth. Many changes can happen to the ...
[184]
Nutrition and dental care of donkeys - Burden - 2013 - In Practice
Jul 25, 2013 · Healthy donkeys with good dentition require a maintenance diet of good-quality barley or wheat straw along with restricted grazing or hay.Nutritional Requirements · Practical Daily Feeding · Box 5: Dental Disease...<|control11|><|separator|>
[185]
Potential Donkey Health Challenges - The Open Sanctuary Project
May 3, 2019 · An introductory guide for common donkey health issues, illnesses, and diseases. When in doubt, always contact an expert or veterinarian for ...Issues By Body System · Colic · Equine Metabolic Syndrome · External Parasites
[186]
Common skin conditions in donkeys - The Donkey Sanctuary
Oct 18, 2022 · If poorly controlled, donkeys can rub to the point of self-trauma, which in turn attracts flies. A donkey demonstrating this behaviour should be ...
[187]
Caring for My Donkeys' Hooves - The Martha Stewart Blog
Dec 8, 2023 · Trimming them should be done often enough, so they don't overgrow and cause issues with walking. Look closely, a donkey's hoof is U-shaped.
[188]
[PDF] Donkey Hooves
Image 7: Similar to horses, when a donkey hoof is viewed from the side, the angle of the capsule should match the angle of the pastern. Photo courtesy Mayfield ...
[189]
Hoof Care - The Donkey Sanctuary
Mar 25, 2024 · All donkeys should have their feet picked out daily using a hoof pick. Be careful to keep the donkeys foot low and do not lift a donkey's foot too high.
[190]
How to Look After Donkeys – The Basics - SPANA Charity
Brush your donkey's hair and clean their hooves every day. · Hooves should also be kept dry and trimmed every 6-8 weeks so they don't grow too long and cause any ...<|separator|>
[191]
Donkey Hoof Care: Preventing Thrush, Whiteline, Abscesses, and ...
By taking proactive steps to prevent common issues like thrush, whiteline disease, and abscesses, you can help ensure that your donkey's hooves stay healthy and ...
[192]
Hoof trimming and farriery | The Donkey Sanctuary
Jun 2, 2024 · This course will provide you with valuable information for trimming donkey feet and applying orthopaedic treatments to donkey feet.
[193]
Conservation Priority List - The Livestock Conservancy
Apr 30, 2025 · Each of these breeds has an independent, stand-alone registry and conservation program. Each has also contributed to the Colonial Spanish breed.Missing: initiatives | Show results with:initiatives
[194]
Saving Endangered Donkey Breeds - The Cheshire Horse
May 29, 2025 · Saving these donkey breeds isn't just about preserving history—it's also about protecting biodiversity and unique traits that could be important ...Missing: initiatives | Show results with:initiatives
[195]
Asinerie du Baudet du Poitou - Atlas Obscura
Oct 4, 2023 · It is a public center on a historic farm dedicated to the conservation of the Poitou donkey. In the 1970s, the Poitou population was down to ...
[196]
https://texaspoitoudonkeys.com/
[197]
The Livestock Conservancy Launches First American Poitou Census
Sep 24, 2020 · More rare than Black Rhinos and Giant Pandas, it's estimated only 70 purebred Poitou donkeys are left in America, and fewer than 500 remain ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[198]
Conservation and genetic analysis of the endangered Martina ...
Jun 8, 2025 · The Martina Franca donkey is an endangered Italian breed with historical significance in agriculture and therapy. Conservation efforts are crucial.Missing: initiatives | Show results with:initiatives
[199]
A model to infer the demographic structure evolution of endangered ...
Stemming from The Worldwide Donkey Breeds Project, an initiative aiming at connecting international researchers and entities working with the donkey species ...
