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European Union Emissions Trading System

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is a cap-and-trade mechanism launched in 2005 as the world's first multinational scheme to curb greenhouse gas emissions by imposing a progressively tightening cap on total allowances for carbon dioxide and select other gases, which covered entities must acquire and surrender annually based on their verified output, enabling market-driven abatement where marginal costs are lowest.^[1]^[2] It encompasses roughly 40% of the bloc's emissions from power generation, energy-intensive manufacturing, and intra-EU aviation across approximately 10,000 installations in EU member states plus select linked jurisdictions, operating through sequential phases with the current fourth period (2021–2030) incorporating a linear reduction factor of 2.2% annually and a market stability reserve to modulate surplus supply amid fluctuating demand.^[3]^[4] Verified data reveal emissions from ETS sectors fell by about 47% from 2005 to 2023, with econometric studies attributing much of this decline causally to the scheme's incentives rather than solely to exogenous factors like the 2008 recession or fuel switching, though global mitigation remains partial due to documented carbon leakage via heightened imports from unregulated producers.^[5]^[6]^[7] Notable achievements include establishing a liquid secondary market for European Union Allowances (EUAs) that has influenced global carbon pricing architectures, yet the system has endured controversies over initial over-allocation causing price crashes below €5 per tonne in 2012–2013, windfall rents accruing to low-cost power producers, and persistent risks of industrial relocation despite border adjustments and free allocations calibrated to benchmarks.^[8]^[9]^[10] Reforms under the 2023 revision, including maritime sector inclusion from 2024 and a separate ETS2 for buildings and road transport, aim to fortify stringency toward net-zero targets, but empirical scrutiny persists on whether heightened compliance costs—projected to reach €100+ per tonne by 2030—efficiently translate to verifiable atmospheric benefits without disproportionate economic burdens on trade-exposed sectors.^[11]^[12]

Establishment and Objectives

Legislative Foundations

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) emerged as a response to the bloc's binding commitments under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which mandated an 8% reduction in aggregate greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels for the EU during the 2008–2012 commitment period. Adopted on 11 December 1997 and entering into force on 16 February 2005, the protocol promoted emissions trading as a flexible mechanism to achieve cost-effective reductions among Annex I parties, including the EU member states, which had agreed on internal burden-sharing of targets via Council Decision 2002/358/EC. This international framework influenced the EU's pivot toward market-based instruments, building on earlier domestic pilots and U.S. precedents like the SO2 allowance trading program, to supplement command-and-control regulations and avoid over-reliance on fiscal alternatives. The European Commission advanced the concept through a Green Paper on greenhouse gas emissions trading within the European Union, published on 8 March 2000 (COM(2000) 87 final), which proposed a downstream cap-and-trade scheme covering large emitters to harmonize compliance with Kyoto targets while minimizing economic distortions.^[13] This document followed failed attempts at a harmonized energy tax directive in the 1990s, which required unanimous Council approval under tax competence rules and encountered opposition from member states like the UK and Denmark over sovereignty and competitiveness concerns.^[14] Political debates in the Commission, Parliament, and Council contrasted emissions trading's provision of quantity certainty for Kyoto obligations—aligning with international flexibility mechanisms like joint implementation and clean development—with carbon taxes' price certainty but uncertain emission outcomes, ultimately favoring trading for its qualified majority voting pathway under environmental policy (ex-Article 175 EC Treaty) and compatibility with decentralized allocation.^[15] Following the Commission's formal proposal for a directive on 23 October 2001 (COM(2001) 581 final), trilogue negotiations addressed concerns over sector coverage, allowance allocation, and national flexibility, culminating in the adoption of Directive 2003/87/EC by the European Parliament and Council on 13 October 2003.^[16] The directive established a scheme for trading allowances representing one tonne of CO2-equivalent emissions from covered greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O, PFCs) in energy-intensive installations, entering into force on 25 October 2003 and requiring implementation by member states from 1 January 2005 to initiate the pilot phase.^[17] This legislation marked the EU's first multinational cap-and-trade system, prioritizing empirical cost-effectiveness over alternatives amid skepticism toward uniform taxation's administrative and political hurdles.^[18]

Core Design and Intended Goals

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) functions as a cap-and-trade mechanism, establishing an absolute limit on allowable greenhouse gas emissions from covered installations through the allocation of tradable emission allowances known as EUAs. Each EUA permits the emission of one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e), primarily targeting CO₂ from large point sources in power generation and energy-intensive industries. Covered entities must monitor, report, and surrender sufficient EUAs annually to match their verified emissions, creating a financial incentive to reduce emissions where abatement is cheapest or to purchase allowances from others achieving greater reductions. This design aims to internalize the cost of carbon emissions via market pricing, promoting efficiency without dictating specific compliance methods.^[19] The system's cap was initially set through a decentralized process involving national allocation plans (NAPs) proposed by each Member State and vetted by the European Commission for stringency and consistency. These NAPs collectively defined the EU-wide cap, intended to support the bloc's binding commitment under the Kyoto Protocol for an 8% reduction in aggregate greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels during the 2008–2012 period, with burden-sharing among states. By focusing on sectors accounting for roughly half of EU emissions—those with feasible technological mitigation options—the EU ETS sought to deliver verifiable reductions while allowing flexibility for economic growth and cross-border trade in allowances.^[20]^[21] At its core, the EU ETS prioritizes market-based incentives over command-and-control regulations to achieve emission cuts, leveraging price signals to drive low-cost abatement, fuel switching, and investment in cleaner technologies. This approach reflects an intent to minimize compliance costs economy-wide by enabling emitters to equalize marginal abatement expenses through trading, rather than imposing uniform standards that could overlook sector-specific efficiencies. The system's goals emphasize long-term decarbonization aligned with international obligations, while fostering competitiveness by shielding industries from unilateral regulatory burdens.^[19]

Scope and Coverage

Initial and Evolving Sectors

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) commenced in 2005, initially targeting large stationary installations emitting carbon dioxide from power generation and heat production, as well as energy-intensive manufacturing activities including oil refineries, steel works, iron and aluminium production, metal manufacturing, cement clinker production, lime, glass, ceramics, pulp, paper, cardboard, acids, and bulk organic chemicals.^[3] This core coverage excluded mobile sources such as road and rail transport, residential and commercial buildings, agriculture, and smaller emitters below specified thresholds, thereby encompassing roughly 40% of the bloc's total greenhouse gas emissions at launch.^[22]^[2] Subsequent expansions broadened the sectoral remit while maintaining focus on high-emission activities. Aviation entered the system in 2012, obliging aircraft operators to account for emissions from flights within the European Economic Area, plus select departing routes to Switzerland and the United Kingdom, initially targeting operators exceeding 25,000 tonnes of kerosene annually.^[2] Maritime shipping was integrated from January 2024 under Phase IV, applying to vessels over 5,000 gross tonnage on voyages to, from, or between EU/EEA ports; coverage began at 40% of verified emissions in 2024, rising to 70% in 2025 and 100% in 2026, with carbon dioxide addressed first and methane plus nitrous oxide added from 2026.^[3]^[23] To extend pricing to previously exempt diffuse sources, a parallel mechanism known as ETS2 was established, set to activate in 2027 for fuel combustion emissions linked to road transport (via suppliers of road fuels) and buildings (via heating fuels), alongside select smaller industries.^[22] This addition, featuring a separate cap and auctions phased in gradually, aims to complement the original EU ETS without immediate surrender obligations until 2028 in some projections, ultimately positioning the combined frameworks to regulate approximately 75% of EU-wide emissions.^[24]^[25]

Geographic and Installation Thresholds

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) applies geographically to all installations located within the 27 member states of the European Union, as well as Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, collectively forming the European Economic Area (EEA).^[26] This scope ensures harmonized application across a unified regulatory zone while excluding territories outside the EEA, such as the United Kingdom post-Brexit, which maintains a separate emissions trading scheme.^[26] Inclusion criteria focus on installations exceeding defined capacity thresholds outlined in Annex I of Directive 2003/87/EC (as amended), targeting larger emitters to prioritize significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions. For combustion activities, the primary threshold is a total rated thermal input exceeding 20 megawatts (MW), calculated by summing the inputs of all technical units within the installation.^[27] Similar thresholds apply to other activities, such as mineral oil refineries (processing over 4 million tonnes of oil equivalent annually) or cement production (over 0.5 million tonnes per year), ensuring only facilities with substantial emissions potential are covered.^[28] To alleviate administrative burdens on smaller operators, member states may exclude qualifying small installations from the EU ETS, provided annual emissions do not surpass 25,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent and, for combustion units, the rated thermal input remains below 20 MW.^[19] Such opt-outs, implemented via national legislation, often direct these emitters to alternative domestic monitoring or taxation regimes, with the condition that total exclusions per member state do not exceed agreed limits to maintain overall emissions integrity.^[29] During the accession of central and eastern European states in 2004, temporary derogations allowed phased inclusion or reduced obligations for installations in economies undergoing restructuring, reflecting accommodations for varying industrial baselines without compromising the scheme's core thresholds.^[29] These provisions distinguish the EU ETS by emphasizing scalable, burden-minimizing coverage over exhaustive inclusion of minor sources.

