Five Star Movement
The Five Star Movement (Italian: Movimento 5 Stelle, M5S) is an Italian political party founded in 2009 by comedian and activist Beppe Grillo and web marketer Gianroberto Casaleggio as an anti-establishment initiative promoting direct democracy through online participation, alongside priorities symbolized by its five stars: environmental protection, sustainable development, public water management, right to internet access, and sustainable transport.[1][2] The party experienced rapid growth, capturing 25.6% of the vote in the 2013 general elections to become Italy's second-largest force by parliamentary seats, and peaking at 32.7% in 2018 as the single largest party, which enabled it to co-lead governments under Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte from 2018 to 2021, including coalitions with the League and later the Democratic Party, during which it enacted flagship policies like the citizen's income welfare program providing monthly stipends to low-income households.[3][4] Despite these milestones, the M5S has been marked by significant internal fractures, such as the 2022 departure of former leader Luigi Di Maio amid disputes over foreign policy and power structures, alongside electoral erosion to 10.6% in the 2022 general elections and under 10% in the 2024 European Parliament vote, reflecting voter disillusionment with perceived ideological inconsistencies and governance challenges.[3][5] Under Conte's leadership since 2021, the party has reoriented toward progressive stances on issues like migration and economic redistribution, formally joining the European Parliament's Left group in early 2025 and decisively breaking from Grillo in October 2024 over his alleged disruptive interventions, signaling a transition from its original technocratic roots to a more conventional left-leaning structure amid ongoing support hovering around 12% in national polls.[6][7]History
Origins and Early Activism (2004–2009)
Beppe Grillo, an Italian comedian known for his satirical critiques of politics and environment since the 1970s, intensified his activism through digital means in the mid-2000s. In October 2005, Grillo launched his personal blog, beppegrillo.it, which quickly became a platform for denouncing corruption, inefficiency, and environmental degradation in Italian politics and society.[8] The blog's influence grew rapidly, attracting millions of visitors and fostering online communities that organized local meetups to discuss reforms.[9] By leveraging reader donations, Grillo funded a full-page advertisement in major newspapers on September 1, 2005, amplifying his calls for accountability.[10] The pivotal event in this early phase was the inaugural V-Day on September 8, 2007, announced on Grillo's blog on June 14, 2007. Held primarily in Bologna but streamed to other cities, the rally drew approximately 300,000 participants who signed petitions demanding three key reforms: barring individuals with criminal convictions from holding public office, limiting parliamentary terms to two mandates, and repealing legal immunity for politicians.[11][12] The "V" symbolized "vaffanculo," a vulgar Italian expression directed at the political elite, underscoring the movement's irreverent, anti-establishment tone. A second V-Day followed in 2008 in Turin and Bologna, further mobilizing supporters and collecting over 1.3 million signatures for a referendum on the proposed changes, though Italian law required twice that number for validation.[13] These protests laid the groundwork for formalized political engagement, as Grillo's online followers formed "Amici di Beppe Grillo" citizens' groups that fielded candidates in local elections starting in 2008. On October 4, 2009, Grillo and web strategist Gianroberto Casaleggio officially launched the Five Star Movement (Movimento 5 Stelle), emphasizing five core issues: public water, sustainable transport, development, connectivity, and environmentalism.[14] The movement rejected traditional party structures, promoting direct democracy through online platforms and non-professional candidates selected via primaries. Early activism focused on grassroots opposition to perceived systemic failures, amassing support amid widespread disillusionment with established parties.[2]Local Breakthroughs and Expansion (2010–2012)
In the 2010 regional elections held on March 28–29, M5S fielded candidates in five regions—Piemonte, Lombardia, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, and Campania—securing an average of approximately 3.5% of the vote where it participated, with its strongest performance in Emilia-Romagna at 7% for candidate Giovanni Favia.[15][16] These results marked the movement's initial electoral visibility beyond isolated local lists, drawing support from voters disillusioned with established parties amid Italy's economic stagnation and political scandals.[16] During 2011 local elections, M5S expanded its presence to nearly all major cities in central and northern Italy, as well as about one-third of southern ones, achieving modest vote increases in urban centers like Torino, Milano, and Bologna, though it secured no mayoral victories.[16] This phase reflected growing grassroots organization via online platforms and Beppe Grillo's blog, which mobilized activists through meetups and non-professional candidate selection processes emphasizing transparency and anti-corruption pledges.[2] The pivotal expansion occurred in the May 2012 local elections, where M5S contested 101 municipalities and elected mayors in four northern towns, including Parma, where Federico Pizzarotti won with 19.5% in the first round and prevailed in the runoff against the center-left incumbent.[17][16] It also garnered over 15% in Genova, 11.7% in La Spezia and Alessandria, and 9.5% in Verona, electing 163 councillors nationwide and signaling a "Parma effect" of protest voting against austerity and entrenched elites.[2][18] In October 2012 Sicilian regional elections, M5S obtained 18.2% of the vote, electing 15 assembly members and finishing second behind the center-left.[2][16] These outcomes, driven by Grillo's public rallies and the movement's rejection of public funding, propelled M5S from fringe status to a viable national contender by late 2012.[19]National Surge and 2013 Election
