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Flecainide

Flecainide acetate is a class Ic antiarrhythmic medication approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1985 for the prevention and treatment of certain abnormal heart rhythms, particularly paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias (PSVTs) and life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in patients without structural heart disease.^[1]^[2] As a potent sodium channel blocker, it primarily acts by inhibiting fast-inward sodium currents in cardiac myocytes, which slows conduction velocity, prolongs the action potential duration, and increases myocardial refractoriness, thereby suppressing tachyarrhythmias.^[3]^[2] Flecainide exhibits nearly complete oral bioavailability, a half-life of 12 to 27 hours in patients with normal renal function, and is metabolized mainly by the CYP2D6 enzyme, with about 40% protein binding in plasma.^[3] Clinically, flecainide is indicated for acute and chronic management of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter, atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT), atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT), and symptomatic premature ventricular contractions or nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, though its use is restricted to those without ischemic heart disease, heart failure, or prior myocardial infarction due to heightened proarrhythmic risks.^[3]^[2] The drug's efficacy in rhythm control is supported by studies showing high conversion rates for recent-onset atrial fibrillation (up to 90% within hours) and maintenance of sinus rhythm, often comparable to or better than alternatives like propafenone or amiodarone.^[2] Off-label applications include pharmacological cardioversion, treatment of catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), and fetal arrhythmias.^[2] Dosing typically starts at 50 to 100 mg orally every 12 hours, titrated up to 400 mg daily based on response and ECG monitoring, with therapeutic plasma levels between 0.2 and 1.0 mcg/mL.^[3] Despite its benefits, flecainide carries significant safety concerns, including a narrow therapeutic index and potential for negative inotropic effects that can exacerbate heart failure or cause conduction abnormalities like QRS widening and PR prolongation.^[3]^[2] The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) in the 1980s was prematurely halted after demonstrating increased arrhythmic death or nonfatal cardiac arrest (5.1% vs. 2.3% placebo) in post-myocardial infarction patients due to proarrhythmic events, leading to strict contraindications in structural heart disease.^[4]^[2] Common adverse effects encompass dizziness (up to 30%), visual disturbances, headache, and dyspnea, while serious risks include ventricular proarrhythmia, torsades de pointes, and sudden cardiac death, necessitating baseline ECG assessment and ongoing monitoring.^[3]^[2] Overdose can result in fatal seizures, hypotension, and arrhythmias, with no specific antidote available beyond supportive care and sodium bicarbonate for sodium channel blockade reversal.^[3]

Clinical use

Indications

Flecainide is approved for the prevention of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias (PSVTs), including atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) and atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT) associated with accessory pathways such as in Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, in patients without structural heart disease who experience disabling symptoms.^[5] It is also indicated for the prevention of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter (PAF) in patients without structural heart disease, where symptoms are significant and non-pharmacologic options are unsuitable.^[5] Additionally, flecainide is approved for the prevention of life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias, such as sustained ventricular tachycardia, but its initiation requires in-hospital monitoring due to proarrhythmic risks.^[5] These uses focus on rhythm control by stabilizing cardiac membranes through sodium channel blockade, particularly in individuals with normal left ventricular function.^[3] Off-label applications include the acute conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation, often via intravenous administration in emergency settings, and prophylaxis against certain pediatric arrhythmias, such as fetal supraventricular tachycardia treated transplacentally.^[3] In catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), flecainide has shown efficacy in suppressing exercise-induced arrhythmias, with response rates around 76% in genotype-positive patients.^[3] Patient selection emphasizes those with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction and no significant structural heart disease, as flecainide is not recommended as first-line therapy for atrial fibrillation due to the need for concurrent anticoagulation to mitigate stroke risk.^[3] Recent observational studies up to 2025 suggest cautious expansion of use in select patients with structural heart disease, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or nonobstructive coronary artery disease without prior ventricular tachycardia, where traditional contraindications may be revisited based on emerging safety data.^[6]^[7]

