Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Fermented fish

Fermented fish refers to a traditional food preservation technique in which fresh fish undergoes microbial fermentation, typically involving lactic acid bacteria, halophilic bacteria, or yeasts, often in the presence of salt or carbohydrates, to extend shelf life, develop distinctive flavors, and enhance nutritional profiles through enzymatic breakdown of proteins and lipids.^[1] This process transforms raw fish into various products like sauces, pastes, or solid forms, which have been integral to cuisines worldwide for millennia.^[2] The practice of fermenting fish dates back to ancient civilizations, with evidence of its use around 7200 BCE in pits for storage,^[3] and it became a key commodity in Mediterranean trade during classical antiquity, exemplified by the Roman garum sauce made from fermented fish entrails.^[4] In Asia, fermentation emerged during Japan's Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE) and spread across South and Southeast regions due to abundant seasonal fish catches and the need for long-term preservation in tropical climates.^[1] Over time, these methods evolved into culturally significant staples, balancing tradition with innovations in microbial control to ensure safety and quality.^[2] Fermented fish products vary globally by region and processing method, broadly classified into salt-fermented types such as whole or paste forms (e.g., ngari from India, jeotgal from Korea, rakfisk from Norway, surströmming from Sweden), fish sauces (e.g., nuoc-mam from Vietnam, nam pla from Thailand, patis from the Philippines), and lactic acid-fermented variants with added rice or vegetables (e.g., pla-ra from Thailand).^[4] These differences arise from local microbial strains, salt concentrations (typically 10–30%), and fermentation durations ranging from weeks to months, resulting in products with umami-rich profiles from free amino acids and organic acids.^[1] Nutritionally, fermented fish is a dense source of high-quality proteins (often 30–40% by weight), essential amino acids, omega-3 fatty acids like EPA and DHA, vitamins (e.g., B vitamins and D), and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and selenium, with fermentation improving bioavailability through peptide formation and probiotic content.^[2] Health benefits include antioxidant properties (up to 74 µmol TE/g), antihypertensive effects via ACE-inhibitory peptides (3–77% inhibition), antimicrobial activity, and support for gut microbiota, potentially aiding digestion, immune function, and even cognitive health.^[4] Despite these advantages, concerns like high salt content and histamine risks necessitate modern safety measures.^[1]

History and Origins

Early Development

The earliest archaeological evidence of fermented fish dates to approximately 9,200 years ago at the Mesolithic site of Norje Sunnansund in southern Sweden, where over 200,000 herring bones were found in a large pit structure indicative of controlled anaerobic fermentation for preservation.^[5] This method involved layering whole small fish in a sealed pit to allow lactic acid bacteria to break down proteins without salt, enabling year-round storage in a region where drying alone was insufficient due to humid conditions and seasonal abundance.^[6] The discovery suggests early coastal foragers developed fermentation as a reliable technique to support semi-sedentary communities, marking a shift from purely drying methods that were vulnerable to spoilage in variable climates.^[7] In ancient Mesopotamia around 1700 BCE, fermented fish products emerged as key for storage and trade, with the Babylonians producing siqqu, a brine-based sauce from salted and fermented fish, shellfish, or even grasshoppers, often flavored with herbs like cumin and coriander.^[8] Similarly, in ancient Egypt during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 BCE), preserved fish preparations akin to feshkh—a fermented and salted product of Nile gray mullet—served as a protein source for laborers and trade along the river.^[8] These practices addressed the limitations of salting in arid yet flood-prone environments, where fermentation enhanced shelf life and flavor for long-distance commerce.^[9] Coastal societies increasingly transitioned from drying to fermentation as primary preservation methods because salting proved unreliable in areas with scarce salt resources or inconsistent weather, allowing for bulk processing of seasonal catches into stable foods.^[5] This adaptation is evident in the Mediterranean by the classical period, where it culminated in Roman garum, a premium fermented fish sauce produced from small whole fish like anchovies or mackerel, or their viscera, layered with coarse sea salt (about one-third the weight of the fish) in sun-exposed vats for 2–3 months of natural enzymatic fermentation.^[10] The resulting amber liquid was strained, often aged further, and used as a versatile condiment in cuisine, medicine, and rituals across the empire, with production centered in coastal factories like those at Pompeii.^[10] These ancient innovations laid the groundwork for fermented fish's later global dissemination through trade routes.

Global Spread

The techniques of fermenting fish developed independently in various regions, with evidence pointing to origins in continental Southeast Asia, particularly the Mekong Basin, among early rice-farming communities, before diffusing northward to China pre-Han Dynasty (before 202 BCE) via migrations and cultural exchanges.^[11] In pre-Han Dynasty China, fermented aquatic products using salt, koji molds, and wine emerged as key condiments, marking the adaptation of these methods to local abundant fisheries along coastal and riverine regions.^[11] These practices then spread within Asia, including to Japan during the Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE), and southward through human migrations along the Mekong Valley and other routes, reaching broader Southeast Asia by the early centuries CE, where they evolved into distinctive fish sauces.^[11]^[12] In Europe, fermented fish preservation, already established in Scandinavia during the Viking Age, extended beyond northern regions through extensive maritime trade networks from the 8th to 11th centuries, as Norse traders exchanged salted and fermented herring and other seafood with Baltic, Anglo-Saxon, and Frankish markets.^[13] Later colonial exchanges in the 16th to 18th centuries further disseminated these techniques, incorporating influences from various regions encountered via Portuguese and Dutch voyages, which blended with indigenous European methods to enrich coastal cuisines.^[14] Following European colonization after the 15th century, fermented fish practices adapted in Africa and the Americas through the integration of Old World preservation techniques with local resources, particularly in coastal communities where salted fermentation variants merged with existing methods.^[15] The 19th and 20th centuries saw industrialization accelerate the global dissemination of fermented fish, transforming traditional methods into larger-scale productions that supplied international markets.^[2]