The Five Star Movement experienced a rapid national ascent in 2012, fueled by successes in local elections and growing disillusionment with established parties amid Italy's economic woes. In May 2012, M5S candidates won mayoral races in Parma and other municipalities, marking its first major administrative breakthroughs outside initial strongholds like Turin. These victories, coupled with a 15.3% share in the October 2012 Sicilian regional election—its inaugural regional win—propelled polling support from single digits to approximately 20% by late 2012, reflecting widespread frustration with corruption and austerity policies.[14][20] Beppe Grillo amplified this momentum through the "Tsunami Tour," a nationwide campaign of rallies launched in October 2012 and culminating in February 2013, featuring over 60 stops that drew tens of thousands per event, such as 200,000 attendees in Palermo. Grillo's performances lambasted the political elite as a "caste" detached from citizens, leveraging his blog and online platform to bypass traditional media and mobilize grassroots activists via direct democracy tools. This strategy capitalized on post-2008 recession grievances, including youth unemployment exceeding 30% and stagnant growth, positioning M5S as an anti-establishment alternative unbound by left-right divides.[21][22] In the February 24–25, 2013, general election, M5S secured 25.6% of the vote in the Chamber of Deputies proportional lists, translating to 109 seats out of 630, making it the single largest party by popular vote despite forgoing coalitions ineligible for the majority bonus. In the Senate, it garnered 23.8% and 54 seats out of 315, contributing to a hung parliament as no bloc achieved a majority. The result, dubbed a "tsunami" by Grillo, disrupted traditional alliances; M5S rejected pacts with either the center-left or center-right, insisting on non-compromise governance and refusing support for Enrico Letta's eventual grand coalition, which prolonged instability until April 2013.[3][23][24]Coalition Governments and Internal Strains (2018–2021)
Following the March 4, 2018, general election, in which the Five Star Movement (M5S) emerged as the largest single party, negotiations led to a coalition agreement with the League (Lega) on May 31, 2018, enabling the formation of a populist government.[25] Giuseppe Conte, a law professor with no prior political experience, was sworn in as prime minister on June 1, 2018, heading the so-called "government of change" that emphasized anti-establishment reforms, including M5S flagship policies like a universal basic income and pension reforms.[26] Luigi Di Maio, M5S leader, served as deputy prime minister and minister of economic development, while Matteo Salvini of Lega held the interior portfolio.[25] Tensions within the coalition arose over policy divergences, particularly on fiscal measures and infrastructure projects, exacerbating internal M5S strains as the party compromised on its direct democracy principles to maintain power.[27] Disputes intensified in 2019, with Salvini withdrawing support on August 8, 2019, by tabling a motion of no confidence in Conte, aiming to trigger snap elections where Lega polls showed leads.[28] This collapse highlighted M5S's vulnerability, as its support had declined amid unfulfilled promises and coalition compromises, prompting defections and criticism from founder Beppe Grillo over the party's institutionalization.[29] In response, M5S pivoted to an unlikely alliance with the center-left Democratic Party (PD), reaching an agreement on August 28, 2019, to form a new pro-European coalition under Conte II, sworn in on September 5, 2019.[30] [31] The shift, approved via M5S's online vote despite internal resistance from hardliners viewing PD as establishment, deepened ideological fractures, with accusations of betrayal against M5S's original anti-corruption ethos.[27] Conte's government passed a confidence vote in the Senate on September 9, 2019, but ongoing strains over issues like judicial reforms and economic recovery fueled further dissent.[32] By early 2021, amid the COVID-19 crisis, Conte II faced collapse after Italia Viva's withdrawal in January, leading President Sergio Mattarella to task Mario Draghi with forming a national unity government on February 3, 2021.[33] M5S, under increasing leadership tensions between Conte (who became party head in August 2020) and Grillo, endorsed Draghi's cabinet via online ballot on February 11, 2021, but the decision exposed deep divisions, with about 15% of members dissenting and subsequent expulsions highlighting the party's fracturing cohesion.[34] These coalitions marked M5S's rapid ideological contortions from Euroskeptic populism to technocratic support, eroding its base and amplifying internal power struggles.[3]Leadership Transitions and Electoral Decline (2022–2025)