Dosage and administration

Flecainide is primarily administered orally for the management of arrhythmias, with dosing tailored to the specific arrhythmia type and patient response. For adults with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) or paroxysmal atrial fibrillation/flutter (PAF), the typical starting dose is 50 mg twice daily, which may be increased by 50 mg twice daily every four days until efficacy is achieved, not exceeding 300 mg per day.^[8] For patients with sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT), the initial dose is 100 mg twice daily, titrated upward in similar increments to a maximum of 400 mg per day, though most patients require no more than 150 mg twice daily.^[8] Dose adjustments should be made gradually, considering the drug's half-life of 12 to 27 hours, which influences the twice-daily dosing interval.^[3] In pediatric patients (1 month or older), the initial dose is 3 mg/kg/day orally divided every 8 hours, which may be increased to a maximum of 6 mg/kg/day based on arrhythmia control and tolerability. Use and dose must be determined by a healthcare provider.^[8] These regimens are typically used for supraventricular arrhythmias, with further adjustments based on clinical response and electrocardiographic findings. For acute settings where an intravenous formulation is available, flecainide may be administered as a 1 to 2 mg/kg bolus over 10 to 30 minutes, followed by an infusion if needed for rhythm conversion, though this is not approved in the United States and requires ECG monitoring.^[9] Dose reductions are necessary in special populations to prevent toxicity. In severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance ≤35 mL/min/1.73 m²), the starting dose should be halved to 50 mg twice daily or 100 mg once daily, with frequent plasma level monitoring.^[8] For hepatic impairment, dosing should be conservative with early plasma monitoring due to reduced clearance, and in patients with congestive heart failure or myocardial dysfunction, the initial dose should not exceed 100 mg twice daily.^[8] Monitoring is essential for safe administration. Baseline and periodic electrocardiograms (ECGs) are required to evaluate for PR interval prolongation and QRS complex widening, which indicate potential toxicity.^[3] Plasma concentration monitoring is recommended in renal or hepatic impairment, targeting a therapeutic range of 0.2 to 1.0 mcg/mL (200 to 1000 ng/mL), as levels above 1.0 mcg/mL increase the risk of adverse effects.^[8] The duration of therapy varies by indication: long-term use for chronic arrhythmia prophylaxis, with possible dose tapering once control is maintained, and short-term administration for pharmacological conversion of acute rhythms.^[8] Initiation in a hospital setting with continuous rhythm monitoring is advised for patients with sustained VT.^[8]

Contraindications

Flecainide is contraindicated in patients with pre-existing second- or third-degree atrioventricular (AV) block or bifascicular block (right bundle branch block associated with left hemiblock) unless a pacemaker is present.^[5] It is also contraindicated in cases of cardiogenic shock and known hypersensitivity to the drug.^[5] Additionally, use is prohibited in patients with structural heart disease, including left ventricular dysfunction (ejection fraction less than 40%), due to the risk of sudden death and cardiac arrest.^[3] Flecainide should not be used in patients with recent myocardial infarction (within 6 months) or chronic atrial fibrillation accompanied by significant heart failure, as it may exacerbate these conditions.^[5] Relative contraindications include sinus node dysfunction (sick sinus syndrome), isolated bundle branch block, and concurrent administration with other class I antiarrhythmic agents, owing to heightened risk of conduction disturbances and proarrhythmia.^[3] In pregnancy, flecainide is classified as FDA category C, with animal studies indicating potential teratogenic effects and limited human data suggesting fetal risks such as heart rate variability; it should be avoided unless benefits outweigh potential harm.^[10] The contraindications in post-myocardial infarction patients stem from the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) conducted in 1989, which demonstrated a 2.5-fold increased risk of death from arrhythmia or cardiac arrest (relative risk 2.5, 95% confidence interval 1.6-4.1) in patients treated with flecainide for asymptomatic ventricular ectopy compared to placebo, based on rates of 7.7% vs. 3.0%. Subsequent full analysis confirmed higher annual rates of arrhythmic death or non-fatal cardiac arrest with flecainide (5.1% versus 2.3% in placebo), leading to early termination and restricted use.^[11]^[4] Precautions include avoiding flecainide in elderly patients due to reduced renal clearance and prolonged half-life, necessitating plasma level monitoring.^[5] All patients require ongoing electrocardiographic monitoring for proarrhythmic effects, particularly those with any underlying conduction abnormalities.^[3]