Operational Mechanisms

Cap-and-Trade Framework

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) functions as a cap-and-trade mechanism, establishing an economy-wide cap on allowable greenhouse gas emissions from covered sectors, represented by the total volume of European Union Allowances (EUAs) issued annually. Each EUA permits the emission of one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e), with the cap set to decline over time to drive emission reductions.^[1] Allowances are initially issued to participants, who must hold sufficient EUAs to cover verified emissions, fostering a market where emissions are internalized as a cost rather than regulated by prescriptive limits.^[30] Participants engage in trading EUAs on secondary markets, including exchanges such as the European Energy Exchange (EEX) and over-the-counter platforms, allowing entities with emissions below their allocated levels to sell surplus allowances to those exceeding them.^[2] Compliance requires annual monitoring, reporting, and third-party verification of emissions, followed by surrender of an equivalent number of EUAs by 30 April of the following year; non-compliance triggers a penalty of €100 per excess tonne plus mandatory surrender of the shortfall.^[31] This process ensures accountability while the tradable nature of EUAs incentivizes efficient resource allocation. The system's theoretical foundation rests on economic principles of cost minimization, where trading equalizes marginal abatement costs (MACs) across installations: firms facing lower MACs abate more and sell allowances, while those with higher MACs purchase them, achieving the cap at aggregate least cost without dictating specific abatement methods.^[32] Allowance prices signal the shadow price of carbon, guiding investment in low-emission technologies where the price exceeds a firm's MAC.^[33] Real-world implementation introduces frictions, including speculative trading by financial actors and initial over-allocation of allowances, which have periodically decoupled EUA prices from underlying MACs, leading to volatility and subdued incentives for abatement in early years.^[33] Despite these, the market's liquidity—facilitated by broad participation post-2018 MiFID II reforms—supports price discovery, though empirical analyses indicate that MAC equalization remains imperfect due to sector-specific barriers and regulatory adjustments.^[32]

Allowance Allocation Methods

In the initial phases of the EU ETS (Phases I and II, 2005-2012), allowances were predominantly allocated for free via grandfathering, a method that distributed them based on historical emissions data reported by installations and aggregated into National Allocation Plans (NAPs) submitted by member states for approval by the European Commission.^[1] This ex-post historical approach often resulted in generous allocations exceeding actual needs, leading to surplus allowances and minimal abatement incentives, as evidenced by verified emissions totaling 2.0 billion tonnes against 2.2 billion tonnes allocated in Phase I.^[2] From Phase III (2013-2020), allocation shifted to a centralized, harmonized EU-wide methodology under Directive 2009/29/EC, establishing auctioning as the default principle to enforce the polluter pays tenet and generate revenues for climate mitigation.^[34] Auctioning volumes escalated progressively, reaching 57% of total allowances by 2020, with the power sector fully auctioned at 100% since 2013 (subject to transitional free allocations in 10 lower-GDP member states to fund decarbonization infrastructure until 2020).^[2] Free allocations persisted for emissions-intensive, trade-exposed sectors at risk of carbon leakage—covering about 43% of allowances by 2020—to mitigate competitive disadvantages without undermining the ETS cap.^[35] Free allocations transitioned to an output-based system using product benchmarks, calculated as the emissions intensity (tonne CO2 per unit output) of the top 10% most efficient EU installations for each benchmarked product, ensuring allocations scale with verified production rather than rewarding past inefficiency.^[36] Benchmarks, determined via voluntary data from industry associations and validated by the Commission, covered over 90% of industrial emissions by Phase III, with dynamic adjustment for early action (up to 0.5% annual tightening pre-2021) and cross-sectoral correction factors to enforce the linear reduction factor if total free allocations exceeded cap limits.^[37] This method incentivizes technological upgrades, as installations below benchmark levels receive full entitlements while over-emitters face shortfalls, though critics note potential windfall profits persist where product prices pass through carbon costs.^[38] In Phase IV (2021-2030), benchmarking refined further with updated values for 2021-2025 reflecting recent efficiency data, a 2.2% annual linear reduction in allocations, and phase-out trajectories: full elimination for aviation by 2026 and gradual reductions for industry (retained for leakage risks via the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism).^[36] Transitional rules extended free power allocations in qualifying states until 2030, tied to binding emission targets, while excluding sectors like buildings and transport (introduced in ETS2 from 2027) from free grants entirely.^[2]

Trading, Banking, and Stability Measures

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) incorporates intertemporal flexibility through banking and limited borrowing provisions to enable operators to manage compliance across periods. Unused allowances may be banked indefinitely for future use, with no quantitative restrictions on carrying forward surpluses within or across trading phases from Phase II (2008-2012) onward, facilitating cost-effective emission reductions over time.^[39]^[40] Borrowing is constrained to intra-period mechanisms, such as using allocations from the subsequent year—typically available in February—to fulfill the prior year's surrender deadline by April 30, but no broader forward borrowing of future entitlements is permitted to maintain cap integrity.^[19] In Phase I (2005-2007), banking across phases was prohibited, rendering unsurrendered allowances invalid after the period's end, though within-phase flexibility applied.^[19] To counteract structural oversupply and stabilize allowance prices, the Market Stability Reserve (MSR) was established by Decision (EU) 2015/1814 in 2015, becoming operational in 2019.^[41] The MSR adjusts auction volumes based on the total number of allowances in circulation (TNAC): if TNAC exceeds 833 million, 24% of the excess is annually transferred from auctions to the reserve; conversely, if TNAC falls below 400 million, 100 million allowances are released back into auctions.^[41] From 2023, any allowances held in the MSR surpassing 400 million are invalidated annually, permanently reducing supply to address accumulated surpluses estimated at over 900 million by the mid-2010s.^[41]^[42] Reforms under the Fit for 55 legislative package, agreed in December 2022 and entering force in 2023, enhanced the MSR's supply-tightening effects by prolonging the 24% intake rate beyond 2023 and temporarily lowering the intake threshold to 400 million allowances for 2023-2025, thereby accelerating transfers to the reserve amid elevated emissions and the 2022 energy crisis.^[43] This adjustment effectively front-loaded surplus removal, with the threshold reverting to 833 million from 2026, while maintaining the 400 million invalidation cap.^[43]^[41] These measures aim to align supply more closely with the EU's escalating reduction targets without altering the overall cap trajectory.^[44]

International Linking and Border Adjustments

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) features limited international linking to compatible emissions trading schemes, primarily through bilateral agreements that enable mutual recognition and use of allowances. In January 2020, the EU established the world's first treaty-based link with Switzerland's emissions trading system, allowing participants in both schemes to trade allowances across borders while maintaining separate caps.^[45]^[46] This linkage, effective from the start of Switzerland's trading phase aligned with EU ETS Phase IV, facilitates cost-effective abatement without harmonizing overall emission caps or regulatory oversight.^[47] No broader multilateral links have been implemented, reflecting caution over compatibility risks such as differing offset rules or market stability measures. Prior to 2021, the EU ETS incorporated international offsetting via credits from the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) projects, permitting participants to surrender these for up to a capped portion of compliance obligations.^[48] In Phase I (2005–2007), CDM and JI credits faced no quantitative limits, while Phase II (2008–2012) restricted them to 13.7 million tons annually per member state, excluding certain high-risk project types like HFC-23 destruction after 2012 due to concerns over additionality and permanence.^[2] This mechanism ended with Phase III (post-2012), as Article 6 of the Paris Agreement shifted focus toward cooperative approaches with stricter integrity standards, though legacy credits remained usable until 2020.^[48] To mitigate carbon leakage from unilateral carbon pricing, the EU introduced the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) in May 2023, targeting embedded emissions in imports of high-risk sectors.^[49] The transitional phase, from October 1, 2023, to December 31, 2025, mandates quarterly reporting of emissions data for covered goods—initially cement, iron and steel, aluminium, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen—without financial obligations, allowing refinement of methodologies like default emission intensities for non-reporting third-country producers.^[49]^[50] The definitive regime commences January 1, 2026, requiring importers to surrender CBAM certificates purchased at the weekly average EU allowance auction price, adjusted for any carbon price paid in the country of origin, with full certificate surrender obligations deferred to 2027 for the 2026 import year.^[49]^[51] CBAM equivalents the carbon cost for imports to that under the EU ETS, covering direct emissions from production processes and, from 2026, indirect emissions from electricity use, while exempting goods already subject to equivalent EU carbon pricing like those from linked systems.^[49] This mechanism phases out free allowance allocations in the EU ETS for CBAM-covered sectors between 2026 and 2034, aiming to internalize externalities without favoring domestic over efficient foreign production, though it has drawn WTO scrutiny for potential discrimination against non-EU producers lacking verifiable low-carbon benchmarks.^[49]^[52]