In June 2022, longstanding internal divisions in the Five Star Movement intensified when Foreign Minister Luigi Di Maio announced his departure from the party on June 21, accusing leader Giuseppe Conte of fostering a "personalistic drift" and undermining support for the Draghi government, particularly regarding aid to Ukraine.[35] [36] Di Maio, who had previously served as M5S political leader from 2017 to 2020, formed a new parliamentary group named "Insieme per il futuro" (Together for the Future), which included 51 deputies and 11 senators defecting from M5S.[37] This schism reduced M5S's parliamentary representation and highlighted fractures over the party's direction under Conte's leadership, which had emphasized opposition to certain Draghi policies despite initial coalition participation.[38] The split contributed to broader instability, culminating in M5S's abstention from a confidence vote on energy security measures on July 13, 2022, which precipitated the collapse of Prime Minister Mario Draghi's national unity government.[39] Conte defended the move as prioritizing citizens' needs amid rising costs, but it isolated M5S from the pro-Draghi majority.[39] Snap general elections followed on September 25, 2022, where M5S secured 15.43% of the proportional vote for the Chamber of Deputies, translating to 52 seats—a halving of its 2018 tally of 32.7% and 227 seats.[40] [41] The party finished third behind Fratelli d'Italia (26%) and the Democratic Party (19%), entering opposition to the centre-right coalition government led by Giorgia Meloni.[41] Post-election, M5S under Conte struggled to regain momentum, with opinion polls consistently placing support between 10% and 11% through 2025.[42] In the June 2024 European Parliament elections, the party received 9.98% of the vote, earning 13 seats but marking a further drop from 17.1% in 2019, and prompting criticism of its ideological repositioning toward the left.[42] [43] Regional and local elections during this period reflected similar erosion, as defections and voter abstention compounded the effects of governance fatigue from prior coalitions and perceived inconsistencies in policy stances on issues like environmentalism and Euroscepticism.[5] Conte retained leadership, focusing on opposition critiques of the Meloni administration, though the party's diminished parliamentary influence limited its agenda-setting power.[44]Ideology and Policy Positions
Foundational Principles: Anti-Corruption and Direct Democracy
The Five Star Movement's anti-corruption stance emerged from Beppe Grillo's early activism, including the 2007 V-day protests that gathered signatures for laws imposing term limits on politicians and abolishing public funding for parties to dismantle entrenched privileges.[45] This principle targets systemic graft in Italian politics, advocating transparency in public spending and ethical codes for adherents, such as public disclosure of expenses and prohibitions on holding multiple offices.[46] The movement's official statute explicitly commits to combating corruption and criminal organizations by eliminating parasitic rents that drain public resources.[47] Central to these efforts is the principle of transparency, integrated into the movement's foundational policy stars, which emphasize accountability to prevent elite capture of state institutions.[1] Anti-corruption measures include proposals to reduce administrative costs and enforce stricter penalties for malfeasance, reflecting a broader rejection of the political class's immunity from consequences.[48] Complementing anti-corruption is the commitment to direct democracy, designed to empower citizens over representative intermediaries prone to corruption. The movement operates without a traditional party statute initially, relying on a "Non Statuto" that prioritizes online participation for decision-making.[1] This approach draws from ideals of popular sovereignty, enabling members to vote directly on policies via digital platforms, bypassing hierarchical structures.[49] The Rousseau platform, launched as the key tool for this system and named after Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the general will, facilitates online voting on legislative proposals, candidate nominations, and internal reforms, aiming to realize continuous citizen input unbound by electoral cycles.[50] By 2013, it had formalized processes for thousands of participants, though implementation revealed tensions between participatory ideals and practical governance demands.[51] These principles collectively seek to restore causal links between voter preferences and policy outcomes, mitigating distortions from corrupt intermediaries through technological mediation and rigorous oversight.Economic Policies: Austerity Critique to Universal Basic Income
The Five Star Movement (M5S) initially critiqued austerity policies as detrimental to Italy's economic recovery following the 2008 financial crisis and the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis. During Mario Monti's technocratic government (2011–2013), which enacted fiscal consolidation measures including pension reforms raising the retirement age to 67 by 2018 and labor market liberalizations under the "Save Italy" decree, M5S portrayed these as exacerbating recession, youth unemployment (peaking at 42.5% in 2014), and public debt-to-GDP ratio (reaching 132% by 2013). [52] [53] The movement argued that EU-mandated austerity stifled growth without addressing structural inefficiencies, aligning with broader anti-establishment sentiment that propelled M5S to 25.6% of the vote in the February 2013 general election. [52] In opposition, M5S advocated redirecting savings from anti-corruption measures and public spending cuts—such as halving parliamentary salaries and eliminating