Adverse effects

Common side effects

Common side effects of flecainide, occurring in more than 1% of patients, are primarily non-life-threatening and often affect the neurological, visual, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular systems, as reported in clinical trials and post-marketing surveillance.^[12] These effects are typically dose-dependent, with higher incidences observed at doses of 400 mg/day or greater.^[13] Neurological adverse effects are among the most frequent, including dizziness affecting approximately 19% of patients, headache in approximately 10%, and fatigue in about 8%.^[14]^[15]^[5] Visual disturbances, such as blurred vision or spots before the eyes, occur in about 16% of users and are attributed to corneal deposits that develop with prolonged use.^[14]^[12] Gastrointestinal symptoms encompass nausea in around 10% and constipation in 1-5% of patients.^[15]^[13] Cardiovascular manifestations include palpitations in about 6% and mild hypotension, though these are less common than neurological issues.^[12] Incidence rates for these side effects are derived from pivotal clinical trials, such as those involving over 400 patients with ventricular arrhythmias, and post-marketing data, where dizziness and visual changes were the leading complaints leading to discontinuation in 6-10% of cases.^[12]^[14] Most common side effects are reversible upon dose reduction or discontinuation, with many resolving spontaneously as therapy continues due to their intermittent nature.^[16]

Serious adverse effects

Flecainide, a class Ic antiarrhythmic agent, carries significant risks of proarrhythmic effects, including the development of new-onset ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF), with an overall incidence estimated at 3.5-5% in treated patients. This risk is substantially higher in individuals with structural heart disease, where rates can exceed 10% for certain arrhythmias like chronic atrial fibrillation, and is highlighted by the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST), which demonstrated a 5.1% rate of excessive mortality or non-fatal cardiac arrest compared to 2.3% with placebo in post-myocardial infarction patients. Additionally, flecainide can facilitate 1:1 atrioventricular conduction during atrial flutter, paradoxically leading to rapid ventricular rates that may precipitate hemodynamic instability.^[5]^[17]^[18] Serious cardiac complications beyond proarrhythmia include exacerbation of heart failure and, in susceptible patients, cardiogenic shock due to flecainide's negative inotropic effects. New or worsened congestive heart failure occurs in approximately 0.4% of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias but rises to 6.3% in those with sustained VT and up to 25.7% in patients with a history of VT and preexisting heart failure, particularly those with severe impairment (New York Heart Association class III/IV) or ejection fraction below 30%.^[5]^[3] Pulmonary toxicity manifests as rare interstitial lung disease or pneumonitis, with an incidence less than 1%, often presenting with dyspnea and radiographic evidence of fibrosis or infiltrates after chronic use. Case reports document subacute onset, with histological patterns such as acute fibrinous and organizing pneumonia, and resolution typically follows drug withdrawal, underscoring its reversible nature in most instances.^[5]^[19]^[20] Other severe effects include hepatic toxicity, characterized by elevated liver enzymes or, rarely, cholestasis and hepatic failure requiring discontinuation if jaundice emerges, and blood dyscrasias such as agranulocytosis, which is extremely uncommon but documented in isolated cases with immune-mediated mechanisms.^[5]^[21]^[22] Key risk factors for these serious adverse effects encompass structural heart disease, electrolyte imbalances like hypokalemia, female sex, and concurrent ischemic cardiomyopathy, the latter prompting a black box warning due to CAST findings of increased mortality. High plasma levels exceeding 1 mcg/mL further amplify proarrhythmic and hemodynamic risks, particularly in patients with renal or hepatic impairment.^[5]^[3]^[23]

Management of adverse effects

Management of adverse effects associated with flecainide involves proactive monitoring, targeted interventions, and patient education to minimize risks and ensure timely response. Regular electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring is essential, typically performed every 3 to 6 months, to detect QRS complex widening greater than 20% from baseline, which signals potential conduction abnormalities requiring dose adjustment. Holter monitoring is recommended for assessing proarrhythmic effects, especially in patients experiencing palpitations or syncope suggestive of arrhythmias. If respiratory symptoms such as dyspnea arise, pulmonary function tests should be conducted promptly to evaluate for interstitial lung disease (ILD).^[24]^[25]^[26] Interventions for adverse effects focus on symptom-specific strategies. For frequent non-cardiac issues like dizziness and visual disturbances, initial steps include dose reduction; if symptoms persist, discontinuation of flecainide is advised to prevent progression. Proarrhythmia, a serious concern, is managed by correcting underlying electrolyte imbalances, such as hypokalemia or hyponatremia, which can exacerbate conduction delays and arrhythmias. In cases of flecainide-induced ILD, prompt drug discontinuation combined with corticosteroid therapy, typically prednisone at 1 mg/kg/day, leads to favorable outcomes in most patients.^[27]^[28]^[19] Discontinuation protocols emphasize safety to avoid complications. For patients on long-term therapy, gradual tapering is preferred over abrupt cessation to mitigate the risk of rebound arrhythmias, with hospitalization considered if withdrawal could precipitate life-threatening events. Serious cardiac adverse effects, such as ventricular tachycardia, necessitate immediate hospitalization, where supportive measures including alternative antiarrhythmics or defibrillation may be required.^[29] Patient education plays a critical role in early detection. Individuals should be instructed to report symptoms like chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, or vision changes immediately to facilitate rapid intervention. Annual eye examinations are recommended for long-term users to monitor for corneal deposits, even if asymptomatic.^[30]^[31]

