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Flexicurity

Flexicurity is a labor market policy framework that combines high flexibility for employers in hiring and dismissing workers with strong security for employees through generous unemployment benefits, extensive vocational training, and active labor market interventions designed to facilitate rapid re-employment.^[1]^[2] Primarily associated with Denmark, where it evolved through reforms in the 1990s amid efforts to reduce persistently high unemployment, the model emphasizes a "golden triangle" of flexible dismissal rules, comprehensive social safety nets, and robust activation policies.^[3]^[4] The core elements of flexicurity, often outlined in four interconnected pillars, include numerical and contractual flexibility to allow firms to adapt quickly to economic changes, lifelong learning systems to enhance worker skills, adequate yet conditional social security to mitigate income loss, and effective active labor market policies such as job search assistance and subsidized employment to shorten unemployment spells.^[5] In Denmark, these features have supported high job turnover rates—around 25-30% annually—while maintaining employment-to-population ratios above OECD averages and structural unemployment below 5% for much of the 2000s.^[6]^[4] Empirical analyses attribute much of this performance to the model's capacity to balance employer adaptability with worker mobility, though outcomes also reflect complementary factors like strong union-employer bargaining and a highly educated workforce.^[7]^[8] Despite its acclaim for delivering low and stable unemployment even relative to peers during the 2008-2009 recession—where Denmark's rate peaked at around 8% before recovering—the model has encountered controversies over fiscal sustainability and incentive effects.^[6]^[9] Reforms in 2010 shortened maximum unemployment benefit duration from four to two years and tightened eligibility to curb long-term dependency, sparking debates on whether such changes undermine the security pillar without proportionally boosting employment.^[6] Critics argue that flexicurity's reliance on high taxation—funding benefits at up to 90% of prior wages—and its context-specific success in Denmark limit transferability to other economies lacking similar institutional trust or wage compression.^[7] Nonetheless, it remains a benchmark for reconciling market dynamism with social protection, influencing policy discussions in the European Union and beyond.^[3]

Core Principles

Definition and Four Pillars

Flexicurity constitutes an integrated strategy aimed at simultaneously enhancing flexibility and security within the labor market, reconciling employers' requirements for adaptable workforce arrangements with employees' needs for protection against protracted unemployment and income instability. This paradigm seeks to foster labor market dynamism by permitting efficient reallocation of resources while safeguarding worker transitions through supportive mechanisms, thereby promoting overall employability and economic adaptability.^[10] The conceptual framework of flexicurity rests on four mutually reinforcing pillars, which together enable a balance between external numerical flexibility—such as ease in hiring and dismissal—and internal security measures that bolster worker resilience. These pillars are: (1) flexible and reliable contractual arrangements, which facilitate adaptable employment terms and organizational structures without undermining basic reliability; (2) comprehensive lifelong learning strategies, designed to sustain skill acquisition and upskilling throughout workers' careers; (3) effective active labor market policies, encompassing targeted interventions like job matching, retraining, and reintegration support to expedite re-employment; and (4) modern social security systems, providing adequate income replacement and welfare provisions to cushion unemployment spells.^[10] From a foundational perspective, the interplay of these pillars operates on the principle that reduced barriers to labor mobility—via flexible contracts—encourage hiring, innovation, and efficient matching of skills to opportunities, while concurrent security provisions mitigate the risks of job loss, thereby diminishing worker resistance to change and averting the sclerosis induced by overly rigid dismissal protections that can suppress job creation and perpetuate mismatches. This equilibrium theoretically sustains higher aggregate employment levels by internalizing transition costs within a supportive ecosystem, rather than externalizing them through market frictions or inadequate safety nets.^[10]^[11]

Theoretical Foundations

Flexicurity draws from neoclassical labor economics, positing that low dismissal costs reduce firms' expected losses from mismatched hires, thereby lowering reservation wages for workers and incentivizing risk-taking in recruitment to expand employment.^[12] This mechanism addresses insider-outsider frictions, where protected insiders wield disproportionate bargaining power to sustain elevated wages, marginalizing outsiders and entrenching market dualism.^[13] In rigid systems, such dynamics exacerbate hysteresis, as initial adverse shocks erode the insider base without restoring equilibrium, perpetuating elevated unemployment through persistent wage rigidity and diminished labor attachment.^[14] Theoretical support also invokes Schumpeterian creative destruction, wherein labor flexibility accelerates resource reallocation from declining to emergent sectors, fostering innovation and long-term productivity gains by minimizing adjustment frictions.^[15] Security elements complement this by buffering income shocks, which theoretically promotes worker willingness to embrace volatility—facilitating job-to-job transitions and human capital accumulation in knowledge-intensive economies—while reconciling apparent trade-offs between adaptability and stability.^[16] To avert moral hazard, security must incorporate activation mandates, resolving principal-agent asymmetries where unincentivized recipients might prolong unemployment; workfare-oriented policies, conditioning benefits on search or training efforts, align individual actions with market efficiency objectives.^[17] This integrated framework posits that mutual reinforcement of flexibility and conditional security can yield Pareto improvements over polarized rigid or laissez-faire models.^[13]

Historical Development

Early Precursors in Denmark (Pre-1990s)