Cultural Significance

Role in Traditional Diets

In pre-refrigeration societies, fermented fish served as a vital preservation method for perishable seafood, enabling reliable access to animal protein in regions where fresh fish was abundant but short-lived. In Southeast Asia, these products have long formed an integral part of staple diets, providing significant contributions to daily protein intake; for instance, in Cambodia, Cambodians consume an estimated 18 g of prahok per capita per day, contributing significantly to protein intake.^[16]^[17] This role was particularly crucial in tropical climates with high humidity, where fermentation extended shelf life without advanced cooling, helping communities meet up to a substantial portion of their protein requirements from aquatic sources.^[2] Seasonal patterns further underscore fermented fish's dietary importance, aligning preservation efforts with environmental cycles to ensure year-round availability. In India, particularly during the monsoon season when fishing is limited by flooding and heavy rains, communities ferment small freshwater fish like ayirai to store them for off-season use, transforming seasonal surpluses into enduring food supplies.^[18] Similarly, in Nordic regions, traditional products such as surströmming in Sweden and hákarl in Iceland were developed for winter storage, allowing fermentation in controlled conditions to sustain populations through long, harsh months when fresh catches were scarce.^[19] These practices not only bridged seasonal gaps but also integrated fermented fish into cyclical eating habits tied to local ecosystems.^[20] Economically, fermented fish has been accessible to low-income populations due to its low production costs and extended shelf life, making it a practical protein option in resource-limited settings. In low- and middle-income countries, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, small-scale fermentation of affordable local fish species allows purchase in small quantities, reducing financial barriers and enhancing food security for vulnerable groups.^[21] This affordability stems from traditional, labor-intensive methods using minimal inputs like salt, enabling rural households to maintain nutritional intake without reliance on expensive imports or refrigeration. Fermented fish integrates seamlessly into diverse meal structures, varying by region to complement everyday cuisine. In Thai diets, products like pla ra or budu function primarily as condiments, adding umami depth to rice, vegetables, and curries in Northeastern dishes, where they enhance flavor without dominating the plate.^[22] Conversely, in Icelandic traditions, hákarl serves as a main component in meals, often consumed as a standalone delicacy or paired with rye bread during festive or daily winter gatherings, reflecting its status as a hearty, preserved staple.^[23] These integrations highlight fermented fish's versatility as both enhancer and centerpiece in cultural foodways.

Regional Customs and Uses

In various indigenous communities of Northeast India, such as the Mising tribe of Assam, fermented fish products like numsing play a central role in ritual ceremonies, including weddings and festivals, where they are offered to appease ancestral spirits and mark significant life events. These practices underscore the product's symbolic connection to community harmony and spiritual protection, often integrated into offerings alongside rice beer to invoke blessings for prosperity and fertility.^[24] Fermented fish fosters social bonds through dedicated community events, notably in Sweden where surströmming parties, known as surströmmingsskiva, bring together rural residents to celebrate local heritage, reinforcing values of simplicity, camaraderie, and resistance to urban influences. These gatherings, often held in August, emphasize collective identity and intergenerational transmission of traditions, turning the pungent delicacy into a marker of regional pride.^[25] In West African villages, particularly in coastal nations like Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, women predominantly lead the labor-intensive production of fermented fish products such as adjuevan, managing fermentation processes that sustain household economies and community networks. This gender-specific role highlights women's agency in preserving cultural knowledge and adapting techniques amid environmental challenges, often within cooperative structures that promote social cohesion.^[26]^[27] Fermented fish carries profound symbolic weight in Vietnamese Tet celebrations, where products like mắm cá represent abundance and renewal, adorning family altars as offerings to ancestors to invoke a year of plenty and familial unity. This tradition embodies hopes for overflowing harvests and enduring prosperity, intertwining the product's earthy essence with the holiday's themes of optimism and continuity.^[28]

Fermentation Processes

Microbial and Biochemical Mechanisms

The fermentation of fish involves a complex interplay of microbial activities and biochemical transformations that preserve the product while developing its characteristic flavors and textures. Dominant microorganisms in these processes include lactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as species of Lactobacillus and Pediococcus, which thrive in the initial stages and drive acidification through the production of lactic acid from carbohydrates.^[29] Halophilic bacteria, particularly Bacillus species like Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis, play a key role in high-salt environments, contributing to enzymatic breakdown and flavor enhancement in products like fish sauces.^[30] Yeasts, including Debaryomyces hansenii and Hansenula anomala, are also prevalent in salt-based ferments, where they contribute to proteolysis, lipolysis, and flavor development through metabolic conversions.^[31] Biochemically, proteolysis is central to fish fermentation, where endogenous fish enzymes and microbial proteases hydrolyze proteins into peptides and free amino acids, releasing compounds like glutamic acid that contribute to umami flavors.^[32] Concurrently, lipolysis occurs via lipases from bacteria such as Bacillus spp., breaking down fish lipids into free fatty acids, which serve as precursors for volatile aroma compounds and help stabilize the product against spoilage.^[33] These pathways are selective, favoring halotolerant and acid-tolerant microbes while inhibiting pathogens. The production of lactic acid by LAB rapidly lowers the pH to 4.0–5.0, creating an acidic environment that suppresses the growth of harmful bacteria like Clostridium and Salmonella.^[15] This pH drop, combined with anaerobic conditions and salt concentrations typically ranging from 5% to 30% (w/w), selectively promotes the growth of desired fermentative microbes while limiting aerobic spoilers and extending shelf life.^[1] Anaerobiosis, often achieved by packing fish in sealed containers, further enhances these effects by restricting oxygen-dependent deterioration.^[34]