provinces—toward citizen-focused investments rather than creditor demands. [46] This stance evolved into explicit Euroscepticism regarding fiscal rules like the Stability and Growth Pact, with M5S opposing Italy's ratification of the European Stability Mechanism in 2012 as an infringement on sovereignty. [14] By 2018, upon forming a coalition with the League, M5S co-authored a government program pledging to "end austerity" in Italy—the eurozone's third-largest economy—through tax cuts, infrastructure spending, and welfare expansion, while seeking renegotiated EU relations to allow deficit spending up to 3% of GDP without penalties. [54] Central to this shift was the promotion of a universal basic income-like scheme, formalized as reddito di cittadinanza (citizenship income, RdC), a flagship M5S policy promised in Luigi Di Maio's 2018 campaign and implemented via Decree-Law 4/2019 effective March 6, 2019. [55] The RdC targeted households with an ISEE (equivalent economic situation indicator) below €9,360 annually for singles (phasing out up to €6,000 for families), providing monthly cash transfers up to €780 integrated with housing supplements, conditional on active job search via employment centers, acceptance of suitable job offers (after declining two), and 8 hours weekly of community or training activities. [56] [57] By December 2019, it reached 1.34 million households (about 3 million beneficiaries), costing €6.1 billion that year and peaking at €8.5 billion annually by 2021, funded partly by pension contribution cuts and anti-fraud measures. [56] Proponents within M5S, including Di Maio, framed RdC as a causal break from austerity's poverty trap, aiming to reduce absolute poverty (from 7.3% in 2018 to 5.3% in 2020 per ISTAT data) and boost consumption in southern Italy, where uptake was highest. [58] However, empirical assessments revealed limited activation effects: only 4% of recipients transitioned to unsubsidized employment by mid-2020, with critics attributing high costs and dependency risks to weak enforcement and regional disparities in job centers. [56] [59] Unlike unconditional universal basic income models debated in M5S circles since Beppe Grillo's early blogs, RdC's means-testing and obligations aligned more with guaranteed minimum income schemes, diverging from pure universality amid fiscal constraints. [60] The policy's €87 billion total expenditure over 2019–2023 contributed to Italy's public debt rising to 155% of GDP by 2022, prompting EU infringement procedures despite M5S's initial anti-austerity rhetoric. [56] RdC was partially reformed and phased out by the Meloni government in 2024, reflecting ongoing debates over its sustainability. [61]Environmentalism and Sustainability
The Five Star Movement originated with a strong emphasis on environmental protection as one of its foundational "five stars," encompassing sustainable development, alongside public water management, sustainable mobility, environmental quality, and internet access rights. This pillar reflected the movement's early grassroots activism, promoting reduced waste, renewable energy adoption, and opposition to environmentally disruptive mega-projects, such as the Turin-Lyon high-speed rail (NO TAV) in Val di Susa, which it framed as prioritizing ecological preservation over costly infrastructure.[62][63] In opposition, the movement advocated for policies like public referendums to block water privatization and stricter controls on industrial pollution, exemplified by campaigns against the Ilva steel plant in Taranto, which it pledged to decommission due to its emissions of dioxins and heavy metals affecting public health. These positions aligned with a broader critique of unchecked industrialization, favoring decentralized solutions such as community energy initiatives and incentives for solar and wind power to achieve energy independence.[64][65] Upon entering government in 2018, the movement's environmental commitments faced practical constraints, particularly in balancing job preservation with pollution reduction at Ilva, where a deal with ArcelorMittal extended operations under stricter emission limits rather than full closure, drawing criticism from activists for diluting pre-electoral promises and contributing to voter disillusionment in southern regions. Despite this, it advanced some initiatives, including legislation in 2019 to integrate climate change education into school curricula from primary levels and support for the European Green Deal framework, while pushing for a national ecological transition plan emphasizing renewables and circular economy principles.[66][67][68] Post-2021 leadership changes under Giuseppe Conte have reaffirmed sustainability as a core focus, with proposals for accelerated renewable energy deployment, energy communities to combat climate impacts, and opposition to fossil fuel subsidies, positioning the movement against what it terms "fossil governments" while advocating state-led green investments for economic resilience. However, implementation gaps and ideological dilutions in prior coalitions have tempered perceptions of its environmental credibility, as evidenced by declining support in pollution-affected areas like Taranto.[69][65][64]Social Issues: Immigration, Family, and Cultural Policies