Drug interactions

Pharmacokinetic interactions

Flecainide is primarily metabolized by the cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) enzyme, and inhibitors of this pathway can significantly elevate its plasma concentrations, potentially leading to toxicity. For instance, potent CYP2D6 inhibitors such as quinidine, fluoxetine, and paroxetine increase flecainide levels by inhibiting its metabolism, with quinidine capable of raising concentrations substantially in extensive metabolizers.^[5]^[32]^[33] In poor CYP2D6 metabolizers, who comprise approximately 7% of the Caucasian population, flecainide clearance is reduced by about 42%, extending the elimination half-life from a typical 12-27 hours to over 30 hours, necessitating dose reductions of up to 50% to maintain therapeutic levels.^[34] Guidelines recommend reducing the flecainide dose by 50% in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers and monitoring plasma concentrations closely.^[35] Other drugs that impair flecainide clearance include amiodarone and cimetidine, which prolong its half-life and increase plasma levels through combined metabolic and renal effects. Amiodarone can double or more than double flecainide concentrations, prompting a recommended 50% dose reduction when co-administered, along with vigilant monitoring.^[5]^[36] Cimetidine raises flecainide levels by approximately 30% and extends the half-life by about 10%, particularly relevant in patients with polypharmacy.^[5] In renal impairment, where creatinine clearance is ≤35 mL/min/1.73 m², flecainide elimination is markedly slowed due to its 40% renal excretion as unchanged drug, requiring initial dosing at 100 mg once daily or 50 mg twice daily with frequent adjustments based on trough levels (target 0.2-1 mcg/mL).^[5]^[3] Regarding absorption, flecainide exhibits nearly complete oral bioavailability of over 90%, which remains unaffected by food intake.^[5] Antacids, including aluminum hydroxide formulations, do not alter its absorption rate or extent.^[5] However, in infants, milk may inhibit absorption, warranting dose consideration if formula replaces breastfeeding.^[5] Due to these interactions, plasma level monitoring is essential in patients on multiple medications, those with renal or hepatic impairment, or when initiating CYP2D6 inhibitors or amiodarone, to avoid exceeding 1 mcg/mL and minimize proarrhythmic risks.^[5]^[3]

Pharmacodynamic interactions

Flecainide, as a class Ic antiarrhythmic agent, exhibits pharmacodynamic interactions with other antiarrhythmics that primarily involve additive effects on cardiac conduction and repolarization. When combined with class Ia agents such as quinidine, flecainide enhances sodium channel blockade, leading to greater prolongation of the QRS complex and increased risk of torsades de pointes due to cumulative proarrhythmic potential.^[37] Similarly, coadministration with other class Ic drugs like propafenone amplifies conduction slowing in the His-Purkinje system, heightening the likelihood of ventricular arrhythmias; such combinations are generally avoided to prevent excessive electrophysiological depression.^[37] Interactions with AV nodal-blocking agents, including beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol) and non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (e.g., verapamil), result in synergistic suppression of atrioventricular conduction. This additive effect on the AV node is therapeutically beneficial for rate control in atrial fibrillation, as it mitigates the risk of rapid ventricular response during organized atrial arrhythmias, but it necessitates close monitoring of the PR interval to prevent excessive bradycardia or high-degree AV block.^[36] With digoxin, flecainide's mild enhancement of AV nodal slowing combines with digoxin's vagotonic effects, potentially increasing the risk of bradyarrhythmias, particularly in patients with underlying conduction abnormalities; although a pharmacokinetic component contributes to elevated digoxin levels, the pharmacodynamic synergy on cardiac electrophysiology warrants dose adjustments and serial ECG assessments.^[38] Sympathomimetics, such as albuterol or epinephrine, can interact adversely with flecainide by augmenting sympathetic drive, which may provoke ventricular arrhythmias in the setting of sodium channel blockade and slowed conduction.^[39] Overall clinical guidance emphasizes mandatory ECG monitoring during initiation or adjustment of these combinations, with particular caution in high-risk patients; concomitant use of flecainide with class III antiarrhythmics like sotalol may increase the risk of torsades de pointes due to effects on cardiac repolarization and requires careful monitoring, including ECG assessments.^[36]