Key Ingredients and Techniques

The production of fermented fish relies on a few core ingredients to initiate and sustain the fermentation process. Fresh or minimally processed fish, such as small species like anchovies (Stolephorus spp.) and mackerel (Katsuwonus pelamis or Rastrelliger spp.), serve as the primary substrate due to their high protein content and suitability for microbial breakdown.^[35]^[2] Salt is essential, typically applied at concentrations of 5-30% by weight to inhibit harmful bacteria while allowing desirable lactic acid fermentation.^[35] Carbohydrates, often in the form of cooked rice, rice bran, or flour, are added as fermentation starters to provide sugars that fuel lactic acid bacteria, enhancing acidity and flavor development.^[35]^[2] Key techniques vary by region but generally involve salting methods to control moisture and microbial activity. Dry salting entails layering cleaned fish with salt in alternating layers, often at a 3:1 fish-to-salt ratio, which draws out moisture and concentrates flavors through autolysis and bacterial action.^[2] Wet brining submerges fish in a saltwater solution, typically 15-25% salt, allowing for a more liquid-based fermentation suitable for sauce production.^[35] Mixed fermentation incorporates herbs and spices, such as garlic, ginger, or tamarind, alongside salt and fish to modulate pH and introduce antimicrobial compounds that support beneficial microbial roles in breakdown processes.^[35]^[2] Fermentation typically proceeds for 1-6 months under ambient conditions of 20-30°C, during which periodic stirring ensures even distribution of salt and acids, preventing spoilage in uneven areas.^[35]^[2] These temperatures promote the activity of halophilic bacteria and enzymes without requiring precise control in traditional settings.^[35] From household to industrial scales, techniques adapt for efficiency and consistency. Traditional household production uses earthen pots or barrels for small batches, relying on natural ambient conditions and manual layering or submersion.^[2] In contrast, modern industrial processes employ stainless steel tanks or autoclaves for initial sterilization and controlled fermentation, often incorporating defined starter cultures of LAB or Bacillus to shorten durations, standardize outcomes, and enhance safety while maintaining traditional flavor profiles.^[35]^[2]

Types of Products

Liquid and Sauce Forms

Liquid and sauce forms of fermented fish products are fluid condiments derived from the anaerobic fermentation of small fish or their parts with salt, resulting in a pourable, amber-colored liquid rich in umami flavors. These sauces, often used as essential seasonings in cuisines worldwide, trace their origins to ancient practices, with the Roman garum serving as a seminal example from the classical era. Garum was produced by fermenting small fish like anchovies or mackerel in brine for approximately nine months, yielding a clear, brown liquid that was drained from the fermentation vessel.^[10] Modern equivalents, such as Vietnam's nuoc mam and Thailand's nam pla, follow similar principles, employing small pelagic fish like anchovies fermented in salt for 6 to 12 months to develop their characteristic profiles.^[36]^[37] The production of these liquid sauces typically involves mixing fresh or salted small fish with sea salt in a ratio of about 1:3, allowing natural microbial fermentation in sealed containers under ambient temperatures. After the fermentation period, the mash is pressed to extract the liquid, producing a high-quality amber sauce from the initial pressing, while subsequent pressings yield lower-grade liquids or byproduct pastes.^[36]^[38] This extraction method ensures the sauce's clarity and intensity, with the process drawing on autolytic enzymes from the fish to break down proteins into soluble components. Flavor profiles of these sauces are dominated by umami notes derived from free glutamates and nucleotides released during proteolysis, complemented by high salinity levels typically ranging from 20% to 30% sodium chloride, which acts as both a preservative and flavor enhancer.^[33] They are primarily employed as versatile seasonings, added to soups, stir-fries, dips, and marinades to impart depth and saltiness without overpowering other ingredients. In Vietnam, nuoc mam production exemplifies the scale of this industry, with annual output exceeding 380 million liters, supporting both domestic consumption and exports.^[39]

Paste and Solid Forms

Paste and solid forms of fermented fish encompass thick, semi-solid masses or dried products resulting from controlled microbial fermentation, often preserving the fish's structure or grinding it into a cohesive paste after partial breakdown. These forms differ from liquid sauces by retaining the bulk of the fish tissue, providing a versatile base for culinary applications while extending shelf life through acidification and salting. Common processing involves mixing whole or partially processed fish with salt, carbohydrates like rice, or plant additives, followed by anaerobic fermentation in containers such as jars, pots, or barrels.^[35] In Thailand, pla ra exemplifies a fermented fish paste made from freshwater species like snakehead (Channa striata), where cleaned fish are mixed with salt and roasted rice, then fermented in earthenware jars for 3 to 6 months to develop a soft, pungent texture. The rice serves as a carbohydrate source for lactic acid bacteria, contributing to the paste's sour flavor and preservation. Similarly, ngari from Manipur, India, is a solid fermented product prepared by sun-drying small cyprinid fish (Puntius sophore) for 2 to 4 days without salt, packing them tightly into bamboo or earthen pots, and allowing spontaneous anaerobic fermentation for 4 to 12 months, resulting in a dry, chewy solid with enhanced umami from proteolysis.^[40]^[41] Surströmming, a Swedish specialty, represents a canned solid form using Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras), which is lightly salted and fermented in barrels at 15 to 18°C for 3 to 4 weeks before filleting and sealing in tins with brine for further maturation. This process yields intact, swollen fish pieces with a strong, gaseous aroma due to bacterial activity, stored at cool temperatures to maintain integrity. In contrast, hentak from Manipur involves grinding sun-dried fish (Esomus danricus or Puntius sophore) with roasted petioles of colocasia (Alocasia macrorrhizos) into a thick paste, formed into balls, and fermented for 3 to 6 months, incorporating the plant material as a starter rich in natural microbes.^[42]^[43] Post-fermentation, pastes like pla ra and hentak are often ground further for a smooth consistency and stored in jars, achieving a soft, spreadable texture with a shelf life of 1 to 2 years under ambient conditions due to low pH and salt content. Solid forms such as ngari and surströmming retain a firmer, drier texture—ngari as brittle strips and surströmming as whole pieces—enabling longer preservation of up to several years when kept dry or canned, respectively, as the reduced moisture limits spoilage. These microbial processes, dominated by lactic acid bacteria in pastes and halophilic anaerobes in solids, underpin the texture evolution from firm fish to softened or desiccated products.^[35]^[41]^[42]