The Five Star Movement's immigration policies have emphasized border security, repatriations, and limiting economic burdens from irregular migration, reflecting voter concerns where 49% of supporters viewed immigrants as an economic strain in 2018 surveys.[70] During the 2018–2019 coalition with Lega, M5S endorsed the Salvini Decree (Decree-Law 113/2018), which abolished humanitarian protection permits—previously granted to over 100,000 migrants annually—extended detention in repatriation centers to 18 months, and barred NGO vessels from disembarking rescued migrants at Italian ports without authorization.[71] These measures, implemented from October 2018, reduced initial landings by 90% in late 2018 compared to prior peaks but failed to curb overall irregular entries long-term, with over 11,000 arrivals by mid-2019 and repatriations averaging under 5,000 annually despite aims for higher numbers.[72] Post-2019, after the coalition's collapse, M5S in the Conte II government (2019–2021) backed partial reversals via Decree-Law 130/2020, reintroducing special protection status for vulnerable migrants ineligible for asylum but at risk domestically, covering cases like minors or trafficking victims, though the party initially resisted deeper changes.[73] By 2022–2025, under Giuseppe Conte's leadership, M5S adopted a more moderated tone, criticizing right-wing restrictions while advocating regulated pathways tied to labor needs, aligning with its EU parliamentary shift toward progressive groups, though without abandoning controls on unchecked flows.[74] On family policies, M5S has prioritized financial incentives to address Italy's low birth rate (1.24 children per woman in 2023) and child poverty affecting 25% of minors.[75] The party championed the Assegno Unico e Universale, legislated in 2021 and effective from March 2022, delivering monthly payments of €50–€175 per child under 21 (higher for larger or low-income families and disabled children), replacing fragmented prior bonuses and reaching over 10 million beneficiaries by 2023, which reduced child poverty by 3.4% and overall poverty by 1.5%.[76] This universal measure, decoupled from employment status, supports natalist goals without means-testing all recipients, though uptake varies by region due to administrative hurdles.[77] M5S programs also propose extending mandatory paternity leave beyond the current 10 days to encourage shared caregiving, framing family support as essential for demographic sustainability amid aging populations.[78] Cultural policies remain secondary to core tenets like direct democracy and environmentalism, with M5S advocating preservation of heritage through proposals like a European Agency for Cultural Heritage to standardize protections against decay and illicit trade.[79] In local administrations (e.g., Rome under Virginia Raggi, 2016–2021), approaches mixed cuts to traditional subsidies with digital innovation for access, such as online platforms for civic participation in cultural events, though criticized for underfunding museums and festivals amid budget constraints.[80] The movement's non-ideological stance avoids prescriptive cultural conservatism, instead tying policies to anti-corruption audits of arts funding and grassroots input via online referenda, reflecting its broader rejection of elite-driven narratives in favor of empirical local needs.Foreign Policy: Euroscepticism to Pro-EU Alignment
The Five Star Movement initially adopted a strongly Eurosceptic stance, criticizing the European Union for its perceived bureaucratic overreach, lack of democratic accountability, and imposition of austerity measures on Italy. In its early years, the party, under Beppe Grillo's influence, called for a referendum on Italy's eurozone membership to address what it viewed as the currency's economic harms, with Grillo reiterating this demand as late as July 2018. During the 2013 general election campaign, M5S pledged to renegotiate EU treaties and potentially exit the euro if reforms failed, reflecting a broader anti-establishment critique that positioned the EU as an elite-driven entity detached from national sovereignty. In the European Parliament following the 2014 elections, M5S aligned with the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD) group, alongside the UK Independence Party, emphasizing Eurosceptic priorities like national control over borders and fiscal policy.[81][82] This Euroscepticism persisted into the 2018–2019 coalition government with the League, where M5S contributed to de-Europeanization tendencies, such as advocating for the lifting of EU sanctions on Russia and resisting stricter EU fiscal rules, though internal pragmatism led to moderated rhetoric on outright exit. Tensions arose over budget deficits, with M5S leader Luigi Di Maio clashing with EU commissioners in 2018–2019, yet the party avoided fully endorsing League leader Matteo Salvini's more radical anti-EU positions, signaling early fissures. By 2017, Grillo had proposed leaving the EFDD group, citing misalignment with UKIP's goals, which foreshadowed a tactical pivot toward centrist European alliances, though M5S remained unaffiliated after failing to join the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe.[83][84] A decisive shift toward pro-EU alignment occurred during Giuseppe Conte's second government (2019–2021), formed with the pro-European Democratic Party, where M5S embraced EU integration as a pragmatic necessity amid Italy's economic vulnerabilities. In July 2020, Conte and M5S supported the €750 billion Next Generation EU recovery package, securing approximately €209 billion in grants and loans for Italy to counter COVID-19 impacts, a move that contrasted sharply with prior skepticism by framing EU funds as vital for national revival rather than supranational imposition. This evolution, driven by governing experience and coalition dynamics, saw M5S advocate for reforming the EU from within, including stronger European defense cooperation while opposing national military spending hikes.[85][86] Under Conte's leadership post-2021, M5S has consolidated this pro-EU orientation, joining the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats in the European Parliament after the 2024 elections, prioritizing pacifist and labor-focused policies within a European framework. The party now critiques EU defense initiatives selectively—opposing rearmament plans in March 2025 while favoring collective European security—reflecting a maturation from radical Euroscepticism to conditional support, though remnants of ambiguity persist in emphasizing national vetoes on supranational decisions. This trajectory underscores M5S's ideological flexibility, adapting to power realities while retaining core anti-corruption demands on EU institutions.[87][74][88]Ideological Shifts and Incoherencies