Overdose and toxicity

Symptoms

Flecainide overdose manifests primarily through severe cardiac conduction disturbances due to excessive sodium channel blockade, leading to amplified proarrhythmic effects similar to but more exaggerated than those seen in serious adverse effects at therapeutic doses.^[40] Cardiac symptoms include severe bradycardia, atrioventricular block, widening of the QRS complex often exceeding 200 ms, prolongation of the QT interval, ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation, and potentially asystole or pulseless electrical activity.^[41]^[42]^[43] Neurological manifestations arise from sodium channel blockade in the central nervous system and may include seizures and progression to coma.^[40]^[43] Other systemic signs encompass nausea, vomiting, hypotension, and electrolyte disturbances such as hypokalemia, which can further exacerbate toxicity.^[40]^[42] Toxicity can occur at supratherapeutic plasma concentrations above 1.0 mcg/mL, with severe cases often exceeding 1.5 mcg/mL; acute ingestion of more than 1 g in adults considered life-threatening and associated with mortality rates of 10-22%.^[44]^[40]^[41] Vulnerable populations include children, who are at higher risk from accidental ingestion leading to rapid accumulation, and patients with renal impairment due to reduced drug clearance.^[44]^[42]

Treatment

The initial management of flecainide overdose prioritizes the ABCs (airway, breathing, circulation) to ensure hemodynamic stability and oxygenation.^[40] For recent ingestions within 2 hours, administration of activated charcoal (1 g/kg orally) is recommended to reduce absorption, while gastric lavage is rarely indicated due to limited efficacy and risks unless performed very early.^[45] Cardiac-specific interventions target flecainide's sodium channel blockade, with intravenous sodium bicarbonate as the cornerstone therapy; an initial bolus of 1-2 mEq/kg is administered, followed by infusion to maintain serum pH 7.45-7.55 and narrow QRS complexes.^[40] In refractory cases with persistent instability, intravenous lipid emulsion therapy (1.5 mL/kg 20% bolus, then 0.25 mL/kg/min infusion) may be considered to enhance myocardial recovery.^[46] For arrhythmias, temporary pacing is indicated for severe bradycardia or conduction delays, while lidocaine (1-1.5 mg/kg IV) or magnesium sulfate (2 g IV over 10 minutes) can be used for ventricular tachyarrhythmias; other class I antiarrhythmic agents should be avoided to prevent exacerbation of sodium channel effects.^[47] Supportive measures include continuous electrolyte monitoring and correction (particularly potassium and magnesium), with hemodialysis ineffective due to flecainide's large volume of distribution (>8 L/kg) and moderate protein binding (approximately 40%).^[48] Ventilatory support, such as intubation and mechanical ventilation, is essential for seizures or respiratory compromise.^[40] Patients with flecainide overdose typically require intensive care unit admission for close monitoring, with survival rates exceeding 75% when early intervention is provided, though mortality can reach 22.5% in severe cases without prompt treatment.^[49]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Flecainide is classified as a class Ic antiarrhythmic agent according to the Vaughan-Williams system, primarily exerting its effects through use-dependent blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels, particularly the cardiac isoform Nav1.5.^[37] This blockade occurs preferentially during the open state of the channel, slowing the rapid phase 0 depolarization of the cardiac action potential in Purkinje fibers and ventricular myocardium, thereby reducing conduction velocity and prolonging the QRS complex on electrocardiography.^[50] The use-dependent nature of this inhibition—where block intensifies at higher heart rates—enhances its efficacy against tachyarrhythmias while minimizing effects on normal sinus rhythm.^[51] In addition to its dominant sodium channel effects, flecainide exhibits weak blockade of potassium channels, which modestly prolongs the action potential duration and effective refractory period, though this is less pronounced than in class III agents.^[52] Flecainide also inhibits ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum, reducing spontaneous calcium leaks that can trigger arrhythmias; this mechanism is particularly relevant in catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), where it suppresses arrhythmogenic calcium waves independent of sodium channel blockade.^[53] The IC50 for Nav1.5 blockade is approximately 1 μM under open-channel conditions, aligning with therapeutic plasma concentrations of 0.5–1 μM, while its effect on hERG potassium channels (IC50 ~1.5 μM) is minimal at these levels, contributing to a low risk of torsades de pointes.^[54]^[55] Due to its use-dependent sodium channel block, flecainide demonstrates tissue selectivity, with more pronounced effects in rapidly depolarizing tissues such as atrial and ventricular myocardium during tachycardia, and negligible beta-adrenergic blockade.^[37]^[50] However, this conduction-slowing property can promote reentrant arrhythmias in structurally diseased hearts, such as those with ischemia or cardiomyopathy, by facilitating unidirectional block and slowed impulse propagation.^[51]