The Danish labor market following World War II was characterized by a model of centralized collective bargaining, rooted in the 1899 September Compromise between unions and employers, which facilitated regular, highly coordinated wage negotiations during the post-war "golden age" of economic growth.^[18] Strong unions, with high membership rates, exerted significant influence over pay and conditions through tripartite cooperation involving social partners and the state, while the absence of statutory minimum wages allowed collective agreements to set floors.^[19] This system provided early security elements via an expanding universal welfare state, including generous unemployment benefits and social protections that covered a broad share of the population, fostering income stability amid low initial unemployment rates below 3% in the 1960s.^[20] However, structural rigidities emerged by the 1970s, as centralized bargaining increasingly constrained wage flexibility, contributing to inflationary pressures and difficulties in adjusting to external shocks.^[21] The 1973 and 1979 oil crises severely impacted Denmark's open economy, which relied heavily on imported energy, triggering stagflation with rising costs and a sharp increase in unemployment from around 1-2% in the early 1970s to approximately 6-10% by the mid-1980s.^[22]^[23] Global competition further exposed vulnerabilities, as seniority-based layoff rules in collective agreements and effective firing costs—stemming from mandatory notice periods, severance expectations, and union veto powers—limited employers' ability to restructure workforces efficiently.^[24] Early precursors to flexicurity appeared in the 1980s through partial decentralization of bargaining, aiming to enhance labor market adaptability while retaining welfare security, yet these measures failed to reverse structural unemployment, which persisted amid high public transfer dependency rising from 10% to 30% of the working-age population by the late 1980s.^[25] The combination of passive income support and rigid employment protections incentivized prolonged job search and discouraged rapid reallocation, exacerbating mismatches in a shifting economy.^[26]

Danish Reforms of the 1990s

The Danish flexicurity model was formalized through a series of labor market reforms initiated under Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen's Social Democratic government, which held power from 1993 to 2001. These reforms emphasized a transition from passive income support to active employability measures, addressing persistent structural unemployment that had lingered at around 10-12% through the early 1990s despite generous welfare provisions.^[27]^[25] A cornerstone was the January 1994 Act on an Active Labour Market Policy, which introduced the "rights and duties" principle, limiting unemployment insurance duration to a maximum of two years and mandating participation in activation programs for benefit recipients, including compulsory job search, counseling, and training to enhance reemployment prospects.^[28]^[29] This "active line" approach required recipients to engage actively in job-seeking activities, such as regular meetings with employment services and program compliance, shifting policy focus toward rapid reintegration rather than indefinite support. Subsequent adjustments through 1999 refined these mechanisms, tightening eligibility criteria and incorporating workfare elements to counter benefit dependency observed in prior passive systems.^[30]^[25] Complementing activation, the voluntary unemployment insurance system via A-kasse funds—requiring prior membership and contributions—provided up to 90% wage replacement (capped at approximately DKK 18,000 monthly) for the two-year period, but only contingent on fulfilling activation obligations.^[31]^[32] This structure aimed to balance security with incentives, as empirical data showed prolonged benefit access without activation correlated with higher long-term unemployment rates exceeding 4% of the workforce.^[29]^[25] Flexibility enhancements included modest easing of dismissal procedures through collective agreements, such as shortened notice periods for certain tenures, which facilitated employer adjustments without rigid statutory barriers, though primary emphasis remained on activation over wholesale deregulation.^[33] These changes were motivated by evidence that high benefit generosity alone failed to reduce unemployment persistence, necessitating coupled incentives for mobility and skill upgrading to foster causal links between policy and labor market dynamism.^[27]^[25]

Parallel Developments in the Netherlands

The Polder Model emerged in the Netherlands as a consensus-based approach to economic policymaking, exemplified by the 1982 Wassenaar Agreement between trade unions and employers, which prioritized wage moderation to curb inflation and restore competitiveness amid high unemployment in the early 1980s.^[34] This framework facilitated social dialogue but initially emphasized macroeconomic stability over labor market restructuring.^[35] By the 1990s, under the "purple" coalition governments combining labor and liberal parties, the model evolved to address rising demands for flexibility, incorporating elements akin to flexicurity through negotiated reforms that balanced employer needs with worker protections.^[36] A pivotal development occurred with the Flexibility and Security Act (Wet Flexibiliteit en Zekerheid), enacted on January 1, 1999, following tripartite agreements among government, unions, and employer organizations.^[37] The Act normalized temporary and part-time contracts by easing restrictions on their use, such as limiting chain contracts to three years before requiring permanence, while extending social security coverage—including holiday pay and dismissal protections—to temporary agency workers.^[38] This reform promoted the integration of atypical employment forms, contributing to the Netherlands' high part-time employment rate, which reached approximately 37% of the workforce by the early 2000s, predominantly among women entering the labor market.^[39] Unlike broader activation-focused strategies, Dutch reforms under the Polder Model targeted the dualism of the labor market by incrementally reducing employment protections for permanent ("insider") contracts to diminish disparities with flexible ("outsider") ones.^[40] Measures included facilitating probation periods and easing dismissal procedures via collective agreements, aiming to narrow the insider-outsider divide without relying heavily on universal benefit expansions.^[34] This approach reflected a narrower scope rooted in negotiated compromises, prioritizing atypical work normalization over comprehensive income security redesigns.^[35]

Integration into EU Employment Strategy (2000s)