Implementation by Phase

Phase I: 2005-2007

The EU ETS Phase I operated from January 1, 2005, to December 31, 2007, as a pilot initiative to establish administrative processes, monitoring, and trading infrastructure across the then-25 member states. It encompassed approximately 12,000 installations in power generation and select energy-intensive industries, such as steel and cement, representing about 45% of the EU's CO₂ emissions at the time. Member states submitted National Allocation Plans (NAPs) to the European Commission for approval, setting national caps and free allocations based on projected baselines; these plans prohibited banking of unused allowances into Phase II to encourage learning without long-term distortions.^[53]^[54] Implementation faced significant hurdles from poor data quality, as NAPs relied on unverified historical emissions estimates that member states and installations often inflated to secure generous allocations. This led to widespread over-allocation, with total allowances exceeding needs by an estimated 5-10% or more in many countries, undermining the cap's stringency from inception. Non-compliance penalties stood at €40 per excess tonne of CO₂—far below initial market prices—providing limited deterrence, particularly as verification processes revealed inconsistencies in early reporting.^[54] Allowance prices (EUA) surged above €30 per tonne in early 2005 amid uncertainty but plummeted to under €1 by late 2006 and effectively zero in 2007, driven by the surplus and absence of demand pressure. Verified emissions across covered sectors totaled roughly 2.4% below allocated allowances for the phase, yet econometric assessments adjusting for baseline overestimation attribute negligible net reductions to the ETS itself, with observed shortfalls largely reflecting inaccurate projections rather than induced abatement. The phase highlighted causal vulnerabilities in decentralized cap-setting and data reliability, informing stricter centralized oversight in later iterations, though it succeeded in building institutional capacity and a nascent carbon market without major operational failures.^[55]^[56]^[57]

Phase II: 2008-2012

Phase II of the EU ETS, spanning 2008 to 2012, aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, during which EU member states were bound to collective greenhouse gas reduction targets averaging 8% below 1990 levels.^[53] The system's emissions cap was tightened to approximately 6.5% below verified 2005 emissions levels for covered sectors, totaling around 2,083 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent, aiming to contribute to national Kyoto compliance through domestic reductions and flexibility mechanisms.^[54]^[58] Participants could use international credits from Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation projects, with 1.058 billion tonnes of such credits ultimately surrendered for compliance, offsetting a portion of domestic emissions.^[48] Despite the tighter cap, over-allocation of allowances persisted due to national allocation plans that exceeded actual emissions needs, exacerbated by the 2008 global financial crisis reducing industrial activity and thus emissions.^[54] This led to a surplus of allowances, undermining carbon price scarcity and signals, with allowance prices peaking at €25-30 per tonne in early 2008 before plummeting to below €10 by 2009 amid recession-driven demand collapse.^[59] Verified emissions under the cap fell short, contributing to banking of unused allowances into Phase III and highlighting persistent flaws in allocation methodologies that prioritized industry lobbying over stringent caps.^[9] The phase introduced rules for installation closures, allowing member states to cancel free allowances equivalent to the average verified emissions from the five preceding years upon permanent shutdown, subject to state aid approval to prevent windfall gains or distortions.^[2] In 2012, aviation was incorporated for the first time, targeting CO2 emissions from intra-EU and EEA flights with a cap at 95% of 2004-2006 averages, though inclusion of extra-EU flights was suspended following international opposition and bilateral disputes, limiting scope to domestic routes.^[60]^[61] This partial expansion faced legal challenges but was upheld by the European Court of Justice, reflecting tensions between unilateral climate action and global trade norms.^[62]

Phase III: 2013-2020

Phase III of the EU ETS, spanning 2013 to 2020, introduced a centralized EU-wide cap on emissions, replacing national allocation plans with a harmonized linear reduction factor of 1.74% applied annually to the 2005 baseline, aiming for a 21% reduction in covered emissions by 2020 relative to 2005 levels.^[4]^[63] Allocation methods shifted toward greater auctioning, with the share increasing progressively to reach approximately 57% of the total cap by 2020, while free allocations to sectors at risk of carbon leakage were determined using performance benchmarks based on the 10% most efficient installations in each sector.^[2] This tightening addressed earlier over-allocation, though a structural surplus of allowances accumulated, exceeding 2 billion by the mid-phase due to lower-than-expected emissions from economic slowdowns and fuel switching.^[64] To counter the surplus and low carbon prices— which had fallen below €5 per tonne—the European Commission proposed the Market Stability Reserve (MSR) in 2014, which was agreed upon in 2015 and became operational in 2019.^[41]^[64] The MSR mechanism involved backloading 900 million allowances from auctions in 2014–2016 to later years, followed by intake of 24% of the surplus if it exceeded 833 million allowances (12% of the cap), with invalidation of allowances if below thresholds to enhance scarcity.^[65] This intervention contributed to price recovery, with European Union Allowance (EUA) prices rising from around €8 in early 2018 to over €25 by late 2019, reflecting improved market balance ahead of Phase IV.^[66] The sectoral scope remained largely unchanged from Phase II, covering power generation, energy-intensive industries, and intra-European Economic Area aviation, with no major expansions during the phase.^[2] However, preparatory work for including maritime transport emissions advanced, including impact assessments and regulatory discussions under the European Green Deal framework, though actual integration into the ETS commenced in Phase IV from 2024.^[67]

Phase IV: 2021-2030

Phase IV of the EU ETS, spanning 2021 to 2030, applies a linear reduction factor of 2.2% annually to the overall emissions cap, starting from the 2005-2007 average and adjusted for subsequent phases.^[2]^[68] This mechanism aims to achieve a 62% reduction in covered sectors' emissions relative to 2005 levels by 2030, following revisions to align with heightened climate targets.^[22] The Market Stability Reserve (MSR) continues to manage surplus allowances, with its intake threshold lowered to 400 million units from 2021 and a permanent cancellation of 24% of intakes implemented starting in 2023 when surpluses exceed thresholds, thereby accelerating supply contraction.^[41] The "Fit for 55" legislative package, proposed by the European Commission in July 2021 and revised in 2023, introduced further cap tightening to support the EU's 55% net emissions reduction goal by 2030 versus 1990 levels, with specific implications for ETS sectors.^[41] This included confirming the 62% ETS target and phasing in ETS2—a parallel cap-and-trade system for buildings, road transport, and other fuel combustion emissions—originally envisioned earlier but set for full operation in 2027, with auctions potentially starting mid-2026.^[69] To address carbon leakage, the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) entered a transitional reporting phase in 2023 for imports of cement, iron, steel, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen, with definitive obligations from 2026, gradually replacing sector-specific free allocations under the ETS.^[49] The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine triggered an energy crisis that drove sharp declines in ETS-covered emissions, primarily through reduced fossil fuel demand and accelerated shifts to alternatives amid high prices and supply disruptions.^[70] Verified emissions data indicate continued overall reductions, though aviation sector emissions under the ETS rose in 2023 as air travel rebounded post-pandemic.^[2] These dynamics underscore the phase's responsiveness to external shocks, with MSR mechanisms helping stabilize allowance supply amid fluctuating demand.^[71]

Economic Impacts

Direct Costs to Industry and Households

The EU ETS imposes direct compliance costs on covered industrial installations through the requirement to surrender emission allowances equivalent to verified CO₂ emissions, with each allowance priced according to market dynamics and historically ranging from near zero in Phase I (2005-2007) to peaks exceeding €90 per tonne in 2022-2023.^[72]^[73] These costs represent an explicit carbon price on emissions from production processes and fuel combustion, particularly burdening energy-intensive sectors like cement, steel, and chemicals where process emissions cannot be easily abated. In early phases, generous free allocation mitigated net costs for many operators, leading to windfall profits in power generation despite low allowance prices, as firms passed through opportunity costs to electricity consumers without fully bearing abatement expenses.^[74]^[75] Administrative compliance burdens add to direct costs, requiring annual monitoring, reporting, and independent verification (MRV) of emissions by accredited verifiers, with average per-installation costs estimated at around €15,000-20,000 excluding one-off setup fees, based on surveys of EU operators.^[76] These fixed costs disproportionately affect smaller installations, though sector-specific thresholds exempt low emitters to minimize administrative overhead. Empirical analyses indicate that while power sector firms absorbed and passed through allowance costs—often fully in coal- and gas-fired generation, contributing 10-20% to wholesale electricity price increases during high-price periods—industrial sectors experienced lower abatement incentives due to free allocations, shifting effective costs toward consumers via product pricing.^[77]^[78] For households, direct ETS costs were historically indirect, primarily through elevated electricity bills from power sector pass-through, but the ETS2 extension—covering building heating and road transport fuels from 2027—introduces explicit burdens on fuel suppliers who must acquire allowances, with expected pass-through raising natural gas prices by €0.02-0.05 per kWh and petrol/diesel by €0.10-0.20 per liter at €45-80 per tonne carbon prices.^[79]^[80] Initial price caps at €45 per tonne (inflation-adjusted) for the first three years aim to limit shocks, potentially adding €50-100 annually to average household energy expenditures post-2030 as caps phase out and prices align with main ETS levels.^[69] Studies project regressive impacts on low-income households without mitigation, as heating and transport comprise larger budget shares, though suppliers rather than end-users handle direct compliance.^[81]