[200]
conservation | The Donkey Sanctuary
Most donkey and local horse breeds are vulnerable to extinction as mechanization of agriculture progress throughout the world. The present study analyzed the ...Missing: initiatives | Show results with:initiatives
[201]
Donkey power boosts biodiversity
May 20, 2022 · We have been encouraging our donkeys to experience more natural environments while simultaneously providing a conservation benefit through their grazing.Missing: breed initiatives
[202]
https://www.ciaotussi.com/pages/save-the-dinkey
[203]
Did you know that donkeys, valued for their strength and resilience ...
Sep 6, 2025 · The Pega Donkey is considered a rare breed, with efforts being made to preserve its bloodline. It is highly valued in Brazil, particularly ...Missing: initiatives | Show results with:initiatives
[204]
Feral donkeys - PestSmart
The feral donkey is well-adapted to arid regions and is most abundant in the Kimberley pastoral district of Western Australia and the Victoria River area of the ...
[205]
Science and Knowledge of Free‐Roaming Donkeys—A Critical ...
Jul 1, 2021 · ... population size of free-roaming donkeys in these locations. The ... Feral donkey Equus asinus populations on the Karpaz Peninsula, Cyprus.
[206]
Feral horse (Equus caballus) and feral donkey (Equus asinus)
Oct 3, 2021 · Australia has an estimated 400 000 feral horses and millions of feral donkeys, mainly in central and northern Australia. Both species cause erosion, spread ...
[207]
[PDF] Feral donkeys in Northern Australia : population dynamics and the ...
Donkeys are found predominantly in the more rugged areas, particularly in locations containing broad, flat-topped mesa dissected by ... feral donkey populations ...
[208]
[PDF] 2025 Wild Horse and Burro Population Estimates
Mar 1, 2025 · Populations do not reflect any changes after March 1, 2025 (i.e. foal crops or gathers).
[209]
BLM Releases 2025 Wild Horse and Burro Population Dataset
Mar 19, 2025 · The current population, as of March 1, is thought to be 53,797 wild horses and 19,333 wild burros, compared to AMLs of 22,637 and 2,919, ...
[210]
Feral Donkey Distribution and Ecological Impacts in a Hyper-Arid ...
Sep 11, 2023 · The average population density of feral donkeys was estimated as 1.03 (0.19 SE) donkey/km2. We documented the negative ecological impact of ...
[211]
Feral Donkey Distribution and Ecological Impacts in a Hyper-Arid ...
Sep 11, 2023 · The average population density of feral donkeys was estimated as 1.03 (0.19 SE) donkey/km2. We documented the negative ecological impact of ...
[212]
Feral donkey | NT.GOV.AU
Feral donkey. Donkeys were introduced to Australia from Africa in 1866 to work as pack animals. It is estimated there are tens of thousands of feral donkeys ...
[213]
Cougars Are Killing Feral Donkeys, and That's Good for Wetlands
Aug 16, 2022 · Wetlands where cougars were observed killing donkeys had greater canopy cover, more vegetation around water sources and less bare ground than ...
[214]
How cougars and feral donkeys change desert wetlands: Novel ...
Dec 7, 2022 · Areas with cougars have less trampled ground, fewer donkey trails, and much more canopy cover and vegetation around water. Donkeys concentrate ...
[215]
Feral pigs and donkeys may be more salvation than scourge for ...
Feb 3, 2024 · Other evidence suggests that donkeys, in fact, increase the supply of water by digging wells that other creatures can access, and a 2007 study ...
[216]
[PDF] NSWDON SOP1 Ground shooting of feral donkeys
Shooting during drought reduces the number of donkeys that would otherwise die slowly of hunger or thirst. Page 2. NSWDON COP: Feral Donkey Code of Practice and ...<|separator|>
[217]
Capture of feral donkeys - PestSmart
A combination of the sedative drugs medetomidine and ketamine is highly effective for immobilising donkeys whilst the sedative effects of these chemicals can be ...
[218]
Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine's efforts toward ...
Oct 28, 2022 · ... donkey's ... The team continues to explore the use of immunocontraceptives for humane population management of feral donkeys and is developing ...