Nutritional Profile

Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Fermented fish products exhibit a high protein content, typically ranging from 30% to 60% on a dry weight basis, primarily derived from the hydrolysis of fish muscle proteins into peptides and free amino acids during fermentation. This process enriches the products with essential amino acids, such as histidine, which constitutes a notable portion of the amino acid profile, alongside others like leucine and lysine that make up approximately 50% of the total amino acids. For instance, in traditional Southeast Asian shrimp pastes like belacan and kapi, protein levels reach 31-37% on a wet basis, reflecting concentrated dry matter after fermentation.^[44]^[45]^[46] Lipid content in fermented fish varies by species and processing, generally comprising 2-20% of the total composition, with fermentation inducing lipolysis that breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids. These lipids are rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which can account for up to 10-20% of total fatty acids in products derived from fatty fish like mackerel or sardines. In salted-fermented tiger fish, for example, EPA and DHA levels are approximately 1.7-2.8 mg/g, contributing to the overall nutritional density, while the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio often improves post-fermentation due to selective microbial activity. Higher fat contents, as seen in mackerel-based ferments (up to 14% lipid), enhance the presence of these beneficial fatty acids compared to leaner fish products.^[44]^[47]^[48] Micronutrients in fermented fish are augmented by both the inherent fish composition and microbial activity during fermentation. B vitamins, including B12 (cobalamin), are synthesized by fermenting bacteria such as Propionibacterium and Lactobacillus species, with detectable levels in products like fish sauce, where B12 arises solely from this bacterial origin rather than the fish itself.^[49] Minerals are prominent, with calcium sourced from fish bones (often 40-50 mg/100g in sauces, higher in bone-inclusive pastes) and iron contributing to the trace element profile (up to several mg/100g across species). Other key minerals include phosphorus (280-620 mg/100g in pastes) and potassium (up to 700 mg/100g), supporting overall mineral bioavailability enhanced by the acidic fermentation environment.^[44] The caloric density of fermented fish products generally falls between 150 and 300 kcal per 100g, influenced by moisture, protein, and lipid levels, with variations by type—fish sauces around 35-60 kcal/100g and fatty pastes or whole ferments like salmon tipnuk reaching 159-170 kcal/100g. Mackerel-based products, with elevated fat content, approach the upper end of this range due to their lipid-rich profile.^[50]^[51]

Probiotic and Health Effects

Fermented fish products contain live lactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species, which act as probiotics to support gut microbiota balance and enhance digestive health.^[43] These bacteria survive gastrointestinal transit and colonize the intestine, promoting the production of short-chain fatty acids that improve gut barrier function and reduce inflammation.^[52] Clinical studies on fermented foods indicate that probiotic LAB consumption can alleviate symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), including abdominal pain and bloating, by modulating microbial diversity and decreasing pathogenic bacteria.^[53] During fermentation, proteolysis by microbial enzymes breaks down fish proteins into bioactive peptides exhibiting antihypertensive properties through angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition.^[54] These peptides, such as those derived from sardine and tuna in fermented products, competitively bind to ACE, reducing angiotensin II formation and thereby lowering blood pressure in hypertensive models.^[55] In vitro and animal studies confirm their potency, with IC50 values often below 100 μM, positioning them as natural alternatives to synthetic drugs.^[56] Fermentation enhances the antioxidant capacity of fish products by liberating phenolics and generating Maillard reaction products that scavenge free radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation.^[35] These compounds contribute to cardiovascular health by mitigating oxidative stress, which is linked to atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction.^[57] Population-based evidence from Asian cohorts shows that regular intake of salt-fermented fish, including Korean jeotgal, correlates with reduced hypertension prevalence, potentially due to these synergistic probiotic and bioactive effects.^[4]