Revenue Generation and Fiscal Effects

Auctioning of allowances under the EU ETS has generated substantial revenues for member states since the shift toward greater auctioning shares in Phase III (2013-2020), totaling approximately €68 billion.^[82] These proceeds primarily accrue to national budgets, with the EU ETS Directive mandating that at least 50% be directed toward climate and energy-related purposes, including support for renewables, energy efficiency, and low-carbon technologies.^[34] Additional shares from aviation allowances must be fully allocated to climate action.^[34] Despite these requirements, the transparency and traceability of revenue expenditure vary significantly across member states, with some facing criticism for inadequate reporting on how funds contribute to emission reductions or broader fiscal goals.^[83] For instance, while aggregate reporting indicates that around 75% of Phase III revenues were earmarked for climate measures by some estimates, detailed breakdowns often reveal allocations to general budgets or subsidies with uncertain additionality.^[84] The absence of direct rebates or lump-sum distributions to households or consumers distinguishes the EU ETS from alternative carbon pricing designs, such as fee-and-dividend systems, resulting in a net fiscal transfer from regulated entities—and ultimately consumers bearing higher energy costs—to government coffers.^[32] Regulated firms purchase allowances at auction and often pass compliance costs downstream, yet revenues do not cycle back as uniform dividends, potentially forgoing efficiency gains from reduced distortionary taxation or direct incentives for abatement.^[32] Economic analyses have questioned this dissipation of proceeds, arguing that government-directed spending may yield lower marginal returns compared to revenue-neutral reforms that could amplify the double dividend of emission cuts and fiscal relief.^[85]

Effects on Competitiveness and Leakage Risks

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) imposes carbon costs on covered installations, raising concerns that EU producers in energy-intensive sectors could lose competitiveness against international rivals not subject to equivalent pricing, potentially leading to production relocation or reduced output—a phenomenon known as carbon leakage, where emissions shift to unregulated regions without net global reductions.^[7] To mitigate these risks, the EU has provided free allowance allocations to sectors deemed highly exposed, such as metals, chemicals, and cement, calculated via product-specific benchmarks and retaining 100% free allocation for the most at-risk activities through Phase IV (2021-2030).^[86] These measures aim to shield firms from full auctioning costs, with allocations updated annually based on verified emissions and activity levels to avoid windfalls while preserving incentives for efficiency.^[87] Empirical analyses of Phases I-III (2005-2020) indicate that free allocations have largely contained adverse effects on competitiveness, with no widespread evidence of significant output reductions or employment losses in exposed sectors.^[88] Firm-level studies, including those examining gross output and trade exposure, find negligible or statistically insignificant negative impacts on EU industries' production and jobs, attributing this to the partial pass-through of costs, technological adaptations, and the modest initial carbon prices (averaging €5-20 per tonne in early phases).^[74] ^[89] For instance, econometric evaluations of manufacturing firms show that while emission-intensive operations faced higher costs, aggregate competitiveness metrics like export shares and value added remained stable, with any localized effects offset by revenue recycling or sector-specific supports.^[90] The 2008-2009 recession, however, temporarily heightened relocation threats by compounding cost pressures with demand shocks, prompting tighter benchmarking in Phase III to refine protections.^[91] Despite mitigations, some carbon leakage has been observed, particularly in chemicals and basic metals, where EU production costs rose relative to non-EU competitors, leading to increased imports with higher embedded emissions.^[7] OECD trade data reveal elevated carbon intensity in EU imports of these goods post-ETS implementation, with supply-chain adjustments contributing to leakage rates estimated at 5-15% in vulnerable subsectors before enhanced safeguards.^[92] No systemic relocation of entire facilities has been documented, but partial shifts—such as outsourcing intermediate production—have occurred, underscoring the limitations of free allocations alone in a globalized market.^[93] In response, the EU introduced the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) with a transitional phase starting October 2023 and full implementation by 2026, targeting imports of cement, iron/steel, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen to equalize carbon costs and curb leakage.^[49] CBAM requires importers to purchase certificates mirroring EU ETS prices for embedded emissions, phasing out free allocations for corresponding EU exports by 2034, but it has sparked potential trade frictions, including WTO challenges from affected nations like China and India, and could elevate import prices by 5-20% in covered goods depending on foreign carbon intensities.^[94] ^[95] While modeled to reduce leakage by up to 50% in simulations, its effectiveness hinges on accurate embedded emission reporting and avoidance of retaliatory tariffs, with ongoing adjustments proposed for 2025 to protect EU exporters.^[96] ^[97]

Environmental and Emission Outcomes

Verified Reductions and Attribution

Verified emissions from sectors covered by the EU ETS, including power generation, energy-intensive industry, and intra-EU aviation, declined by 47% between 2005 and 2023, falling from approximately 2.1 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent to 1.1 billion tonnes.^[2] ^[30] This outpaced the cap trajectory, which was set to allow a linear annual reduction of 1.74% from 2013 onward under Phase III, resulting in persistent surpluses of allowances that were partially addressed by the Market Stability Reserve introduced in 2019.^[4] In 2023 alone, emissions dropped by a record 15.5%, driven by lower coal use and higher renewables in power generation, though verified figures are subject to annual audits by independent verifiers accredited under EU regulations.^[98] Attributing these reductions specifically to the ETS requires isolating the causal effect of carbon pricing from concurrent decarbonization trends, such as fuel switching and efficiency gains that occurred independently. Econometric analyses using difference-in-differences and matching methods, comparing ETS-regulated installations to similar non-regulated counterparts, estimate that the scheme induced a 10% reduction in emissions across covered sectors from 2005 to 2012.^[9] In the power sector, effects were more pronounced during Phase II (2008-2012), with reductions of 15-20% in countries like France and Germany, equivalent to roughly 1-2% annually when prices exerted binding constraints post-2008; industry sectors showed smaller responses, often under 5-10% over the same period, due to extensive free allowance allocations mitigating price signals.^[99] ^[100] Simple before-after comparisons risk over-attributing reductions to the ETS by neglecting counterfactual baselines that incorporate autonomous technological shifts, such as the independent adoption of gas over coal or efficiency improvements unrelated to carbon costs. Causal estimates from peer-reviewed studies, which control for firm-level observables and sector trends, indicate that ETS-specific incentives accounted for only a modest fraction of observed declines in early phases, with stronger attribution possible in later phases as tightening caps and higher prices amplified abatement. These findings underscore that while verified totals reflect compliance below caps, true ETS-driven cuts are lower and sectorally uneven, necessitating rigorous counterfactuals to avoid conflating correlation with causation.^[9] ^[99]

Influence of External Factors

The 2008 global financial crisis significantly reduced industrial output and energy demand across EU ETS sectors, leading to emissions drops exceeding the system's initial cap reductions and creating a large surplus of allowances that persisted for years. Verified emissions in ETS-covered sectors fell by approximately 11% from 2008 to 2009, far outpacing the modest 1.74% annual linear reduction factor applied from 2013 onward, with economic contraction attributed as the primary driver rather than ETS incentives alone.^[101]^[41] Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a sharp 13.9% decline in ETS emissions in 2020 compared to 2019, totaling 1,377 million tonnes, driven by lockdowns curtailing aviation and industrial activity, which amplified the allowance surplus to levels necessitating Market Stability Reserve adjustments.^[102]^[26] Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine triggered energy market disruptions, including natural gas shortages and price surges, which indirectly influenced ETS dynamics by accelerating fuel switching to coal in some member states and elevating EUA prices to a peak of €96 per tonne in February 2022 before volatility ensued with subsequent declines. This external shock highlighted ETS sensitivity to geopolitical events, as higher energy costs temporarily boosted carbon prices despite ongoing surplus intake measures, though prices later moderated amid broader market adjustments.^[103]^[104] Expansion of renewable energy capacity and energy efficiency improvements, often propelled by parallel EU directives like the Renewable Energy Directive and Energy Efficiency Directive, have contributed substantially to emission trajectories in ETS sectors, with some assessments indicating these factors drove larger absolute reductions than cap stringency alone in certain periods. For instance, the record 15.5% ETS emission drop in 2023 relative to 2022 was largely ascribed to surging renewable generation displacing fossil fuels, underscoring how non-ETS policies interact with and sometimes overshadow trading scheme effects.^[30]^[105] In the aviation sub-sector, emissions rose 10% in 2023 versus 2022 despite ETS coverage, reflecting post-pandemic travel rebound and enforcement challenges that limit the system's influence amid exogenous demand recovery.^[106]^[2]