The Five Star Movement (M5S) originated as a non-ideological, anti-establishment entity rejecting traditional left-right dichotomies, emphasizing direct democracy, environmental sustainability, and opposition to political corruption through online platforms and grassroots participation.[89] This foundational posture, articulated by Beppe Grillo and Gianroberto Casaleggio from 2009 onward, positioned M5S as a catch-all protest vehicle appealing to diverse voter grievances amid Italy's economic stagnation post-2008 crisis, without a coherent programmatic core.[14] However, upon entering national governance in 2018, pragmatic necessities induced marked shifts, revealing inherent tensions between populist rhetoric and institutional realities. A primary incoherency emerged in foreign policy, particularly Euroscepticism. Early M5S platforms advocated Euro-exit referendums and criticized EU austerity as elitist imposition, aligning with hard Eurosceptic rhetoric during the 2013-2018 opposition phase.[81] By contrast, after forming coalitions in 2018 and 2019, M5S leaders like Luigi Di Maio and Giuseppe Conte moderated stances, supporting EU recovery funds and judicial cooperation initiatives by 2021, marking a transition from confrontation to integration.[85] This evolution reflected causal pressures of governing within EU constraints rather than ideological conviction, as evidenced by the party's 2017 abandonment of explicit Euro-exit advocacy for electoral viability.[90] Critics attribute such pivots to opportunism, undermining claims of unwavering citizen sovereignty.[14] Economic positions exhibited similar volatility, transitioning from broad anti-austerity critiques to targeted redistributive measures like the 2019 "citizens' income" (reddito di cittadinanza), which provided up to €780 monthly to low-income households but faced implementation flaws, including fraud and dependency incentives.[91] Initially eclectic—blending green growth with fiscal hawkishness—M5S later embraced quasi-socialist elements, such as inequality reduction via public spending, post-2022 under Conte's leadership.[14] Yet, alliances exposed contradictions: partnering with the fiscally conservative League in 2018 necessitated compromises on spending, while the 2019 Democratic Party coalition amplified welfare expansion, diluting the movement's purported ideological neutrality.[89] On immigration, M5S displayed ambivalence, initially endorsing restrictive measures in the 2018 League coalition, including port closures under Matteo Salvini's interior ministry, which reduced arrivals by 80% from 2017 peaks.[92] Subsequent shifts toward openness, evident in Conte's 2021-2022 government support for labor regularization and EU-wide pacts, alienated base voters favoring controls, highlighting a disconnect between online referendums and elite decisions.[93] This pattern of adaptation—framed as pragmatism but critiqued as lacking principled consistency—stemmed from electoral calculations and coalition dependencies, eroding the movement's anti-system purity.[74] Broader incoherencies arose from M5S's self-proclaimed non-partisanship clashing with realpolitik: allying sequentially with right-wing nationalists (2018) and center-left Democrats (2019-2021) forced policy dilutions, such as environmental compromises on infrastructure like the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline despite foundational greenism.[94] Internal purges and leadership centralization under figures like Di Maio further contradicted direct democracy ideals, as online votes often ratified top-down directives.[95] By 2024-2025, a leftward reorientation—including EU Parliament affiliation with the Left group and pacifist stances—signaled further drift, prioritizing survival over coherence amid declining support from 32% in 2018 to under 10% in recent polls.[74] These shifts, while enabling short-term gains, underscored causal realism: populist movements institutionalize by moderating extremes, yet risk alienating core identifiers through evident opportunism.[3]Organization and Leadership
Decentralized Structure and Online Participation