Pharmacokinetics

Flecainide exhibits nearly complete absorption following oral administration, with a bioavailability of approximately 90%. Peak plasma concentrations are typically achieved within 1 to 3 hours after dosing, and the pharmacokinetics demonstrate linear behavior over the therapeutic dose range.^[37]^[3] The drug is widely distributed throughout the body, with a volume of distribution ranging from 5 to 9 L/kg, reflecting extensive tissue penetration. Approximately 40% of flecainide is bound to plasma proteins, primarily alpha-1-acid glycoprotein. It crosses the blood-brain barrier only minimally, limiting central nervous system effects.^[37]^[3] Flecainide undergoes hepatic metabolism primarily via the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6, with a minor contribution from CYP1A2, producing the meta-O-dealkylated metabolite, which retains about 20% of the parent drug's activity. There is no significant first-pass hepatic effect. In poor metabolizers of CYP2D6, who comprise about 7% of the Caucasian population, exposure to flecainide is approximately 50% higher due to reduced clearance.^[37]^[56]^[57] Elimination occurs mainly through renal excretion, with about 40% of the dose excreted unchanged in the urine, and the remainder as metabolites. The elimination half-life averages 20 hours (range 12-27 hours), with a total body clearance of 6-10 mL/min/kg. In patients with renal impairment, the half-life is prolonged, often twofold or more, necessitating dose adjustments to avoid accumulation.^[37]^[58]^[59]

History

Development and approval

Flecainide was first synthesized in 1972 by researchers at Riker Laboratories, a division of 3M Pharmaceuticals, as part of a program initiated in 1966 to explore fluorine-substituted compounds initially aimed at developing new local anesthetics.^[60]^[61]^[37] During early screening, the compound demonstrated unexpected antiarrhythmic properties, leading to its repurposing as a sodium channel blocker for cardiac arrhythmias.^[60]^[62] In preclinical development, flecainide exhibited potent efficacy against ventricular arrhythmias in various animal models, including dogs and rabbits, where it suppressed induced arrhythmias without significant hemodynamic effects.^[63] It was classified as a class Ic antiarrhythmic agent under the Vaughan-Williams system due to its marked depression of the upstroke velocity of the action potential and prolonged conduction time in cardiac tissues.^[64] These findings supported its advancement to clinical trials, highlighting its potential for treating life-threatening rhythm disorders.^[63] Flecainide received initial marketing approval in Europe in 1982 under the brand name Tambocor for the treatment of certain supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias.^[65]^[66] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved flecainide on October 31, 1985, for the suppression of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) in patients without structural heart disease and for life-threatening ventricular tachycardia.^[37]^[67] Following the 1989 Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST), which raised concerns about proarrhythmic risks in patients with structural heart disease, the FDA revised the labeling in 1991 to expand and clarify its use for prevention of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (AF) or flutter in patients without significant left ventricular dysfunction.^[67]^[65] The original patent for flecainide expired on February 10, 2004, enabling the introduction of generic versions and increasing accessibility worldwide.^[68]^[37]