The revised Lisbon Strategy for Growth and Jobs, adopted in 2005, incorporated flexicurity as a means to achieve the EU's 70% employment rate target by 2010 through combining labor market flexibility with security measures, rather than relying solely on deregulation.^[41] This integration aimed to address persistent EU labor market rigidities, such as stringent employment protection legislation that contributed to dualism between protected insiders and excluded outsiders, particularly evident in elevated youth unemployment rates exceeding 20% in southern member states like Spain and Italy during the mid-2000s.^[42] The European Commission's approach emphasized activation-oriented policies inspired by Nordic models to mitigate sclerosis in continental and Mediterranean labor markets, prioritizing comprehensive security alongside flexibility to facilitate transitions without exacerbating inequality.^[11] In December 2007, the Commission issued its Communication "Towards Common Principles of Flexicurity," adapting Denmark's four pillars—flexible contractual arrangements, comprehensive lifelong learning, effective active labor market policies, and generous social security—into an EU framework tailored for diverse member states, with Denmark and the Netherlands cited as successful benchmarks demonstrating low structural unemployment alongside robust protections. These principles were positioned not as uniform mandates but as adaptable guidelines to enhance employability and adaptability amid globalization and demographic shifts, explicitly rejecting pure liberalization in favor of balanced pathways that preserved social dialogue.^[43] From 2007 to 2010, the Commission supported member states in developing national flexicurity pathways through integrated guidelines and progress reports under the European Employment Strategy, enabling country-specific implementations that addressed barriers like skills mismatches and long-term unemployment while monitoring alignment with the four pillars.^[44] The 2007 Expert Group report "Flexicurity Pathways: Turning Hurdles into Stepping Stones" outlined tailored strategies for varying labor market contexts, such as reducing entry barriers for youth in rigid systems via temporary contracts paired with training investments, as a pragmatic response to the EU's uneven recovery from early 2000s slowdowns.^[45] This period marked flexicurity's institutionalization as a cross-cutting theme in EU employment coordination, influencing the Open Method of Coordination without supranational enforcement.^[46]

Key Components in Practice

Labor Market Flexibility Mechanisms

In the Danish flexicurity model, labor market flexibility is primarily achieved through lenient employment protection legislation (EPL), which minimizes barriers to hiring and dismissal compared to many European counterparts. Denmark's EPL ranks among the lowest in the OECD for regular contracts, emphasizing short notice periods that scale with employee tenure: typically one month for less than six months of service, increasing to six months for over nine years.^[47] During probationary periods, which can last up to three months, employer notice is often as short as 14 days, allowing rapid assessment and adjustment of workforce fit without prolonged commitments.^[48] This structure avoids rigid procedural requirements for dismissals, such as mandatory consultations or justifications beyond economic or performance grounds, fostering employer confidence in workforce adaptation.^[5] Contractual arrangements further enhance adaptability by permitting widespread use of fixed-term and part-time contracts without automatic conversion to indefinite terms after successive renewals, unlike stricter regimes in countries such as France or Spain. In Denmark, fixed-term contracts accounted for about 10-15% of employment in the 2010s, often serving as entry points without the disincentives of permanence, while part-time work—around 25% of the workforce—supports functional flexibility in task allocation.^[26] These options enable numerical flexibility (adjusting headcount) and internal reassignments without collective agreement overrides in most cases, as labor relations rely heavily on decentralized bargaining rather than statutory mandates.^[2] From a causal standpoint, these mechanisms lower the sunk costs of labor investments, reducing employer hesitation to hire amid uncertainty and enabling swift reallocation of workers from declining to expanding sectors, which empirical data link to Denmark's elevated job creation rates—around 20% annual turnover, higher than the OECD average—and sustained low structural unemployment below 5% pre-COVID.^[5]^[25] Studies confirm that lax EPL correlates with increased net job growth in flexible markets like Denmark's, as opposed to rigid systems where protection elevates youth and long-term unemployment by deterring entry-level positions.^[49] This flexibility pillar thus underpins the model's resilience, though it presumes complementary security elements to mitigate individual risks.^[50]

Unemployment Insurance and Income Security

In the Danish flexicurity model, unemployment insurance is administered through voluntary membership in one of approximately 20 independent unemployment insurance funds known as A-kasse, which workers join by paying monthly contributions typically ranging from DKK 400 to 550.^[51] This system achieves high coverage among the workforce, with membership rates historically around 80-90%, though participation has varied with economic conditions and policy incentives.^[52] Eligible members receive dagpenge benefits equivalent to up to 90% of their previous salary, subject to a cap—such as DKK 21,092 per month as of 2025 for standard cases, with temporary increases to DKK 25,070 for the first three months under certain full-employment conditions.^[53] Benefits are available for a maximum of two years (104 weeks), after which recipients may transition to means-tested social assistance if still unemployed.^[31] The design of this income security net aims to mitigate the financial risks of job loss in a flexible labor market, preserving household consumption and enabling workers to maintain or upgrade human capital during transitions without immediate pressure to accept suboptimal employment.^[7] By providing substantial replacement income, it reduces the moral hazard of prolonged unemployment while supporting rapid reallocation of labor to more productive uses, as evidenced by Denmark's low structural unemployment despite ease of hiring and firing.^[2] However, eligibility requires prior contributions and income thresholds—such as at least DKK 273,504 earned in the preceding three years while a member—and benefits include clawback mechanisms, such as temporary suspension for three weeks or more severe reductions if a recipient refuses reasonable work offers.^[54] These conditions ensure the system incentivizes workforce attachment without fully insuring against voluntary idleness.^[55] In the Dutch variant of flexicurity, unemployment benefits (WW-uitkering) offer a similar initial replacement rate of around 70% of prior salary but with shorter maximum duration, typically one month per year of prior employment, ranging from a minimum of three months to up to 24 months as of recent reforms.^[56] This contrasts with Danish generosity by prioritizing fiscal sustainability and quicker reintegration, reflecting a trade-off where extended benefits could otherwise strain public finances or extend job search durations, though both systems emphasize income smoothing to underpin labor mobility.^[57] Empirical analyses indicate that such calibrated security levels correlate with lower long-term unemployment in flexicurity frameworks, as workers accept job changes knowing temporary income support exists, but excessive duration risks dependency without corresponding activation.^[7]