Offsetting, Sinks, and Supplementary Measures

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) permitted participants to use international credits from the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol to offset up to a specified portion of their compliance obligations through 2020.^[48] Over 1 billion such credits entered the EU ETS by 2012, with total usage reaching approximately 1.6 billion certified emission reductions (CERs) and emission reduction units (ERUs) by the end of Phase III in 2020, primarily from industrial gas destruction and renewable energy projects in developing countries.^[42] These offsets were intended to lower compliance costs while promoting global emission reductions, but their quantitative limits tightened progressively, capping use at 50% of reductions needed in Phases II and III for most sectors.^[2] Critiques of these offsets centered on challenges in verifying additionality—whether emissions reductions would have occurred without the financial incentive—and risks of over-crediting non-additional projects, such as certain large-scale hydroelectric developments that proceeded regardless of CDM funding.^[107] Permanence was another concern, particularly for land-based projects like afforestation, where stored carbon could be released due to fires, decay, or land-use reversion, yet credits were issued without robust long-term liability mechanisms.^[108] Following the Paris Agreement, the EU banned new international credits for EU ETS compliance starting in 2021 to prioritize domestic reductions and address these integrity issues, though legacy credits from pre-2020 projects could still be surrendered until exhausted.^[109] This shift aligned with broader efforts to enhance credit quality under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, excluding high-risk project types like those involving hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).^[110] Carbon sinks from land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) activities are excluded from the EU ETS cap and auctioning framework, governed instead by a separate LULUCF Regulation that tracks net removals but does not generate tradeable allowances for ETS compliance.^[111] This separation reflects concerns over measurement uncertainties, potential carbon leakage—where domestic sink enhancements displace emissions abroad—and the temporary nature of biological sequestration, which fails to match the permanence of industrial emission cuts.^[112] Debates persist on whether limited LULUCF credits could supplement ETS targets, but proposals face opposition due to risks of undermining additionality, as forestry practices might occur independently of policy incentives, and permanence challenges from events like harvesting or climate-induced disturbances that have already diminished EU forest sinks.^[113] Supplementary measures, such as voluntary cancellation of EU allowances (EUAs) by member states or entities to exceed mandatory reductions, have been enabled under EU regulations but remain marginal in scale and impact.^[34] For instance, Germany notified the European Commission in 2024 of plans to delete EUAs linked to permanently closed power plants from 2023 onward, following procedures in Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/1184, though such actions affect only a fraction of total allowances and do not alter the overall cap trajectory.^[114] These deletions tighten supply incrementally but have minimal environmental effect given the ETS's binding cap, with critics noting they serve more as symbolic commitments than substantive drivers of additional abatement.^[115]

Controversies and Criticisms

Over-Allocation and Market Volatility

In the initial phases of the EU ETS, over-allocation of emission allowances stemmed from national allocation plans (NAPs) that overestimated baseline emissions and underestimated efficiency gains, resulting in persistent surpluses. During Phase I (2005-2007), member states' NAPs allocated approximately 2.1 billion allowances against verified emissions of about 1.97 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent, creating an oversupply that drove European Union Allowance (EUA) prices to near zero by September 2007.^[53]^[116] Phase II (2008-2012) saw continued surpluses, exacerbated by the 2008 financial crisis reducing industrial output, with prices peaking at nearly €30 per tonne in mid-2008 before plummeting below €5 by 2013.^[117] These imbalances undermined the system's ability to signal consistent carbon costs, as low prices failed to incentivize emission reductions or low-carbon investments.^[8] The introduction of the Market Stability Reserve (MSR) in Phase III (2013-2020) aimed to mitigate volatility by automatically adjusting supply: if surpluses exceeded a threshold (equivalent to 833 million tonnes or 12 months of emissions), 24% of excess allowances were withheld starting in 2019, with invalidation of 100 million tonnes annually from 2023 onward under Fit for 55 reforms.^[41] While the MSR reduced the structural surplus—peaking at over 2 billion allowances in 2013—it did not fully eliminate price swings, as EUA prices surged above €100 per tonne in 2022 amid the energy crisis triggered by Russia's invasion of Ukraine, before moderating to around €65 in 2024 amid post-crisis emission recovery.^[2]^[118] This volatility, from crashes deterring abatement to spikes reflecting short-term shocks rather than long-term scarcity, has been criticized for distorting investment signals, with empirical analyses showing that uncertain prices delayed decarbonization in power and industry sectors.^[119]^[120] Fit for 55 reforms, adopted in 2023, further tightened the cap with a linear reduction factor increasing to 4.3% annually from 2024 and MSR intake adjustments, including a lower 12% rate from 2024 to avoid excessive withholding as emissions stabilized post-2022.^[121]^[87] However, with verified emissions falling only 4.8% in 2024 after steeper crisis-driven cuts, risks of over-correction persist, potentially amplifying future volatility if demand rebounds faster than anticipated due to economic growth or delayed abatement.^[87] Critics argue that such supply-side interventions, while addressing oversupply, can create artificial scarcity disconnected from genuine emission trends, complicating causal attribution of price movements to policy stringency versus external factors like fuel prices.^[122]

Fraud, Crime, and Enforcement Failures

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) has been targeted by value-added tax (VAT) carousel fraud, particularly during 2008-2009, where organized criminal networks exploited the VAT exemption on emissions allowances traded between member states, leading to estimated losses exceeding €5 billion in tax revenues across several EU countries.^[123]^[124] This scheme involved importing allowances VAT-free, selling them with VAT added, and disappearing before remitting the tax, with fraud concentrated in high-volume trading hubs like France, Germany, and the UK.^[125]^[126] In January 2011, cyber criminals hacked national emissions registries in multiple member states, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, and Poland, stealing approximately 2 million European Union Allowances (EUAs) valued at nearly €30 million at prevailing market prices.^[127]^[128] The theft prompted a temporary suspension of all 27 national trading registries from January 19 to February 1, 2011, halting EUA transfers and exposing vulnerabilities in decentralized registry systems.^[129] Allowance laundering emerged as another illicit practice, involving the use of shell companies and rapid cross-border transfers to obscure the origins of stolen or fraudulently obtained EUAs, with ongoing risks identified in a 2023 EU-wide study surveying national authorities.^[130] Insider trading cases have been reported sporadically, though less quantified, often linked to non-public information on allowance allocations or policy changes.^[131] Enforcement of penalties for non-compliance, such as excess emissions, is partially harmonized under EU ETS Directive Article 16, with fines escalating from €100 per tonne in earlier phases to higher levels, but criminal prosecution for fraud remains largely dependent on member state authorities, leading to inconsistencies in detection and deterrence.^[132]^[133] Following these incidents, the EU centralized ETS operations into a single Union Registry in 2012, administered by the European Commission, which reduced vulnerabilities to cyber theft and fragmented oversight by consolidating accounts and implementing enhanced security protocols.^[134] However, risks persist in interconnected international systems and through evolving money laundering techniques targeting linked carbon markets.^[135]^[130]

Windfall Profits and Distributive Inequities

In the early phases of the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), electricity generators received emission allowances for free while passing through the full implied carbon costs to consumers via higher wholesale electricity prices, generating windfall profits equivalent to the market value of those allowances. Estimates place these profits at €35 billion across Phase I (2005–2007) and Phase II (2008–2012), driven by near-complete cost pass-through rates in competitive power markets.^[136] A 2008 analysis projected potential windfalls of €23–71 billion for Phase II alone in five major member states (Germany, UK, Spain, Italy, Poland), assuming EUA prices of €21–32 per tonne and varying pass-through efficiencies from 0–100%.^[137] Critics have characterized this mechanism as corporate welfare, arguing that free allocations effectively subsidized incumbents by extracting rents from downstream consumers without incentivizing emissions reductions beyond baseline trends, as firms surrendered allowances they would have held anyway.^[138] Proponents counter that such allocations provided essential bridge financing for capital-intensive shifts to low-carbon generation, mitigating short-term stranded asset risks in a nascent carbon-constrained environment. Empirical pass-through evidence supports the windfall occurrence but highlights causal linkages to market power in electricity pricing rather than ETS design flaws alone.^[139] Distributive inequities arose as elevated energy costs imposed regressive burdens on households, with low-income groups spending a disproportionately larger income share on electricity and heating—up to 10–15% in some member states—amplifying relative welfare losses without equivalent offsets.^[140] Free allocations to industry shielded high-emission sectors from abatement incentives, favoring entrenched producers over new entrants or consumers, while auction revenues (post-2013 for power) were often directed to general budgets rather than targeted rebates, exacerbating income-stratified impacts.^[141] This structure effectively transferred value upstream, with limited trickle-down to vulnerable populations absent explicit fiscal redistribution.^[142]