Key clinical trials

Early clinical trials in the 1980s demonstrated flecainide's high efficacy in terminating and preventing paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) in patients without structural heart disease. A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 68 patients with symptomatic PSVT showed that flecainide achieved an actuarial 79% freedom from symptomatic events at 60 days, compared to 15% with placebo, with oral loading doses effectively terminating acute episodes in 70-90% of cases.^[69] Long-term follow-up studies confirmed sustained efficacy, with 50-70% of patients remaining arrhythmia-free over extended periods, establishing flecainide as a first-line option for PSVT prophylaxis.^[70] The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST), a landmark randomized, placebo-controlled study initiated in the 1980s, profoundly influenced flecainide's safety profile. In post-myocardial infarction patients with asymptomatic ventricular ectopy, flecainide (along with encainide) was associated with a 7.7% annual mortality rate compared to 3% in the placebo group, leading to premature termination of the flecainide arm in 1989 due to a 2.5-fold increased risk of arrhythmic death. The final 1991 report confirmed excess arrhythmic and shock-related deaths, resulting in contraindications for flecainide in ischemic heart disease and structural abnormalities.^[4] Subsequent trials supported flecainide's role in atrial fibrillation (AF) rhythm control. The AFFIRM substudy (2002), analyzing drug choices in the rhythm-control arm of the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management trial, found that class Ic agents like flecainide or propafenone were not associated with the excess mortality observed with other antiarrhythmics, reinforcing their safety in patients without coronary disease.^[71] This analysis highlighted flecainide's favorable outcomes in maintaining sinus rhythm without increasing noncardiovascular risks.^[72] In pediatric populations, small randomized and observational trials have confirmed flecainide's efficacy for supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) with a low proarrhythmic risk. A 1988 prospective study of 16 children and young adults with refractory SVT reported successful control in 50% of cases using flecainide monotherapy, with no serious adverse events and effective pharmacokinetics supporting dosing adjustments.^[73] Comparative trials, such as a 2019 retrospective analysis, showed flecainide achieving arrhythmia control in 81% of pediatric SVT cases, comparable to amiodarone but with fewer long-term toxicities.^[74] Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials have quantified flecainide's impact on AF recurrence in structurally normal hearts. A 2010 review of multiple studies indicated flecainide reduced AF recurrences by approximately 50% compared to placebo, significantly prolonging time to first relapse while maintaining a safety profile superior to other class I agents.^[75] These findings underscore its utility in preventing paroxysmal AF episodes.30006-0/fulltext) Recent observational studies up to 2025 have reappraised flecainide's safety in select non-ischemic structural heart diseases. A 2025 Heart Rhythm journal review of emerging data suggested flecainide is safe and effective in conditions like hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), with no increased ventricular arrhythmia risk in carefully selected patients, challenging prior broad contraindications.02788-2/abstract) Analogous to CASTLE-AF follow-up insights on ablation synergies, 2024-2025 analyses of post-ablation flecainide prophylaxis reported reduced early AF recurrences by 30-50% without elevating proarrhythmic events in non-ischemic cohorts.30006-0/fulltext)

Society and culture

Brand names

Flecainide is primarily marketed under the brand name Tambocor, originally developed and introduced by 3M Pharmaceuticals in Europe in 1982.^[76] Following the expiration of its patent in February 2004, generic versions known as flecainide acetate have become widely available and dominate the market globally.^[37] In various regions, flecainide is sold under additional brand names, including Almarytm in Sweden, Apocard in Spain, and Flecaine in India.^[77] These brands are typically produced by local or international pharmaceutical companies, with generic manufacturers such as Aurobindo Pharma, Mylan, and ANI Pharmaceuticals handling much of the current production and distribution in the US and Europe.^[78] Common formulations include oral tablets in strengths of 50 mg, 100 mg, and 150 mg, while intravenous solutions are available in select markets for acute use.^[12]

Availability and regulation

Flecainide is classified as a prescription-only medication worldwide, requiring a physician's authorization due to its potent antiarrhythmic effects and potential for serious adverse outcomes. In the United States, it carries an FDA black box warning highlighting the risk of proarrhythmic effects, including increased mortality in patients with structural heart disease, mandating its restriction to life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias or specific supraventricular conditions under close monitoring. Similar regulatory controls apply in other regions, such as Australia's Schedule 4 and the United Kingdom's Prescription Only Medicine status, emphasizing supervised use to mitigate risks like ventricular proarrhythmia. The drug is widely available as a low-cost generic in the United States, the European Union, and Canada, with generic formulations entering the market following the expiration of the original Tambocor patent in 2004. Oral tablets in strengths of 50 mg, 100 mg, and 150 mg are standard, though the intravenous form remains limited, unavailable in the US but accessible in many European countries and select others for acute management of arrhythmias. Access is generally straightforward in developed markets, supported by multiple manufacturers, though import may be necessary in regions with lower production. Regulatory frameworks were significantly updated following the 1989 Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST), which demonstrated increased mortality risks; the FDA mandated relabeling in 1991 to contraindicate flecainide in patients with structural heart disease, coronary artery disease, or recent myocardial infarction, limiting its use to those without such conditions. The European Medicines Agency aligns with these restrictions through European Society of Cardiology guidelines, recommending flecainide primarily for rhythm control in atrial fibrillation patients with normal left ventricular function and no structural abnormalities. As a generic, flecainide is affordable, typically costing $10–20 per month for a standard oral regimen in the US, enhancing accessibility for eligible patients. Shortages are infrequent but actively monitored by agencies like the FDA, with no widespread disruptions reported in major markets as of 2025. In 2025, flecainide's regulatory status remains unchanged from prior years, with no major alterations to approvals or restrictions, and it continues to be included on the World Health Organization's Model List of Essential Medicines (23rd edition, 2023) for the treatment of supraventricular arrhythmias.