Active Labor Market Policies

Active labor market policies (ALMPs) in Denmark's flexicurity framework prioritize early and intensive interventions to boost employability and expedite transitions back to work, forming a core pillar alongside flexible hiring and firing. The "active line" approach, formalized in the 1990s, requires unemployed individuals on unemployment insurance to engage in mandatory activation within weeks of job loss, including individualized counseling, job search assistance, and CV preparation workshops delivered through municipal job centers.^[58]^[59] This activation logic stems from the recognition that passive benefit receipt can prolong job search and erode skills, necessitating proactive measures to enforce job-seeking effort and address skill mismatches via targeted upskilling.^[60] Key programs include subsidized training courses tailored to labor market needs, wage subsidies that reimburse employers for hiring unemployed workers (often at 50-100% of wages for temporary placements), and apprenticeships or "flex-jobs" for those with partial work capacity.^[61]^[62] Public employment services facilitate rapid reallocation by maintaining vacancy databases and coordinating with private agencies, emphasizing quick matches over long-term idleness. Denmark's public spending on ALMPs averaged 1.6% of GDP from 1994 to 2004, supporting these tools without crowding out private hiring in aggregate evaluations.^[25] Empirical assessments, including randomized controlled trials, demonstrate that such activations yield net positive returns by shortening unemployment spells and elevating post-program earnings, especially for short-term unemployed workers where interventions counter initial discouragement effects.^[63] For instance, mandatory early activation in Danish field experiments increased employment exit rates by enforcing structured search and skill-building, mitigating structural frictions like outdated qualifications.^[63] Meta-analyses of ALMP RCTs confirm modest but robust gains in re-employment probabilities from job search assistance and subsidies, though effects diminish for long-term cases without complementary private sector demand.^[64] These outcomes underscore ALMPs' role in sustaining high labor participation by dynamically adapting to economic shifts, rather than relying solely on benefit duration limits.^[65] Social partner dialogue constitutes a foundational pillar of flexicurity, emphasizing collaborative tripartite negotiations among trade unions, employer associations, and government to formulate labor market policies that balance flexibility and security. In Denmark, this process is embodied by bipartite agreements between the Danish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), representing about 1.3 million workers as of 2023, and the Confederation of Danish Industry (DA), covering major employer groups, supplemented by tripartite involvement with the state.^[66]^[67] These entities conduct centralized framework negotiations at the national level, setting broad parameters for wages and conditions, while allowing decentralized implementation at sector or firm levels to adapt to local needs.^[1] Central to this dialogue is the negotiation of wage-setting mechanisms that promote compression and solidarity, reducing earnings inequality through coordinated bargaining that limits high-wage drifts and supports low-wage earners, thereby fostering broad acceptance of labor flexibility.^[5] During the 1990s reforms, social partners explicitly traded concessions on employment protection—such as streamlined dismissal procedures without mandatory severance for most workers—in exchange for sustained generosity in unemployment benefits and commitments to active labor market activation, ensuring mutual buy-in to the model's dual emphases.^[8]^[68] This consensus-oriented approach aligns employer incentives for hiring with union priorities for worker safeguards, mitigating adversarial class dynamics via shared governance, though over-centralization in bargaining can incentivize quasi-cartel outcomes, such as upward wage rigidity in expansionary periods that deviates from pure market signals.^[69] In the Netherlands' flexicurity adaptation, social dialogue extends to firm-level structures through mandatory works councils, established under the Works Councils Act of 1971 and covering firms with 50 or more employees, which provide employee representatives with co-determination rights on issues like working hours and restructuring plans.^[70] These councils facilitate localized input into flexibility measures, such as temporary contracts, while negotiating security enhancements like training provisions, complementing national-level polder model consultations among unions, employers, and government to embed dialogue across scales.^[71] This decentralized element contrasts with Denmark's hybrid structure but similarly relies on voluntary cooperation to preempt conflicts, underscoring dialogue's role in sustaining flexicurity's viability amid varying institutional contexts.^[72]

Empirical Outcomes in Denmark

Unemployment and Employment Rates

Denmark's unemployment rate has remained low in the 2020s, averaging approximately 4% based on modeled ILO estimates, with recent figures at 2.9% in September 2025.^[73]^[74] Structural unemployment estimates place it in the 4-6% range, reflecting a stable equilibrium level independent of short-term cyclical fluctuations.^[75] The employment rate for the working-age population (15-64 years) reached 77.3% in the second quarter of 2025, exceeding the EU average of 75.8% recorded for 2024.^[76]^[77] This high participation rate aligns with estimates of a non-accelerating wage rate of unemployment (NAWRU) around 4.5%, indicating limited frictional or structural barriers to workforce engagement.^[78] Youth unemployment (ages 15-24) averaged 11% from 2020 to 2024, lower than the EU's recent rate of 14.6% in August 2025.^[79]^[80] In contrast, pre-reform unemployment in the early 1990s peaked at around 12% in 1993, roughly double current levels.^[81]^[27]