Assessments of Effectiveness

Empirical Studies on Causal Impacts

A meta-analysis of 13 ex-post evaluations using quasi-experimental methods, including difference-in-differences designs, estimates that the EU ETS causally reduced emissions by 7.3% (95% CI: -10.5% to -4.0%) in covered sectors, primarily driven by installations in the power sector where abatement incentives were strongest due to limited free allocation.^[143] This aligns with installation-level analyses exploiting inclusion thresholds and matching estimators, which find approximately 10% emissions reductions from 2005 to 2012 across facilities in France, the Netherlands, Norway, and the UK, with effects emerging more clearly in Phase II onward as allocation tightened.^[9] Such causal identifications rely on comparing regulated entities to similar unregulated or non-EU counterparts, isolating ETS price signals from concurrent fuel switches or efficiency gains.^[143] Empirical evidence indicates negligible spillovers to broader research and development activities beyond direct low-carbon patenting in regulated firms, with some sector-specific studies reporting no significant shifts in overall technological investment or adoption outside power generation.^[144] Macroeconomic impacts remain contained, with firm-level difference-in-differences showing no detectable effects on profits or employment, though regulated entities experienced revenue and fixed asset increases potentially from abatement investments.^[9] Aggregate GDP effects are estimated below 0.1% annually, based on general equilibrium models calibrated to empirical abatement data, with localized costs higher in energy-intensive regions due to uneven free allocation but offset by auction revenues.^[74] Critiques of these studies highlight potential endogeneity from unmodeled global energy trends, such as declining coal prices or international fuel shifts, which quasi-experimental designs may partially confound with ETS effects if parallel trends assumptions fail.^[145] Interactions with overlapping policies, including renewable subsidies and national efficiency mandates, further complicate attribution, as synthetic control methods in some evaluations understate joint causality when non-ETS drivers dominate post-2012 reductions.^[146] Publication bias adjustments in meta-analyses lower effect sizes by up to 3 percentage points, underscoring the need for robustness to selection in positive findings.^[143]

Comparisons to Alternative Approaches

The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is often compared to carbon taxes, which impose a fixed price per ton of CO2 equivalent emissions, and to performance standards or command-and-control regulations, which mandate specific emission limits or technology requirements for regulated entities.^[147] From a first-principles perspective, carbon taxes provide greater price certainty for firms, enabling more predictable investment in abatement technologies, while the EU ETS offers quantity certainty by capping total allowances but results in volatile permit prices, as evidenced by EUA price swings from €2.37 per ton in 2013 to over €100 in 2023.^[148] ^[149] This volatility in ETS prices can deter long-term planning, whereas taxes avoid such fluctuations by design, though they risk under- or over-abatement if the tax rate is set imprecisely relative to marginal damage costs.^[150] Empirical analyses of abatement effectiveness show that both EU ETS and carbon taxes, such as British Columbia's implemented in 2008, achieve comparable emission reductions—typically 0-1.5% annually in early phases—but at higher administrative and transaction costs for ETS due to monitoring, verification, and trading infrastructure.^[151] ^[143] A meta-review of ex-post evaluations confirms that cap-and-trade systems like the EU ETS exhibit similar marginal abatement cost efficiency to taxes but incur elevated compliance burdens from allowance auctions, banking, and secondary markets, estimated at 5-10% higher transaction costs in theoretical models.^[149] ^[148] In contrast to rigid performance standards, which enforce uniform reductions and often lead to higher overall costs by ignoring firm-specific abatement opportunities, the EU ETS allows flexible trading for least-cost compliance across sectors, though free allocation of permits has historically reduced this efficiency by creating windfall rents rather than recycling revenues as in tax systems.^[152] ^[153] Regarding carbon leakage mitigation, models suggest taxes facilitate simpler border carbon adjustments via tariffs equivalent to the domestic rate, potentially more effective than ETS's free allocations to exposed sectors, which a 2022 study found only partially offset competitiveness losses (reducing leakage by 20-50% in energy-intensive industries).^[149] ^[154] Market-oriented critiques, including those emphasizing minimal government intervention, highlight ETS as prone to bureaucratic complexity and lobbying for grandfathered allowances—evident in the EU's initial over-allocation phases—contrasting with a revenue-neutral carbon tax that could impose a direct price signal without ongoing regulatory oversight or rent distribution.^[155] ^[153] Such views underscore ETS's departure from pure market purism, as permit scarcity is politically determined rather than purely price-driven, though proponents argue quantity caps better ensure environmental targets amid uncertain damage functions.^[148]

Diverse Stakeholder Evaluations

The European Commission has touted the EU ETS as a cornerstone of decarbonization, reporting a 50% decline in covered sector emissions from 2005 levels by 2025, with a further 5% reduction in 2024 alone, crediting the system's pricing mechanism for incentivizing abatement.^[6] Industry representatives and aligned analyses highlight adaptive responses, such as enhanced eco-innovation in energy-intensive firms, which have achieved emission cuts without widespread offshoring or employment disruptions, as firm-level data show no significant negative effects on jobs or profitability during 2005–2012.^[9] ^[156] Environmental organizations, including NGOs like Carbon Market Watch, decry the ETS's targets as insufficiently ambitious, arguing they misalign with Paris Agreement imperatives and allow allowances to remain "alarmingly off-track" from needed trajectories, thereby undermining urgency for transformative change.^[157] ^[158] Economists emphasize narrative gaps in pro-ETS claims, noting that much of the observed abatement stems from business-as-usual efficiencies and concurrent policies rather than the scheme's marginal incentives, with counterfactual assessments revealing only modest additional impacts—such as 3.8% extra reductions relative to a no-ETS baseline from 2008–2016—often eclipsed in uncritical success stories.^[5] ^[159] ^[33] Critics from industry-heavy economies, including Polish officials and regional analyses, fault the ETS for imposing disproportionate costs on manufacturing and utilities—potentially raising production expenses by over 1% in vulnerable sectors—without guaranteed reciprocity from non-EU competitors, exacerbating competitiveness strains amid uneven regional burdens.^[160] ^[161] ^[162] These evaluations underscore persistent divides, where proponents overlook baseline trends and detractors stress economic distortions, reflecting broader tensions between environmental imperatives and verifiable causal contributions.