Health Risks and Safety

Biological Hazards

Biological hazards in fermented fish primarily arise from pathogenic bacteria and spoilage microorganisms that can proliferate under suboptimal fermentation conditions, leading to foodborne illnesses or product deterioration.^[15] Unlike beneficial microbes such as lactic acid bacteria that drive proper fermentation, uncontrolled growth of pathogens like Clostridium botulinum and Vibrio species poses severe risks, particularly in anaerobic or low-acid environments typical of these products.^[58] Clostridium botulinum, especially non-proteolytic type E strains prevalent in aquatic environments, represents a major pathogen in low-acid fermented fish, where toxin production can cause botulism—a potentially fatal neuroparalytic illness.^[59] This bacterium thrives in anaerobic conditions with pH above 5.0, water phase salt below 5%, and temperatures exceeding 3.3°C (38°F), conditions that may occur if fermentation fails to rapidly acidify the product.^[59] Similarly, Vibrio species, including V. parahaemolyticus and V. cholerae, can contaminate under-salted fermented fish, as these halophilic pathogens grow at salt concentrations below 3-5% and pH above 4.8 if acidification is delayed beyond 2-3 days.^[60] Spoilage indicators in fermented fish often manifest as off-odors and flavors due to yeast overgrowth, which can dominate when lactic acid bacteria are insufficient, producing volatile compounds like alcohols and esters that impart undesirable rancid or yeasty smells.^[61] In scombroid species such as mackerel or tuna used in fermentation, bacterial decarboxylation of histidine leads to histamine accumulation, with levels exceeding 500 mg/kg triggering scombroid poisoning—characterized by flushing, headache, and hypotension—due to histamine's role as a potent vasoactive amine.^[62] Key risk factors exacerbating these hazards include insufficient salt levels below 10%, which fail to inhibit many pathogens and allow selective growth of spoilers, as few bacteria proliferate above this threshold in fermented systems.^[63] Temperature fluctuations during fermentation, particularly rises above 10°C, promote pathogen outgrowth and delay pH reduction, heightening toxin formation risks in products like low-salt pastes or sauces.^[59] Outbreak examples underscore these dangers, with multiple botulism incidents in Alaska during the 2010s linked to homemade fermented fish products, such as salmon heads and eggs; between 2001 and 2017, the state reported 90 cases, 28% of the U.S. total, predominantly type E from aquatic ferments.^[64] Notable cases include a 2014 cluster in the Yukon-Kuskokwim region from fermented salmon, a 2015 outbreak affecting five individuals from contaminated fermented seal flipper, and a 2019 outbreak in Nome involving four confirmed cases and five suspected from aged beluga whale flipper.^[65]^[66]^[67]

Chemical and Processing Risks

One significant chemical risk in fermented fish products arises from the accumulation of histamine and other biogenic amines, which form through bacterial decarboxylation of free amino acids during the fermentation process. Bacteria such as Enterobacteriaceae and certain Lactobacillus species convert histidine to histamine, while other amino acids yield tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine.^[68] In fermented fish sauces and pastes, such as Chinese yulu or Korean sand lance sauce, histamine levels can reach 212.8 mg/kg, with total biogenic amines sometimes exceeding 1000 mg/kg, serving as indicators of spoilage or improper fermentation conditions like elevated temperatures.^[68] These compounds pose health risks including scombroid poisoning, characterized by allergic-like reactions such as skin flushing, rashes, headaches, palpitations, and in severe cases, anaphylaxis or respiratory distress, particularly in sensitive individuals or with intakes above 50 mg of histamine.^[69] Heavy metal contamination, particularly mercury, represents another concern, as it bioaccumulates in fish tissues and may concentrate further during the prolonged fermentation period that breaks down proteins and reduces water content. Microorganisms in aquatic environments convert inorganic mercury to the more toxic methylmercury form, which accumulates in predatory or larger fish species used in fermentation, such as tuna or mackerel.^[70] In salted and fermented products like Egyptian feseikh, mercury levels average 0.003 µg/g wet weight, though some samples from retailed salted fish exceed permissible limits for related metals like arsenic, highlighting variability based on source fish and processing.^[71] Chronic exposure through consumption can lead to neurotoxicity, developmental issues in children, and cardiovascular effects, with bioaccumulation amplified in traditional low-tech fermentation methods using contaminated small fish species.^[70] Processing flaws exacerbate these risks, including incomplete fermentation that results in elevated ammonia levels from the breakdown of urea or proteins by anaerobic bacteria, rather than controlled lactic acid pathways. In products derived from urea-rich fish like shark, improper salting or temperature control during spontaneous fermentation releases excessive ammonia, contributing to total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) levels indicative of putrefaction and off-flavors.^[46] High ammonia concentrations in such spoiled products can cause gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, and toxicity upon ingestion, though direct human case studies are limited. Additionally, in some Asian markets, adulteration with formaldehyde (formalin) occurs to extend shelf life and mimic freshness in imported or low-quality fermented fish, with levels up to 46 mg/kg detected in mackerel samples from wet markets.^[72] This practice, common in China, Vietnam, and Indonesia, introduces carcinogenic risks, including nasopharyngeal cancer with chronic exposure, as formaldehyde is a known human carcinogen beyond trace natural amounts.^[73] To mitigate these hazards, regulatory frameworks establish strict limits, such as the European Union's Commission Regulation (EU) No 1019/2013, which caps histamine at 200 mg/kg (mean) and 400 mg/kg (maximum) in most fishery products, including fermented fish sauces where single samples must not exceed 400 mg/kg.^[74] Compliance involves high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) testing and sampling plans requiring at least nine units per batch, with no more than two exceeding the mean limit. Pasteurization or heat treatment during processing helps control bacterial growth to prevent further biogenic amine formation, though it does not degrade existing histamine due to its heat stability.^[74] For heavy metals and adulterants, monitoring source fish quality and enforcing import bans on formalin-treated products reduce overall risks in regulated markets.^[73]