Job Mobility and Wage Dynamics

In Denmark's flexicurity model, labor market turnover is notably high, with approximately one in five jobs separated annually, reflecting substantial job-to-job transitions estimated at 21% of employed workers. This rate exceeds typical levels in many European countries, where job reallocation is often lower due to stricter employment protections, contributing to Denmark's dynamic allocation of workers across roles.^[7] The elevated churn, including voluntary quits and employer-initiated separations, results in relatively low average job tenure, averaging around 7-8 years for workers, compared to longer durations in more rigid EU labor markets.^[82] Such mobility facilitates improved skill matching, as workers frequently transition to positions better aligned with their abilities and market demands, enhancing overall labor productivity without excessive frictional unemployment.^[52] Wage dynamics under flexicurity exhibit compressed differentials, with the ratio of 90th to 10th percentile earnings (P90/P10) remaining among the lowest in OECD countries at approximately 2.2-2.5, driven by centralized collective bargaining that standardizes pay scales across sectors. Despite this compression, real wage growth has averaged 1-2% annually over recent decades, supported by productivity gains from efficient worker reallocation and sustained economic expansion.^[83] These gains stem from the model's emphasis on rapid job transitions, which enable firms to adapt to technological and demand shifts, thereby maintaining competitive wage levels without broad stagnation. Empirically, high job mobility correlates with reduced inequality of opportunity, as frequent transitions provide broader access to higher-productivity roles regardless of initial placement, mitigating persistent low-wage traps observed in less flexible systems.^[52] However, collective bargaining structures introduce potential wage rigidity, particularly in downturns, where nominal wage cuts are rare—averaging only 40% of contracts allowing reductions during crises—potentially delaying adjustments to adverse shocks. This rigidity, while preserving short-term worker security, may amplify cyclical pressures if not offset by active policy interventions.

Performance During Economic Crises

During the Great Recession from 2008 to 2011, Denmark's flexicurity model demonstrated resilience, with unemployment rising from 3.3% in 2008 to a peak of approximately 7.7% in 2010, compared to an EU average increase from 7% to 11% over a similar period.^[9]^[74]^[84] This moderated rise was attributed to flexible dismissal rules that allowed firms to adjust employment levels swiftly, preventing deeper layoffs through initial reductions in working hours.^[9] Active labor market policies (ALMPs), including subsidized training and job search assistance, facilitated a rapid recovery, with most unemployment spells remaining short due to high gross worker and job flows.^[85]^[6] In the COVID-19 crisis from 2020 to 2022, flexicurity was supplemented by short-time work schemes that preserved jobs by allowing temporary wage subsidies and reduced hours, limiting unemployment to an increase of about 1 percentage point from pre-crisis levels of around 5%, far below rises in many EU peers.^[86]^[87] Recovery was swift, with employment rebounding to approximately 76-77% by 2022 and stabilizing through 2025 amid post-pandemic inflation pressures, supported by ongoing ALMP activation and generous unemployment insurance that encouraged re-entry into the workforce.^[88]^[89] Empirical analyses indicate that flexicurity's emphasis on high labor market churn—characterized by elevated inflows and outflows—mitigated hysteresis effects, where temporary shocks become persistent structural unemployment, in contrast to more rigid systems that experienced prolonged scarring from insider-outsider dynamics.^[6]^[85] This dynamic adjustment preserved skill matching and prevented long-term detachment, as evidenced by sustained short-duration unemployment episodes even amid aggregate demand collapses.^[26]

Implementations and Adaptations Beyond Denmark

Dutch Flexicurity Variant

The Dutch variant of flexicurity emphasizes the normalization of atypical employment forms, particularly part-time and temporary contracts, to enhance labor market flexibility while maintaining income security through targeted activation measures. Enacted via the Flexibility and Security Act of 1999, this approach reduced legal protections for temporary workers, facilitating easier hiring and dismissal for non-standard roles, which contributed to the Netherlands achieving one of the highest part-time employment rates in the OECD, with approximately 50-60% of women working part-time—far exceeding the OECD average for females.^[90]^[37] This normalization has been linked to lower youth unemployment rates, averaging around 7-8% in recent years, as flexible entry points into the labor market enable quicker integration of young workers.^[91]^[70] In terms of security, the Dutch model diverges by offering less generous unemployment insurance compared to broader flexicurity implementations, with benefits typically lasting one month per year of prior employment, capped at a maximum of 38 months but often shorter, and requiring active job search participation from recipients.^[56]^[92] Strong activation policies, including mandatory reintegration programs administered by the Employee Insurance Agency (UWV), complement these shorter durations to promote rapid re-employment, fostering fiscal efficiency through lower public expenditure on prolonged benefits.^[57] However, critics note reliance on supplementary private savings or family support for extended needs, raising concerns about incomplete coverage for vulnerable groups.^[70] Empirical outcomes reflect high overall employment rates, reaching approximately 80-82% for the working-age population, surpassing OECD averages, yet reveal persistent labor market dualism, with temporary workers facing wage penalties and lower job security relative to permanent staff.^[93]^[70] This segmentation underscores a narrower flexicurity focus on atypical work normalization rather than universal protections, yielding efficient churn but exacerbating inequalities between contract types.^[94]