The Five Star Movement (M5S) was structured as a non-partisan political movement without formal membership fees or traditional party offices, emphasizing a decentralized, horizontal organization where decisions were purportedly made through online consultation among participants.[96] Founded in 2009 by comedian Beppe Grillo and web strategist Gianroberto Casaleggio, the M5S rejected hierarchical party apparatuses, operating instead via local "meet-up" groups and Grillo's personal blog as primary communication channels.[20] Grillo served as the unelected "guarantor," a role that granted him veto power over candidates and expulsions, contradicting claims of pure non-hierarchy despite the movement's slogan "one person, one vote."[97] Online participation formed the core of the M5S's direct democracy model, with Grillo's blog (beppegrillo.it) functioning as a central hub for mobilizing supporters through V-Day protests and policy discussions starting in the mid-2000s.[46] This evolved into the Rousseau platform, launched in 2017 by the Casaleggio Associati firm and managed by the Associazione Rousseau, which enabled certified users to vote online on candidate selections, program amendments, and internal rules via certified digital identities.[98] For instance, in 2013, online primaries selected parliamentary candidates, with over 220,000 participants endorsing the movement's non-conviction rule for elected officials.[99] However, participation rates often remained low, with analyses showing average Rousseau voters dropping from peaks in 2013 to under 50,000 by 2018, raising questions about representativeness amid a certified base exceeding 150,000.[49] The decentralized ethos extended to local governance, where M5S councils in cities like Parma operated through citizen assemblies and online petitions rather than top-down directives, though national decisions frequently overrode local input.[100] By 2021, internal tensions led to a rupture with the Rousseau platform; the M5S leadership accused the association of undue interference in a vote on government alliances, prompting the movement to develop its own system and retain control over participant data.[101] This shift highlighted causal dependencies on proprietary technology, where platform ownership by Casaleggio-linked entities concentrated influence despite decentralization rhetoric.[50] Critics, including political scientists, have noted that while online tools fostered initial activist engagement—transforming participants' views toward greater distrust of representative institutions—the model's reliance on Grillo's charisma and selective expulsions undermined true horizontality.[100] Empirical data from platform logs indicate unequal participation, with a small core of frequent users dominating votes, akin to patterns in other digital deliberative experiments.[102] As of 2023, the M5S continued experimenting with mobile apps like Rousseau X for broader access, but declining engagement reflected challenges in sustaining digital direct democracy amid scaling to national governance.[103]Key Leaders and Power Dynamics
The Five Star Movement was co-founded on October 4, 2009, by comedian and activist Beppe Grillo alongside IT entrepreneur Gianroberto Casaleggio, who served as the party's web strategist until his death in 2016.[97] Grillo functioned as the movement's guarantor, holding veto power over decisions and unilaterally expelling members for public criticism, which underscored a hierarchical structure belying claims of pure direct democracy.[97] This authority enabled Grillo to shape the party's direction through his blog and online platforms, maintaining control despite the decentralized rhetoric.[104] Luigi Di Maio emerged as the political leader following the 2017 internal election, serving until his resignation on January 22, 2020, amid rising defections and electoral pressures that threatened party unity.[105] During his tenure, Di Maio navigated coalition governments, including the 2018 alliance with the League, but faced challenges from Grillo's overriding influence and internal factionalism.[106] His departure highlighted power struggles, as he later split in June 2022 to form a new faction, further fragmenting the movement.[107] Giuseppe Conte assumed leadership in August 2021 after an online vote, transitioning from his prior role as prime minister in M5S-led coalitions to consolidate authority as party president.[44] Under Conte, the party underwent reforms diminishing Grillo's veto powers by November 2024, aligning more explicitly with progressive positions and reducing the founder's influence amid electoral declines.[108] This shift reflected ongoing tensions between the original anti-establishment ethos and pragmatic governance needs, with Conte centralizing decision-making to stabilize the organization.[109] Power dynamics within M5S have evolved from Grillo's charismatic dominance, enforced through expulsions and blog-mediated votes, to a more institutionalized model under Conte, though internal purges and splits persist as mechanisms to enforce loyalty.[110] Despite online participation tools, leadership has retained de facto control, leading to accusations of elitism contradicting populist ideals, as evidenced by over a dozen high-profile expulsions since inception.[14] Recent alignments, such as joining the left-wing group in the European Parliament in 2024, illustrate Conte's strategic maneuvering to reposition the party amid declining support.[111]Internal Conflicts, Purges, and Reforms