References

[1]
A Comprehensive Review with Future Insights on the Processing ...
As an easily spoiled source of valuable proteins and lipids, fish is preserved by fermentation in many cultures. Over time, diverse types of products have ...
[2]
Fermented fish products in South and Southeast Asian cuisine
Nov 10, 2021 · Consuming fermented fish products is beneficial to human health due to their high levels of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and lactic acid.
[3]
Health benefits and functions of salt-fermented fish
Oct 8, 2024 · Salt-fermented fish, a typical food in many regions of the world, was classified into three types depending on the processing method.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[4]
Something rotten in Scandinavia: The world's earliest evidence of ...
The archaeological site of Norje Sunnansund is dated to around 9600–8600 cal. BP and is located in south-eastern Sweden, on the shores of the ancient Lake Vesan ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
Signs of early settlement in the Nordic region date back to the cradle ...
Feb 8, 2016 · ... 9,200 year-old settlement at what was once a lake in Blekinge, Sweden. “Our findings of large-scale fish fermentation, a traditional way of ...
[6]
Prehistoric Fermentation, Delayed-Return Economies, and the ...
The most conclusive and earliest evidence for prehistoric fermentation is of fish from an Early Mesolithic “gutter” pit feature in southern Scandinavia that was ...
[7]
Seafood in Mediterranean countries: A culinary journey through history
This paper reviews thoroughly how seafood has been present in the dietary practices of the Mediterranean people since ancient Egyptians up to the gastronomic ...
[8]
Mesopotamian Menus - Saudi Aramco World
The Mesopotamians, for example, prepared a fermented sauce, which they called siqqu, from fish, shellfish and grasshoppers for both kitchen and table use.
[9]
Umami and the foods of classical antiquity - ScienceDirect.com
Garum was the primary sauce produced by the hydrolysis of small whole fish or fish innards in the presence of salt through natural fermentation over several ...
[10]
Garum - Sir Thomas Browne
A quicker means of preparation simply was to boil fish in strong brine (salty enough that an egg would float), add some oregano and sapa (grape syrup) if ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods
[11]
Fish Sauce in the Ancient World - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 16, 2018 · Some historians believe fish sauce was introduced to Asia by the Romans via the Silk Road, while others maintain that Asian communities ...
[12]
(PDF) On the origins, diffusion and cultural context of fermented fish ...
A basic reconstruction is made of the origin and diffusion of fermented fish products in East Asia by combining information on the history of human migrations.
[13]
Sauces - Eat My Globe
May 6, 2024 · The fish sauce in Asia goes back as far as 300 BCE in southern China. People there have been making the sauce by taking fish, and meat offal ...<|separator|>
[14]
Fermented and ripened fish products in the northern European ...
This article covers the origin, manufacturing, characteristics, and consumption of traditional fermented fish products
[15]
Fermented fish and fermented fish-based products, an ever-growing ...
Fermented foods are beneficial to human health, since they are rich in bioactive compounds and potentially probiotic microorganisms, moreover, fermentation ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[16]
Fermented fish products in South and Southeast Asian cuisine
Nov 10, 2021 · Throughout history, different cultures have adopted a range of techniques to slow down the bacterial and enzymatic degradation of fish including ...
[17]
https://journalofethnicfoods.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42779-019-0027-1
[18]
[PDF] NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH VALUE OF FISH: THE CASE OF ...
They also provide 37% of the total protein intake and 76% of the animal protein intake (Figure 4).
[19]
India: From salting to fermentation; the art of fish preservation ... - ICSF
Fermented fish preparations are popular in the north-eastern regions of India and are known for their pungent odour. In some parts, the fish, after gutting and ...Missing: Nordic winter
[20]
Scandinavian Fermented Fish: An Ancient Nordic Delicacy
Sep 3, 2025 · The practice of fermenting fish in Scandinavia dates back to medieval times when preservation was essential for survival during long northern ...
[21]
The preservation of fish in olden days - Nordstjernan
Once homely survival food, pungent preserved dishes such as surströmming have evolved into present-day delicacies – for (some) Swedes, anyway... Once homely ...
[22]
(PDF) Chapter 5. The promise of dried and fermented small fish ...
Nov 24, 2023 · The promise of dried and fermented small fish processing to enhance food security and nutrition. November 2023. In book: Small fish for food ...Missing: unreliable | Show results with:unreliable
[23]
A study of the microbiota of the traditional Icelandic fermented fish
Brilliant examples of traditional fermented fish products are represented by surströomming and rakfisk, produced in Sweden and Norway, respectively, and hákarl, ...Missing: integration cuisine
[24]
[PDF] Study on a Few Traditional Fermented Food Practices of Mising ...
Indigenous fermented food of this region is closely connected to practically all aspects of their socio-cultural, and religious ceremonies and ritual events.[4] ...
[25]
Why Fish are Keepers of Souls: Religious Fables, Folklore, Legends ...
At the entrance into shaman's tent Evenkis gave their souls to fishes – fishes were keepers of souls-threads (main) which connect Evenk (Evenk means "human") ...
[26]
Fermented marine foods of the indigenous arctic people (Inuit) and ...
Nov 4, 2024 · This study reviewed traditional fermented fish consumed by the Inuit people and Asians, highlighting various aspects that can offer valuable insights.
[27]
Swedish fermented herring as a marker of rural identity: the Alfta ...