Attempts in Other EU Countries

In the mid-2000s, the European Commission promoted flexicurity as a core element of the European Employment Strategy, encouraging member states to develop tailored pathways combining labor market flexibility with security through national reform plans.^[43] Between 2008 and 2010, all 27 EU member states outlined flexicurity-inspired strategies, focusing on reducing employment protection legislation (EPL) rigidities, enhancing active labor market policies (ALMPs), and improving income security, yet adoption varied widely due to entrenched political opposition from unions and southern European dualism.^[11] Empirical analyses indicate that modest EPL reductions in these plans correlated with employment gains of approximately 1-2 percentage points in adopting countries, though causal links remain debated amid the global financial crisis.^[95] Austria implemented flexicurity elements in the 2000s through activation-focused reforms akin to Germany's Hartz measures, emphasizing job search requirements and ALMP spending while maintaining moderate EPL levels relative to EU averages.^[96] These changes, negotiated via social partnership, boosted labor market dynamism without fully dismantling insider protections, contributing to stable employment rates around 70% by the late 2000s.^[97] However, critics note that Austria's approach relied on pre-existing vocational training strengths, limiting replicability elsewhere, and activation policies showed mixed efficacy for low-skilled workers.^[98] Portugal's 2012 labor market reform, enacted under the EU-IMF troika's Memorandum of Understanding, eased EPL for permanent contracts, reduced severance pay, and promoted temporary agency work to combat segmentation, explicitly drawing on flexicurity principles for flexibility gains.^[99] The changes facilitated easier hiring and firing, increasing job-to-job transitions, but unemployment peaked at 16.2% in 2013 before gradual declines, with persistent dualism as temporary contracts rose to 20% of employment.^[100] Outcomes were constrained by weak ALMP implementation and fiscal austerity, underscoring flexicurity's dependence on robust social safety nets absent in southern contexts. Spain's 2012 reform substantially liberalized EPL by unifying contract types, cutting severance to 33 days per year worked (capped at 24 months), and decentralizing collective bargaining, aiming to emulate flexicurity's external flexibility pillar.^[101] OECD indicators confirm a significant drop in EPL strictness, from among Europe's highest to mid-range, which accelerated job reallocation and reduced unemployment from 25% in 2012 to 14% by 2019, though structural youth and long-term unemployment lingered above EU averages.^[102] Studies attribute partial success to heightened turnover but highlight failures in converting temporary jobs (over 25% of total) to permanency, exacerbated by insufficient activation spending and regional disparities.^[103] Southern European attempts, including Portugal and Spain, revealed transplant challenges: rigid pre-reform institutions and weaker welfare baselines hindered full flexicurity integration, leading to "flexicarity" critiques where flexibility increased without commensurate security enhancements.^[100] Northern models like Austria fared better due to stronger social dialogue and training systems, but overall EU uptake stalled post-2010 amid crisis recovery priorities and resistance to welfare expansions needed for balanced implementation.^[11]

Global Influences and Variations

In the United States, the gig economy embodies a form of labor market flexibility reminiscent of flexicurity's emphasis on ease of hiring and firing, but decoupled from comprehensive security measures such as generous unemployment benefits or mandatory retraining. Platforms like Uber and DoorDash classify workers as independent contractors, enabling schedule autonomy and rapid job matching, with 63% of gig workers in a 2023 survey citing flexibility as their primary motivation for participation.^[104] However, this model exposes workers to income volatility and limited protections, as evidenced by California's Proposition 22 in 2020, which preserved contractor status while offering partial benefits like minimum earnings guarantees, yet failed to address broader risks of exploitation through algorithmic management.^[105] ^[106] In Asia, selective adaptations appear in skills-focused policies that echo flexicurity's active labor market components without full integration of income security. Singapore's SkillsFuture initiative, established in 2015, allocates credits—up to S$500 initially for citizens aged 25 and above, with top-ups for mid-career workers—to fund training and upskilling, aiming to facilitate job transitions amid technological shifts and promote workforce adaptability.^[107] This approach prioritizes employability through modular, subsidized courses, but operates in a low-unemployment context (around 2% in 2023) supported by strict employment laws, diverging from Denmark's high-flexibility baseline by retaining rigid dismissal protections. Global promotions of flexicurity elements in emerging markets, often via institutions like the World Bank, emphasize flexibility to spur job creation, yet implementations falter due to institutional frailties. For instance, World Bank analyses highlight how online gig platforms in Middle East and North Africa regions boosted female labor participation by 10-15% in flexible roles during 2018-2023, but warn of inadequate regulatory frameworks exacerbating precarity.^[108] In developing contexts, weak enforcement of contracts, informal economies comprising 60-80% of employment in many low-income countries, and limited fiscal capacity undermine security pillars, rendering full flexicurity infeasible without high-trust governance to prevent moral hazard and ensure benefit targeting. ^[109] Empirical attempts, such as partial deregulation in select Latin American nations post-2000, yielded short-term employment gains but amplified inequality absent robust social dialogue.^[110]

Achievements

Economic Growth and Competitiveness Benefits

Denmark's flexicurity model, characterized by ease of hiring and firing combined with robust activation policies, has facilitated efficient labor reallocation, contributing to sustained economic growth through reduced resource misallocation across firms. From 1993 to 2020, GDP per capita grew at an average annual rate of approximately 1.8%, outpacing many European peers with rigid labor protections, as flexible dismissal rules enabled firms to adjust workforce inputs dynamically and prioritize high-productivity activities.^[7] This reallocation efficiency aligns with causal mechanisms where labor mobility shifts workers from declining to expanding sectors, amplifying aggregate productivity gains without the drag of entrenched inefficiencies seen in protectionist systems.^[111] Empirical analyses link flexicurity's high job turnover—around 20-30% annually—to enhanced firm dynamism, where job mobility positively correlates with employment expansion and negatively with persistent structural barriers to growth.^[5]^[112] Such patterns embody Schumpeterian creative destruction, as low firing costs encourage entry and exit of firms, fostering innovation in knowledge-intensive areas rather than subsidizing obsolescent operations. Studies attribute Denmark's productivity edge in earlier decades to this mechanism, though recent slowdowns highlight the need for complementary investments in skills and technology.^[113]^[111] On competitiveness, flexicurity's minimal structural rigidities underpin Denmark's top-tier global rankings, such as 4th in the World Bank's 2020 Ease of Doing Business index, reflecting streamlined labor regulations that support export-led industries like pharmaceuticals (e.g., Novo Nordisk) and renewables (e.g., Vestas).^[114]^[115] These features enable rapid adaptation to global demand shifts, bolstering trade surpluses and per capita output in high-value sectors, distinct from mere cost competitiveness.^[7] Overall, the model's emphasis on flexibility over rigidity has sustained Denmark's economic resilience, with evidence suggesting it outperforms alternatives in promoting long-term output expansion.^[25]