References

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Jun 12, 2020 · Intravenous. 1 to 2mg/kg over 10minutes. Intravenous route has potential to cause acute deterioration; must be administered in presence of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Pregnancy Category C. Flecainide has been shown to have teratogenic effects (club paws, sternebrae and vertebrae abnormalities, pale hearts with contracted ...
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Aug 10, 1989 · We conclude that neither encainide nor flecainide should be used in the treatment of patients with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic ventricular arrhythmia ...
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The most frequently reported extracardiac adverse experiences were dizziness (30%) and visual disturbances (28%), often occurring in tandem.
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### Common Side Effects of Flecainide with Percentages
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[PDF] Flecainide Acetate 50 mg tablets Flecainide Acetate 100 mg tablets
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WARNING: SUICIDAL THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIORS. See full prescribing information for complete boxed warning. • Increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior in ...
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Only five cases of flecainide-induced lung injury have been reported in the literature. In each case, symptom onset seemed to be subacute in nature, and the ...
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This article characterizes the first case, to our knowledge, of severe granulocytopenia associated with the administration of flecanide acetate.
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Flecainide is used to prevent or treat irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias) such as paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) and paroxysmal atrial ...
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Aug 4, 2025 · For patients on flecainide, PR and QRS intervals should be monitored, with QRS widening not permitted to exceed 150% of the pretreatment QRS ...
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Immediate and Regular Electrocardiogram Monitoring to Assess ...
The purpose of this case report and literature review is to increase awareness of the conduction properties and the proarrhythmia of the flecainide.
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Flecainide-induced lung injury (FILI) is a known, but rare, clinical phenomenon that can present with nonspecific pneumonitis and acute respiratory distress ...
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Flecainide-induced myalgias and weakness: a rare adverse reaction
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Flecainide cardiotoxicity precipitated by electrolyte imbalance ... - NIH
This case illustrates the importance of correcting electrolyte disturbances before starting flecainide treatment and monitoring electrolytes in high‐risk ...
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Arrhythmias (Prevention). PSVT and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. 50 mg PO BID; may increase by 50 mg every 4 days; do not exceed 300 mg/day ...
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Reduce flecainide dose to 75% of the standard dose for CYP2D6 intermediate metabolizer (IM) patients with indications other than diagnosis of Brugada syndrome ...Missing: adjustment | Show results with:adjustment
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The effect of flecainide, 200 mg twice daily for 5 days, on steady-state plasma digoxin levels was determined in 15 healthy male subjects who received 0.25 mg ...
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Lipid emulsion therapy (Intralipid®) is an established treatment for the management of acute toxicity resulting from local anaesthetics. In recent years, it ...
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In flecainide overdose, the threshold for pacing and defibrillation will be increased and class 1 antiarrhythmics and magnesium should be avoided. Aggressive ...
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Apr 2, 2021 · If the QRS duration is increased between 20 and 40 ms or is wider than 120 ms, prescribe 50 mg twice daily or 100 mg once daily. Check again the ...2. Flecainide Pharmacology · 6. Flecainide In Atrial... · 6.1. Flecainide In...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Serum flecainide S/R ratio reflects the CYP2D6 genotype and ...
Impaired CYP2D6 activity reduces flecainide clearance by 21% in intermediate metabolizers (IMs) and by 42% in poor metabolizers (PMs) [9], [10]. The CYP2D6 ...
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flecainide is safe and effective for the management of atrial fibrillation
Dec 7, 2010 · The action of flecainide in the heart prolongs the PR interval and widens the QRS complex. The effect on the JT interval is insignificant as ...
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The clinical efficacy, adverse effects and pharmacokinetics of flecainide were evaluated in 16 pediatric and young adult patients with supraventricular ...
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A comparison of oral flecainide and amiodarone for the treatment of ...
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flecainide is safe and effective for the management of atrial fibrillation
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Flecainide acetate for the treatment of atrial and ventricular ...
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Flecainide manufacturers - Pipelinepharma
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