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The Court of Justice of the European Union (ECJ) decided that the EU legislation that includes international aviation emissions in the EU Emissions Trading ...
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Key Features of Phase III in the EU ETS - Redshaw Advisors
One crucial adjustment is the implementation of a Linear Reduction Factor of 1.74% per year, ensuring the EU's achievement of the 20% greenhouse gas reduction ...
[64]
[PDF] Preparing the review of the Market Stability Reserve (MSR) | ERCST
the structural surplus of around 2 billion allowances in Phase 3 and 4, peaking at 2.6 billion in 2020. To clarify further, see: European Commission SWD(2014) ...
[65]
EU Emission Trading System (EU ETS)
Mar 19, 2024 · The EU ETS, set up in 2005, is a cornerstone of European climate policy. It uses a cap-and-trade system where firms buy emissions allowances.
[66]
Understanding carbon prices - CRU Group
Dec 20, 2021 · Phase III began in 2013 and saw the carbon price rise to new highs towards the end of the period in 2019. A key driver for this was the decision ...
[67]
Reducing emissions from the shipping sector - EU Climate Action
Inclusion of maritime emissions in the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) Since January 2024, the EU's Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) has been extended to ...
[68]
The EU ETS to 2030 and beyond: adjusting the cap in light of the 1.5 ...
The linear reduction factor (LRF) determining the annual reduction of the EU ETS cap is currently set at 2.2% for the fourth Trading Period from 2021 to ...Missing: cut | Show results with:cut
[69]
ETS2: buildings, road transport and additional sectors - Climate Action
The ETS2 will become fully operational in 2027. Although it will be a 'cap and trade' system like the existing EU ETS, the ETS2 will cover emissions upstream.
[70]
[PDF] Climate Action Progress Report 2024
Oct 15, 2024 · The most important driver for the record decrease in EU ETS ... REPowerEU in response to the energy crisis caused by Russia's invasion of Ukraine.
[71]
[PDF] The EU ETS phase IV reform: - Oxford Institute for Energy Studies
Sep 1, 2018 · The starting year of the invalidation mechanism proposed by the Council, whereby allowances are cancelled from the MSR, is brought forward from ...
[72]
EUA price history: what are the drivers? - Homaio
Jan 29, 2024 · EU carbon allowance (EUA) prices are volatile but have generally increased. Initially too low due to oversupply and the financial crisis, ...
[73]
EU ETS Achieves 50% Emission Reduction from 2005 Levels | Blog
Apr 9, 2025 · The price of carbon allowances rose from under €10 per ton in 2017 to over €80 in 2023, sending strong economic signals for low-carbon ...
[74]
[PDF] Benefits and costs of the ETS in the EU, a lesson learned for the ...
We conduct three distinct empirical studies based on information collected from several sources encompassing ETS carbon prices, emissions traded and those ...
[75]
[PDF] Impacts of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme on the industrial ...
Direct costs are caused by emissions originating from the production process itself (which include energy and process emissions); for these emissions operators.
[76]
[PDF] Assessing the cost to UK operators of compliance with the EU ...
Based on the survey results, the average administrative burden of the EU ETS by installation is estimated to be around £16,400 (excluding one-off costs and fees) ...
[77]
Drivers and pass-through of the EU ETS price - ScienceDirect.com
We show that pass-through of allowance costs was (more than) complete in seven major European markets for both coal- and gas- fired power generation.
[78]
Emissions Trading: Impact on Electricity Prices and Energy-Intensive ...
This paper presents a didactic synthesis on the impact of the ETS and argues that such a cost-free allocation will lead to an increase in electricity prices.
[79]
ETS2: What is it and what impact will it have on households and ...
Feb 27, 2025 · No allowances have to be bought or surrendered yet. The first auction of ETS2 allowances will probably start in January 2027. Then, in 2028, the ...
[80]
EU ETS2 Could Increase Energy Prices for Households - EWI
Apr 10, 2025 · The European Emissions Trading System (ETS2), planned to start in 2027, could drive up CO₂ prices in the building and transport sectors.
[81]
The economic burden of EU ETS2 carbon pricing on single and ...
Households face two main economic impacts under carbon pricing: direct impacts from rising energy costs, and indirect impacts from higher prices for goods and ...Introduction · Method and data · Results · Conclusion and discussion
[82]
ETX Module: Use of EU ETS Revenues - Emissions Trading Extra
Between 2013 and 2020, the EU ETS raised €68 billion in revenues for the member states, and this amount is increasing rapidly due to rising carbon prices, even ...
[83]
[PDF] The use of auctioning revenues from the EU ETS for climate action
This report analyzes the use of auctioning revenues from the EU ETS for climate action, based on eight case studies.
[84]
[PDF] 2022 State of the EU ETS - ERCST
Apr 26, 2022 · During Phase 3, Member States generated some 65.5 bn € from auctioning ETS allowances. Based on annual reporting, it is estimated that 75% of ...
[85]
The strategic use of auctioning revenues to foster energy efficiency
Investing auctioning revenues to further strengthen EU energy efficiency policy could reinforce the EU ETS and reduce the economic and societal costs of GHG ...
[86]
Allocation to industrial installations - EU Climate Action
Free allocation will focus on sectors at the highest risk of relocating their production outside of the EU. These sectors will receive 100% of their allocation ...Allocation Based On... · How Free Allocation Is... · Free Allocation In Phase 4...
[87]
[PDF] 2025 State of the EU ETS Report - ERCST
May 21, 2025 · ... (EU) 2019/856 supplementing Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to the operation of the Innovation ...
[88]
The impact of the EU emissions trading system on competitiveness ...
The results of this literature tell us that to date there is no evidence of the EU ETS having had widespread negative or positive effects on the competitiveness ...
[89]
[PDF] Why does emissions trading under the EU Emissions ... - EconStor
The empirical ex post literature on firm-level effects of the EU ETS finds hardly any indication for negative competitiveness effects for the first two trading ...
[90]
[PDF] The impact of green policies on local economic performance
Apr 27, 2025 · Specifically, we investigate how the changes in the allocation of free allowances affected local economies in terms of employment, gross value ...
[91]
[PDF] Impacts on Competitiveness from EU ETS An analysis of the Dutch ...
Empirical studies have taken different routes to analyze the effects of ... express the effects of EU ETS on the competitiveness of EU industry. 1.5.1.
[92]
Carbon leakage through firms' supply chain adaptation - CEPR
Jan 2, 2025 · This column studies carbon leakage in the context of the EU Emissions Trading System using firm-level import data.
[93]
[PDF] cl_evidence_factsheets_en.pdf - EU Climate Action
The general conclusions of the study are that there is no evidence detected for the occurrence of carbon leakage as defined by the ETS Directive in the period ...
[94]
Winners and losers of the EU carbon border adjustment mechanism ...
The complete removal of free allowances results in significant carbon leakage (42%), with CBAM able to reduce the leakage rate by less than one-half if carbon ...
[95]
Third Countries' Reactions to the EU CBAM - Cornell Law School
Apr 23, 2025 · This article explores how third countries may react to the CBAM, given the current weakness of the IEL and WTO dispute resolution systems.
[96]
The carbon border adjustment mechanism is inefficient in ... - NIH
We found the carbon border adjustment mechanism reduces carbon leakage by 19%. Different policy schemes including carbon price and revenue usage are considered.
[97]
CBAM: Commission announces plan to mitigate carbon leakage risk ...
Jul 3, 2025 · The European Commission has announced plans to introduce a new measure to address the risk of carbon leakage for EU-produced goods produced in CBAM sectors.
[98]
EU ETS emissions fall by record 15.5% in 2023 - Carbonwise
May 29, 2024 · As a result of the drop last year, total CO2 emissions regulated by the EU ETS in 2023 were 47% below 2005 levels, which is the year the program ...<|separator|>
[99]
[PDF] The causal impact of the EU ETS on Emissions
By definition the EU ETS ensures that emissions of regulated firms do not exceed cap. • Hence if the cap is contracting/binding emissions must reduce.
[100]
[PDF] The Causal Effects of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme
Apr 1, 2014 · In summary, much of the econometric evidence on the effects of the EU ETS so far is limited in scope and based primarily on sector-level ...
[101]
Untangling the impacts of the EU ETS and the economic crisis
In this study we use historical emission data from installations under the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) to evaluate the impact of this ...
[102]
EU ETS emissions plummet due to pandemic as EUA surplus ...
Apr 8, 2021 · Emissions in 2020 were 1,377 MT, a decrease of –13.9% compared to 2019, and 26% below the ETS cap, according to estimates from Sandbag.
[103]
Carbon markets ride out energy crisis - Environmental Finance
EU Allowance prices began the year trading at €83 ($87) and reached record high prices of €96 in February. After sharp drops in March and September, the price ...Missing: spike | Show results with:spike
[104]
EU carbon permit prices crash after Russian invasion of Ukraine
Mar 2, 2022 · The price of carbon permits in Europe has crashed dramatically following Russian's invasion of Ukraine, lowering the cost of emitting carbon for the EU's most ...
[105]
EEA Trends and Projections: EU greenhouse gas emissions see ...
Oct 31, 2024 · Renewables take bigger role. The accelerating decarbonisation of the European economy has only been possible due to the rapid expansion of ...
[106]
What are the aviation emissions covered by the EU ETS? - Homaio
Jul 2, 2024 · In 2023, the EU ETS captured 22% of aviation emissions from European flights, totaling 164.5 megatonnes of CO₂.
[107]
[PDF] How additional is the Clean Development Mechanism?
The vanishing role of barrier analysis in the CDM. The role of barrier analysis in demonstrating additionality in the CDM has been dramatically re- duced ...
[108]
Additionality: the trouble with large-scale CDM projects (Newsletter ...
Nov 4, 2011 · Additionality is intrinsically difficult to tackle and one of the main reasons why offsetting remains contentious.Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[109]
Updated information on exchange and international credits' use in ...
May 25, 2021 · In Phase 4, the Union has a domestic emissions reduction target and does not allow anymore the use of international credits for the EU ETS.
[110]
[PDF] Offset Use Across Emissions Trading Systems
Dec 12, 2022 · Externally administered mechanisms can be subject to multilateral oversight (such as the CDM under the Kyoto Protocol and Article 6.4 under the ...
[111]
Reforming the EU approach to LULUCF and the climate policy ...
To-date, LULUCF-generated carbon credits still cannot be traded in the EU Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). And domestic, forest-based carbon credits further ...
[112]
EU LULUCF sink development until 2040: Trends, projections and ...
Mar 13, 2025 · This brief discusses the decline of the EU LULUCF sink due to increased harvests, ageing forests, and climate-driven disturbances, along with current ...
[113]
The European forest carbon sink is declining: can we reverse the ...