Reduction in Long-Term Unemployment

In Denmark, the flexicurity model's emphasis on active labor market policies (ALMPs) and conditional unemployment benefits has contributed to a low share of long-term unemployment, defined as over one year, consistently below 10% of total unemployed individuals as of recent Eurostat data.^[116] This stands in marked contrast to the EU average, where the long-term share averaged 38.5% in 2024.^[117] The long-term unemployment rate itself, as a percentage of the labor force, has hovered around 0.9% in Denmark during 2025, compared to the EU's 1.9% in 2024.^[118] ^[119] Prior to the major flexicurity reforms of the 1990s, which intensified activation measures and tightened benefit conditions, long-term unemployment was more prevalent; the rate peaked at 2.7% of the labor force in 1993 amid overall unemployment exceeding 12%.^[120] ^[121] Danish studies attribute much of the subsequent decline in unemployment durations to ALMPs, including mandatory participation and job search requirements, which elevate reemployment hazards— with threat effects from program enrollment risks boosting exit rates by approximately 50%.^[122] In-program effects from subsidies and training further shorten spells by enhancing employability without locking participants into inactivity.^[123] The model's income security provisions enable unemployed workers to engage in deliberate job searches and skill upgrades rather than accepting suboptimal matches out of urgency, while eased hiring and firing rules promote rapid job turnover and vacancy creation, ensuring shorter average durations overall.^[9] ^[6] Benefit conditionality, limiting payouts to two years and tying them to active participation, discourages prolonged reliance and entrenches a norm of quick reintegration.^[52] These mechanisms have sustained minimal long-term joblessness even through economic pressures, as evidenced by stable low durations post-reform.^[25]

Worker Perceived Security

In Denmark, workers under the flexicurity model report notably high levels of perceived job security relative to the flexibility in hiring and firing, with surveys indicating low anxiety about unemployment despite frequent job turnover. A multi-level analysis of data from 17 European countries found Denmark among the nations with the lowest self-perceived job insecurity, where only a small fraction of employees—comparable to rates around 10% in similar low-insecurity peers—report significant fear of job loss. This perception persists even as objective job tenure remains relatively short, averaging lower than in more rigid labor markets, due to confidence in rapid re-employment facilitated by active labor market policies (ALMPs).^[124]^[125] Key contributors to this sense of security include generous unemployment insurance covering up to 90% of prior wages for eligible workers and mandatory participation in ALMPs, such as job training and subsidized employment, which shorten unemployment spells to an average of 6-8 months. These elements foster a cultural norm of mobility, where job changes are viewed as opportunities rather than threats, reducing psychological strain associated with dismissal. Empirical studies attribute this to the model's emphasis on employment security over strict job protection, contrasting with systems lacking robust safety nets where perceived precariousness elevates stress levels.^[28]^[66] Perceived security correlates positively with broader subjective well-being metrics, including Denmark's top rankings in international happiness indices, where labor market confidence contributes to life satisfaction scores exceeding 7.5 on 10-point scales in OECD surveys. However, this perception may partially reflect an illusion for certain subgroups; temporary or low-skilled workers experience elevated insecurity, though flexicurity's policies moderate adverse health impacts compared to non-flexicurity contexts. Overall, the model's design prioritizes transitional support, yielding lower reported anxiety about job loss than in either highly protective or purely deregulated systems.^[126]^[127]

Criticisms and Limitations

Fiscal Costs and Tax Burdens

Denmark's flexicurity model imposes considerable fiscal demands through expenditures on active labor market policies (ALMPs) and unemployment insurance (UI), with ALMPs alone consuming approximately 2% of GDP annually, the highest rate among OECD countries.^[128]^[129] When combined with UI benefits, these core components account for roughly 4% of GDP, reflecting the model's emphasis on robust re-employment support and income replacement during job transitions.^[5] Broader social welfare outlays, which underpin the security aspect of flexicurity, elevate total public social protection spending to around 28% of GDP, far exceeding the OECD average of 20%.^[130] These costs are financed primarily via a high and progressive tax system, featuring a top marginal personal income tax rate of 55.9% in 2025, inclusive of state, municipal, and labor market taxes.^[131] The revenue base draws from broad income taxation, value-added tax at 25%, and employer contributions, enabling fiscal sustainability in Denmark's context of high labor productivity and export-driven growth. However, International Monetary Fund assessments highlight inefficiencies, recommending cost-effective reforms to ALMPs amid persistent high spending levels.^[129] Comparisons with low-security systems like the United States underscore the trade-offs: U.S. UI expenditures hover below 1% of GDP with a top federal income tax rate of 37%, yet result in higher long-term unemployment rates (around 20% of the unemployed in 2023 versus Denmark's under 5%).^[75]^[131] While Denmark maintains lower overall unemployment through its investments, the elevated tax burden—evident in effective rates exceeding 50% for middle-income earners—has drawn criticism for potentially crowding out private investment and straining budgets during slowdowns, as seen in post-2020 fiscal adjustments despite generally low debt levels around 30% of GDP.^[132]^[133] Supply-side economists argue that Denmark's high marginal rates invoke Laffer curve effects, where excessive taxation reduces labor supply and aggregate revenue potential by discouraging extended work hours and entrepreneurship, though empirical studies on Danish reforms confirm modest elasticities in intensive labor supply responses.^[134]^[135] This perspective posits that the model's generosity sustains an oversized public sector, limiting fiscal space for innovation and growth-enhancing policies in a maturing high-productivity economy.^[132]