Jun 13, 2019 · Surströmming, a fermented herring, is a symbol of rural identity, expressing values like simplicity and community, and is a counter to urban ...Missing: significance | Show results with:significance
[28]
Ch11 - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Fermented fishery products are susceptible to spoilage through mould or bacterial decay, insect infestation or fragmentation. Their shelf-life depends on salt ...Missing: unreliable | Show results with:unreliable<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
[PDF] Microflora and Processing method of adjuevan, an Ivorian fermented ...
Jun 2, 2014 · ABSTRACT: This study was designed to describe the processing of a traditionally fermented fish named Adjuevan in Côte d'Ivoire.
[30]
The Cultural Heart of Traditional Vietnamese Fermented Foods
Sep 29, 2025 · These foods are not just festive treats; they symbolize prosperity, health, and the renewal of life. The act of preparing and consuming ...
[31]
Traditional and New Microorganisms in Lactic Acid Fermentation of ...
Lactic acid fermentation bacteria cause rapid acidification of the raw material through the production of beneficial organic acids, mainly lactic acid, but also ...
[32]
The Role and Significance of Bacillus and Lactobacillus Species in ...
Halophilic bacteria are mainly involved in the fermentation of ka-pi-plaa. ... Investigation of Kokumi Substances and Bacteria in Thai Fermented Freshwater Fish ( ...
[33]
[PDF] Identification of yeasts associated with the fermented fish, adjuevan ...
PCR-DGGE and DNA sequencing was used to compare yeasts from both methods of production, and they were identified as Kluyveromyces marxianus, Hansenula anomala, ...
[34]
Full article: Proteolysis during fermentation of Suanyu as a ...
Many reports proved proteolysis is caused by endogenous enzymes in muscle together with microbial enzymes of autochthonous microorganisms or starter cultures.
[35]
Bacillus Multi-strain from Malaysian Fish Sauces Demonstrating ...
Aug 17, 2024 · The objective of this study was to isolate halotolerant bacteria from Malaysian fermented fish sauce that demonstrated significant proteolytic, lipolytic, ...
[36]
Fermentation and microflora of plaa-som, a Thai fermented fish ...
Aug 7, 2025 · However, higher salt concentrations within~10-30% are commonly used. ... ... Carbohydrates are required for lactic acid fermentation in fish ...
[37]
Physicochemical characteristics and flavor profiles of fermented fish ...
Apart from proteolysis, lipolysis is also a key factor during the processing because of the release of free fatty acids (FFA), responsible for flavor ...
[38]
A Comprehensive Review with Future Insights on the Processing ...
Nampla, also known as Thai fish sauce, is a clear brown liquid and one of the most exported fermented fish products from Thailand. Stolephrous spp., ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
Fish Sauce - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Fish sauce is manufactured through fermentation process for 3–12 months, in which fish and salt are previously mixed thoroughly at a ratio of 1:3. After 4–6- ...
[40]
[PDF] AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF - Oregon State University
Jun 13, 2022 · Fermentation takes 3 to 12 months for Nouc-mam, Budu, Patis, and Yeesui, 5 to 12 months for Nam-pla, 6 months for Kecap-ikan, and 12 months for ...
[41]
Traditional Fish Sauce Production and Uses - Agriculture Institute
Nov 28, 2023 · The first extraction, done without applying pressure, produces the highest grade of fish sauce – clear, amber-colored, and intensely flavorful.
[42]
Protecting raw resources vital to the future of Vietnam fish sauce - ICSF
The GSO reports that Vietnamese fish sauce productivity last year reached nearly 380 million litres. The fish sauce processing industry has generated jobs for ...
[43]
Investigating the microbiota of fermented fish products (Pla-ra) from ...
Jan 14, 2021 · Pla-ra has a very strong smell, and its salty and sour flavors depend on the amount of salt added and of lactic acid resulting from the ...
[44]
Biochemical and microbial characterization of Ngari and Hentaak
Ngari is a popular fermented fish product of Manipur which is prepared by using sundried salt-free punti fish (Puntius sophore), locally known as phoubu ...Missing: rituals | Show results with:rituals
[45]
Strictly anaerobic halophiles isolated from canned Swedish ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The herring is pre-salted in a saturated salt solution before being fermented in barrels at 15-18 o C for 3-4 weeks, with the head and ...
[46]
Antimicrobial, antioxidant and probiotics characterization of ... - NIH
Mar 30, 2018 · Ngari is comparatively simple fermented food prepared by mixing fish (Puntius sophore) with salt and dried in the sun for 2–4 days, pressed ...<|separator|>
[47]
Compositional analysis and nutritional profiling of southeast Asian ...
Mar 23, 2025 · This study evaluated the nutritional quality of Traditional Southeast Asian fermented fish products, such as fish sauces (Budu, Nampla,) and shrimp pastes.2 Materials And Methods · 3.2 Mineral Analysis · 3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis
[48]
Protein, Essential Amino Acid, and Fatty Acid Composition of Five ...
All the species showed an essential amino acid content of about 50% of total amino acids, while the protein and total fatty acids content varied from 19.9 to ...2. Materials And Methods · 3. Results And Discussion · 3.2. Fatty Acids Profile
[49]
Fermented Fish Foods - The Weston A. Price Foundation
Jan 15, 2016 · The most obvious benefits of fermented fish products are the lactic-acid-producing bacteria (LAB) and other beneficial microbes of fermentation.
[50]
Fatty Acid Compositions in Fermented Fish Products | IntechOpen
Jun 3, 2020 · Consumption of fish have many benefits for human health due to its high content of essential n-3 PUFAs, namely, EPA and DHA [14, 31, 32].The FAs ...1. Introduction · 1.3 Essential Fatty Acids... · 2. Fish Fermentation In...
[51]
Fatty acids composition of traditional salted-fermented and fresh ...