![Luigi Di Maio in 2018][float-right] The Five Star Movement experienced significant internal tensions from its early years, characterized by expulsions of dissenting members enforced unilaterally by co-founder Beppe Grillo. In June 2013, Senator Adele Gambaro was expelled after publicly criticizing Grillo's leadership style and the party's poor performance in local elections, highlighting accusations of autocratic control. Similarly, regional councillor Giovanni Favia faced expulsion following a televised critique of the movement's centralized power dynamics in October 2012, with Grillo advocating for his removal via online vote. By mid-2014, at least 14 senators and 5 deputies had either quit or been expelled, often citing objections to Grillo's dominant role, which contradicted the group's professed commitment to direct democracy.[112][113][114] Leadership transitions aimed to address these conflicts but introduced new fractures. Grillo stepped back from daily operations in January 2018, elevating Luigi Di Maio as political leader while retaining veto powers as "guarantor." Di Maio's tenure saw a 2017 non-statute formalizing online voting, yet purges persisted, such as the 2020 expulsion of Senator Gregorio De Falco for defying party lines. Giuseppe Conte assumed leadership in August 2021 after winning an online ballot, ushering in a 2021-2022 statute that centralized authority further under a political leader and directorate, reducing some of Grillo's influence but prioritizing hierarchical decision-making over pure grassroots input.[115][116] A pivotal rupture occurred on June 21, 2022, when Foreign Minister Luigi Di Maio resigned from the movement, accusing Conte of fostering division and undermining government unity on issues like military aid to Ukraine. Di Maio formed the "Together for the Future" group, taking approximately 50 deputies and senators with him, depriving M5S of its parliamentary majority and exacerbating electoral decline. This schism stemmed from broader disagreements over Conte's assertive style and policy shifts, including resistance to Draghi's pro-NATO stance.[35][37][117] Subsequent reforms under Conte sought to stabilize the party amid ongoing dissent, including expulsions of parliamentarians who voted against the 2021 Draghi confidence motion. In November 2024, M5S members voted to sever formal ties with Grillo, stripping his guarantor role and approving changes to reduce centralized vetoes, while rejecting a ban on alliances with other parties to enable potential coalitions. These adjustments, part of an assembly process, reflect efforts to evolve from Grillo-era rigidity toward a more conventional structure, though critics argue they perpetuate internal elitism despite populist rhetoric.[118][119][120]Electoral Performance and Impact
General and Regional Elections
The Five Star Movement contested its first Italian general election on 24–25 February 2013, receiving 25.56% of the valid votes for the Chamber of Deputies and securing 109 seats out of 630, making it the largest single party despite lacking a governing majority.[121] This result reflected widespread voter dissatisfaction with traditional parties amid economic stagnation following the 2008 financial crisis, positioning the Movement as a protest force against corruption and inefficiency.[122] No coalition formed with M5S, leading to a centre-left minority government under Enrico Letta. In the 4 March 2018 general election, M5S achieved its electoral peak with 32.68% of the proportional vote for the Chamber, translating to 10,727,567 votes and 227 seats. As the plurality party, it entered a coalition with the League (Lega), enabling Giuseppe Conte to become prime minister on 1 June 2018; this populist government lasted until August 2019.[123] The outcome stemmed from M5S's appeal to southern voters through promises of income supplements and anti-elite rhetoric, though northern support shifted toward the League.[124] The Movement's fortunes reversed in the 25 September 2022 snap general election, where its vote share fell to approximately 15.4% amid internal divisions and policy compromises during prior coalitions.[125] Running within a centre-left alliance, M5S secured 52 seats in the reduced 400-seat Chamber, a sharp decline attributed to voter migration to Fratelli d'Italia and disillusionment over unfulfilled pledges like universal basic income.[126]| Year | Election Date | Vote Share (Chamber Proportional) | Seats (Chamber) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2013 | 24–25 Feb | 25.56% | 109/630 |
| 2018 | 4 Mar | 32.68% | 227/630 |
| 2022 | 25 Sep | ~15.4% | 52/400 |
European Parliament Results
In the 2014 European Parliament election on 25 May, the Five Star Movement achieved a breakthrough performance, capturing 5,807,260 votes or 21.16% of the national total, which translated into 17 seats out of Italy's 73 allocated to the Parliament.[132] [133] These elected members initially affiliated with the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFDD) group, aligning the party with Eurosceptic and libertarian-leaning forces. The result marked the party's strongest showing in a national election at the time, reflecting widespread anti-establishment sentiment amid economic stagnation and distrust in traditional parties.[134] The 2019 election on 26 May saw a decline, with the Movement securing 4,576,010 votes or 17.08%, yielding 14 seats out of Italy's expanded allocation of 76.[135] The MEPs started as non-attached members, without immediate group affiliation, amid internal debates over European integration. This outcome, while still placing third nationally behind the Lega and Democratic Party, indicated early erosion of support, coinciding with governance challenges from the prior year's national coalition.[136] By the 2024 election on 8–9 June, support had further diminished to 1,486,775 votes or 9.90%, resulting in 5 seats out of 76.[137] [138] The delegation joined The Left group (GUE/NGL), signaling a leftward pivot in alliances.[7] Voter turnout stood at 49.69%, with the Movement's reduced share reflecting fragmentation of its base toward both center-left and right-wing alternatives.[137]| Election Year | Vote Share (%) | Votes Received | Seats Won (out of Italy's total) | EP Group Affiliation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2014 | 21.16 | 5,807,260 | 17 (73) | EFDD |
| 2019 | 17.08 | 4,576,010 | 14 (76) | Non-attached |
| 2024 | 9.90 | 1,486,775 | 5 (76) | The Left (GUE/NGL) |