Jul 30, 2025 · The European forest carbon sink is declining due to increased tree harvesting, climate change, and disruptive events. The EU can reverse this ...Missing: exclusion debates
[114]
Notification by Germany of voluntary cancellation of allowances in ...
May 5, 2025 · On 2 May 2024, the Commission published Germany's notification concerning its intention to voluntarily cancel allowances associated with the ...Missing: supplementary | Show results with:supplementary
[115]
[PDF] Voluntary offsetting: credits and allowances - Umweltbundesamt
Jan 11, 2021 · If the ETS cap is stringent, cancelling an allowance leads to an additional scarcity – and therefore to an additional emission reduction – ...Missing: supplementary deletion
[116]
EU carbon price crashes to record low | Emissions trading
Jan 24, 2013 · The ETS was launched in 2005 and prices crashed during the first trading period to near zero in 2007, because of the over-allocation of permits.
[117]
Causes of the EU ETS price drop: Recession, CDM, renewable ...
The price of EU allowances (EUAs) in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) fell from almost 30€/tCO2 in mid-2008 to less than 5€/tCO2 in mid-2013.
[118]
EU Carbon Permits - Price - Chart - Historical Data - News
Historically, EU Carbon Permits reached an all time high of 105.73 in February of 2023. This page includes a chart with historical data for EU Carbon Permits. ...
[119]
Reviewing the Market Stability Reserve in light of more ambitious ...
The MSR started operating in 2019 and is a mechanism that reduces the total number of allowances in circulation (TNAC) and ultimately cancels allowances based ...
[120]
[PDF] Analyses of the effectiveness of trading in EU-ETS | Climate Strategies
Banking of allowances from Phase I to Phase II was not permitted, while Phase II allowances can be banked forward to Phase III. The effect of this latter ...<|separator|>
[121]
Fit for 55 - consilium.europa.eu
The Fit for 55 package is a set of laws aiming to reduce EU greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 and put the EU to the path to achieve climate ...How Will The Eu Reduce Its... · 55% · Eu Emissions Trading System
[122]
What determines the price of carbon? New evidence from phase III ...
In this paper, we provide new evidence on the determinants of EU emission allowance prices by analyzing the most recent trading periods, i.e. phases III and ...Missing: recovery | Show results with:recovery
[123]
Carbon Credit fraud causes more than 5 billion euros damage for ...
Dec 9, 2009 · The European Union (EU) Emission Trading System (ETS) has been the victim of fraudulent traders in the past 18 months. This resulted in losses of approximately ...
[124]
Carbon fraud causes 5 billion euro tax loss - Reuters
Dec 10, 2009 · Fraudulent trading in European Union carbon emissions credits in the past 18 months has led to more than 5 billion euros in tax revenue losses for several EU ...
[125]
European taxpayers lose €5bn in carbon trading fraud - The Guardian
Dec 14, 2009 · The European Union has probably lost at least €5bn (£4.5bn) to VAT fraud related to carbon trading and there is a risk that the criminals will now shift their ...Missing: 2008-2009 | Show results with:2008-2009
[126]
Fraud puts the brake on the emissions market - Politico.eu
Jan 5, 2011 · According to the European Police Office (Europol), in 2008-09, European treasuries lost €5bn as a result of carousel fraud on ETS credits. Such ...
[127]
Thieves stole €30m of carbon allowances - Politico.eu
Jan 21, 2011 · The European Commission today said that it believes carbon allowances worth almost €30 million have been stolen from the EU's emissions trading ...
[128]
Hackers steal 2 million tonnes of EU carbon credits - Phys.org
Jan 20, 2011 · The scale of the theft, which involved five unnamed EU states, was revealed a day after Brussels shut all 27 national trading registries for a ...
[129]
Hacking Theft Forces EU to Suspend Carbon Registries - Bloomberg
Jan 19, 2011 · The European Union suspended operations at all 30 of the region's greenhouse-gas emissions registries after a Czech firm reported about 6.8 ...Missing: cyber | Show results with:cyber
[130]
[PDF] EU ETS: Detecting, preventing, and fighting money laundering in ...
This is a representative EU-wide study on the detection of money laundering risks in the. European Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). It is based on a survey of ...
[131]
[PDF] Fraud on the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme - -ORCA
The past two years have seen value-‐added-‐tax (VAT) fraud and emissions allowance thefts emerge as major threats to the EU ETS market. This study explores the ...
[132]
Aircraft operators and their administering countries - EU Climate Action
Article 16 of the EU ETS Directive establishes a limited harmonisation of the financial penalties that will be paid by operators that fail to surrender the ...Missing: failures | Show results with:failures
[133]
[PDF] Guide to Carbon Trading Crime | Interpol
Under the EU ETS, companies receive emission allowances called European Union. Allowances ... fraud was committed with respect to carbon trading on the EU-ETS.
[134]
Union Registry - Climate Action - European Commission
The Union Registry is an online database that helps guarantee the precise accounting of all allowances issued under the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS)About the Union Registry · single EU Registry · Fees
[135]
[PDF] Climate Brief 4 - Closing the door to fraud in the EU ETS - I4CE
Jan 19, 2011 · ▫ Better collaboration on implementing existing EU legislation to prevent VAT fraud. A single EU-wide registry with one central administrator.
[136]
[PDF] The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme: should we ... - HAL
Windfall profits generated unfair distributional effects. Careless market rules allowed massive fraud. Allowance allocation was massively distorted among Member ...
[137]
[PDF] EU ETS Phase II – The potential and scale of windfall profits in the ...
The profits of the full value chain in the power sector will be dependent on the ability of suppliers to pass-through higher generation costs to end-customers.
[138]
Carbon Welfare - Corporate Europe Observatory
Dec 2, 2016 · The reform of the EU Emissions Trading System could hand more than €230 billion in subsidies to energy intensive industries, a new report ...
[139]
Windfall profits in the power sector during phase III of the EU ETS
Dec 10, 2019 · The overall findings indicate that the incidence of windfall profits in the power sector remains prevalent in the overwhelming majority of EU countries.Missing: billions euros
[140]
[PDF] THE DISTRIBUTIONAL EFFECTS OF CLIMATE POLICIES - Bruegel
The first effect is typically regressive, as lower-income households spend a larger share of their income on many emis- sions-intensive products (eg heat and ...<|separator|>
[141]
[PDF] The impact of the new EU Emissions Trading System on households
... ETS that already applies to electricity, is expected to have strong regressive distributional impacts if not accompanied by policies to mitigate effects on ...
[142]
[PDF] Distributional impacts of carbon pricing on households
Above this threshold the effect would be regressive, with lower-income groups more negatively affected than the national average. These distributional outcomes ...
[143]
Systematic review and meta-analysis of ex-post evaluations on the ...
May 16, 2024 · The EU ETS and the British Columbia carbon tax both have estimated emission reduction effects below the overall average treatment effect. These ...
[144]
The impact of emissions trading systems on technological ...
Research on Germany, Italy, and the Nordic countries found a negligible EU ETS impact on technological investment, R&D, and technology adoption in the sector ( ...
[145]
An endogenous emissions cap produces a green paradox
In this paper, we show that a cap-and-trade scheme with an endogenous cap, such as the EU ETS produces a green paradox. Abatement policies announced early but ...3. Quantitative Assessment · 3.1. Eu Ets Model · Appendix B: Eu Ets Model...Missing: critiques endogeneity
[146]
Policy interactions and electricity generation sector CO2 emissions
This paper evaluates the static and dynamic effects of four national climate and energy policies—carbon tax, emission trading system (ETS), renewable energy ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[147]
Cap and Trade vs. Taxes - C2ES
Both take advantage of market efficiencies. Unlike direct regulations, both harness market forces to achieve the lowest cost reductions in GHG emissions. Both ...
[148]
To tax or to trade? A global review of carbon emissions reduction ...
Carbon taxes and emissions trading systems (ETSs) are the two most popular policy tools in the global effort to achieve net-zero carbon emissions.
[149]
[PDF] The Relative Merits of Carbon Pricing Instruments: Taxes versus ...
Jan 10, 2022 · ... carbon pricing is paired with revenue recycling, the overall impact of either policy—a tax or cap-and-trade with 100 percent allowance.
[150]
Carbon Pricing 101 - Resources for the Future
Jun 6, 2019 · Carbon taxes and cap-and-trade programs primarily differ by the type of certainty they provide. Carbon taxes provide price certainty, as ...Missing: transaction | Show results with:transaction
[151]
Does carbon pricing reduce emissions? A review of ex-post analyses
Finally, studies of the EU-ETS, the oldest ETS, indicate limited average annual reductions—ranging from 0% to 1.5% per annum.
[152]
Carbon Tax vs. Cap-and-Trade: What's a Better Policy to Cut ...
Mar 1, 2016 · Carbon taxes and cap-and-trade programs share several major advantages over alternative policies. Both reduce emissions by encouraging the lowest-cost ...
[153]
[PDF] EMISSIONS TRADING veRsus co
Carbon taxes have several advantages over traditional emissions-trading systems, but as discussed later, some of these advantages can be partly captured through.
[154]
Contribution of carbon pricing to meeting a mid-century net zero target
Feb 15, 2023 · This paper presents policy packages a country can implement to accelerate emission reduction by these sectors with minimal risk of leakage.
[155]
Cap and trade - Carbon Tax Center
Politically, cap-and-trade has functioned as a “safe harbor” for politicians who grasp the need to price carbon emissions but cling to the need to “hide the ...
[156]
The creative response of energy-intensive industries to the ...
Nov 1, 2022 · Our results suggest that environmental policy may affect firms' environmental performance by improving eco-innovating efforts.
[157]
NGOs demand review of 'insufficient' EU emission reduction targets
Aug 24, 2023 · They say the allowances and the EU's overall climate ambitions are "alarmingly off-track" with the climate goals set out in the Paris Agreement ...<|separator|>
[158]
EU ETS price slump: The spectre of oversupply haunting Europe
Feb 29, 2024 · Starting in January 2024, prices have been decreasing steeply from around €84 per tonne to reach prices as low as €52. While this is still a ...
[159]
[PDF] The EU Emissions Trading System - Environmental Defense Fund
Jul 1, 2008 · Determining the exact proportion of emission reductions attributable to the EU ETS versus other factors is difficult because business-as-usual ...
[160]
Poland rakes in the carbon cash it pretends to hate - Politico.eu
Dec 20, 2021 · Poland is complaining that the EU ETS is costing its utilities dearly, but the money from selling permits flows into the national budget.
[161]
The unequal costs of carbon pricing in European regions - CEPR
May 2, 2025 · Despite its effectiveness in reducing emissions, instruments like the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) can impose uneven economic costs and ...
[162]
PwC Analysis: The negative impacts of the EU ETS 2 can be ...
Oct 16, 2025 · The increase in expenses after the introduction of EU ETS 2, according to the analysis, would amount to 1.3 percent of the total consumption ...