The contents of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were (1.73 and 2.77mg/g) in fermented fish, respectively, compared to (1.46 and 2.28 ...
[52]
Vitamins formed by microorganisms in fermented foods - Frontiers
Overview of water- and fat-soluble vitamins relevant in FF, (A, D, K, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, B12), including their absorption, metabolic activation, ...
[53]
Characterization of Vitamin B 12 Compounds from Commercially ...
Characterization of Vitamin B 12 Compounds from Commercially Available Fish Sauce Products · July 2023 · ACS Food Science & Technology 3(7).
[54]
[PDF] Nutritional and Cultural Significance of Traditional Fermented Fish ...
Apr 30, 2025 · Protein content in these products ranges from 15 to 30 grams per 100 grams, ... Calories (kcal per. 100g). 150-200. 150-200. 120-180. 150-200. 150 ...
[55]
Fish, salmon, tipnuk, fermented (Alaska Native) - 100 g - Nutritionix
Mar 3, 2016 · Calories and other nutrition information for Fish, salmon, tipnuk, fermented (Alaska Native) - 100 g from USDA.Missing: density | Show results with:density
[56]
Fermented Foods, Health and the Gut Microbiome - PMC
Apr 6, 2022 · This review clearly shows that fermented foods can affect the gut microbiome in both the short and long term, and should be considered an important element of ...2. Fermented Food · 2.2. Primary Food... · 3. Health Benefits Of...
[57]
Fermented Foods as Probiotics: A Review - PMC - NIH
This study therefore aims to describe the microorganisms produced by fermented foods suitable for development as probiotics to improve human health.
[58]
Formation and inhibition mechanism of novel angiotensin I ...
Jul 22, 2022 · Angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides from fermented foods exhibit great potential to alleviate hypertension.
[59]
Antihypertensive and Angiotensin-I-Converting Enzyme (ACE)
Varying fish-derived biopeptides, in terms of MW, length and composition, have inhibited the activity of ACE and controlled blood pressure successfully in the ...
[60]
Bioactive Peptides from Muscle Sources: Meat and Fish - PMC - NIH
Since then ACE inhibitory peptides have been found in various fish species, including shellfish, tuna, bonito, salmon and sardine [49,72,73,74,75,91]. There ...
[61]
Effects of Fermentation on Bioactivity and the Composition of ... - NIH
Sep 3, 2023 · Polyphenol-rich fermented foods (PFFs) are reported to have better bioavailability and bioactivity than polyphenol-rich foods.
[62]
Alaska Native Foods | Botulism - CDC
May 3, 2024 · Eating home-fermented foods comes with some risk for botulism. Following these 5 food safety tips when preparing and serving Alaska Native foods.
[63]
[PDF] Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance - FDA
Everyone is susceptible to intoxication by C. botulinum toxin; only a few micrograms of the toxin can cause illness in a healthy adult. Mortality is high;.
[64]
[PDF] The Microbiology of Low-Salt Fermented Fish Products
Foodborne diseases caused by the indigenous, pathogenic species within the. Vibrionaeceae (Vibrio spp., P. shigelloides and A. hydrophila) have mostly been ...
[65]
A Review on Spoilage Microorganisms in Fresh and Processed ...
Jan 18, 2023 · In this paper, we reviewed and discussed the various spoilage microorganisms (molds, yeasts, and bacteria) in fresh and processed fish and fishery products.
[66]
Molecular Mechanisms of Scombroid Food Poisoning - MDPI
In 2020, the FDA determined that a histamine concentration of 500 mg/kg is sufficient to cause SFP. ... Histamine production by Klebsiella pneumoniae and an ...
[67]
Ch04
Table 1 shows that only a few pathogenic organisms can proliferate at salt concentrations higher than 10 percent. However, it is known that many of these ...
[68]
Foodborne Botulism Outbreaks in the United States, 2001–2017
Jul 15, 2021 · States with the largest number of reported cases were Alaska (90 cases, 28%), California (50 cases, 15%) and Ohio (40 cases, 12%). Toxin ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Botulism suspected in death, illnesses in Western Alaska
Aug 18, 2014 · The bacteria can incubate in some traditional Alaska Native foods including fermented "stink heads," which some in the Yukon-Kuskokwim region ...Missing: 2010s homemade
[70]
5 Ill After Eating Fermented Seal Flipper - Alaska Public Media
May 15, 2015 · A batch of botulism-tainted seal oil sickened dozens of people in December in the Bristol Bay region, and early last year, one man died after ...Missing: 2010s homemade
[71]
A narrative review on biogenic amines in fermented fish and meat ...
Salted fermented fish and blue cheese have major health risks ... Public health risks of histamine and other biogenic amines from fish and fishery products.
[72]
Formation of biogenic amines in fish: Dietary intakes and health risk ...
Excessive consumption of fish contaminated with BA might have serious health hazards such as symptoms of histamine poisoning, including rashes, flushing, ...
[73]
Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals - PMC
Micro-organisms convert the mercury present in soil and water into methyl mercury, a toxin which can accumulate with fish age and with increasing trophic levels ...<|separator|>
[74]
Heavy metal contents in salted fish retailed in Egypt - PubMed Central
Sardine, feseikh, and sahlia had the highest quantities of mercury, in that order. A number of samples were found to be above the maximum allowable levels.
[75]
Organoleptic quality and formaldehyde content of mackerel ...
May 4, 2024 · The analyzed mackerel samples had mean formaldehyde concentration of 10.89 ± 2.44 mg/kg and within the range of 0.71–46.01 mg/kg of fish flesh.
[76]
Formaldehyde Detected in Supermarket Fish Imported from Asia
Sep 11, 2013 · A large number of fish imported from China and Vietnam and sold in at least some US supermarkets contain unnatural levels of formaldehyde, a known carcinogen.
[77]
Regulation - 1019/2013 - EN - EUR-Lex
### EU Regulatory Limits for Histamine in Fish Products (Regulation (EU) No 1019/2013)