Incentives for Dependency and Moral Hazard

In the Danish flexicurity model, unemployment insurance (UI) benefits provide high replacement rates, typically around 90% of prior earnings for members of unemployment funds (A-kasse), capped at approximately DKK 18,500 per month as of 2017.^[136] Economic search theory posits that such generosity elevates workers' reservation wages—the minimum acceptable wage for employment—reducing job search intensity and extending unemployment durations, as the opportunity cost of remaining unemployed diminishes.^[137] Empirical analyses of Danish data confirm this distortion: for example, a quasi-experimental study exploiting age-based increases in unemployment assistance benefits, which rose by 70% upon turning 25, found that higher income replacement prolonged unemployment spells, indicating moral hazard in search effort.^[138] The A-kasse system, requiring voluntary membership and modest fees for access to UI, contrasts with lower social assistance (kontanthjælp) for non-members, creating incentives for broad participation, particularly among skilled workers; however, this structure amplifies moral hazard risks for enrollees, as evidenced by reduced search incentives absent stringent enforcement.^[7] While activation requirements—mandatory job search, training, or job placement after initial unemployment periods—aim to counteract dependency by tying benefits to demonstrated effort, studies highlight incomplete mitigation, with some recipients evading full compliance or prolonging spells through minimal participation.^[9] Benefit elasticities from European data, including Denmark, estimate that a 10% increase in replacement rates extends non-employment duration by 1-5%, underscoring persistent behavioral distortions despite policy safeguards. Residual incentives for dependency manifest in chronic cases, where a subset of recipients—estimated at low single-digit percentages of the unemployed—remain outside the labor market longer than average spells of about six months, attributable in part to sustained high benefits fostering habituation to non-employment.^[28] Critics argue this reflects underlying moral hazard not fully resolved by activation, as generous entitlements may discourage upskilling or relocation for marginal workers, though Denmark's overall low long-term unemployment rate suggests the model's design limits broader systemic dependency.^[139]

Challenges with Low-Skilled Workers and Immigrants

In Denmark's flexicurity model, low-skilled workers encounter persistent barriers to labor market integration due to a structural decline in demand for unskilled labor and skill mismatches exacerbated by technological advancements and productivity gains. The Danish economy has seen a reduction in low-skill job availability, with youth entering the market often lacking qualifications suited to available roles, leading to higher re-employment challenges under flexible dismissal rules.^[75] Activation policies, while effective for prime-age skilled workers, prove less successful for low-skilled individuals, as training programs struggle to bridge gaps in a labor market favoring higher human capital.^[5] This results in prolonged job search durations and reliance on benefits, as the model's emphasis on rapid turnover benefits those with transferable skills more than those without.^[140] Non-Western immigrants face amplified difficulties, with unemployment rates typically 2-3 times higher than natives—around 10-15% versus 4-5% in the early 2020s—stemming from language barriers, credential non-recognition, and cultural mismatches that hinder activation efficacy.^[141] ^[142] Long-term unemployment among non-Western immigrants reached 25.8% of the unemployed in early 2025, double the 14.2% rate for Danish-origin individuals, reflecting entrenched skill deficits and segregation.^[143] Flexicurity's generous safety nets, combined with EU open borders dynamics, strain resources through higher benefit uptake among low-integration groups, raising concerns over dependency incentives absent stringent work requirements.^[17] Post-2010s integration reforms, including mandatory language and employment programs since 2016, have modestly narrowed employment gaps by tying benefits to participation and prioritizing repatriation for non-integrating migrants, yet persistent disparities endure due to ongoing influxes and limited low-skill niches.^[144] These policies underscore flexicurity's bias toward native high-capital workers, as immigrant-heavy low-skill cohorts experience weaker outcomes from the model's flexibility-security balance.^[145]

Inequality and Coverage Gaps

Denmark's flexicurity model relies on voluntary membership in unemployment insurance funds (a-kasser), resulting in incomplete coverage of the workforce. While overall membership rates have historically been high, approaching 80-90% in the early 2000s, they have declined to around 70-75% in recent years due to membership fees deterring low-income, young, and precarious workers.^[146]^[52] Non-members, often comprising 20-30% of potential claimants including youth under 25, self-employed individuals, and recent immigrants, are ineligible for earnings-related unemployment benefits (dagpenge) and instead rely on means-tested social assistance (kontanthjælp), which provides lower replacement rates—typically 50-60% of the UI maximum—and stricter eligibility tied to asset tests and work availability.^[147]^[5] This gap disproportionately affects vulnerable groups, as low earners perceive limited value in paying fees for benefits capped relative to their wages, perpetuating exclusion from the system's core security provisions. The uneven distribution of coverage contributes to persistent income inequality, with Denmark's Gini coefficient for disposable household income remaining stable at approximately 0.25-0.27 since the 1990s, despite flexicurity's emphasis on security. Earnings-related benefits favor insured workers, who tend to be higher-paid or stably employed insiders, providing up to 90% wage replacement (capped at around DKK 21,000 monthly in 2023), which compresses post-tax disparities among recipients but does little to mitigate pre-tax inequality or integrate outsiders.^[148] Low-skilled and immigrant workers, less likely to join due to irregular employment histories, face higher risks of poverty during unemployment, as means-tested alternatives offer inferior support and may discourage full participation in active labor policies. This dynamic reinforces an insider-outsider divide, where flexicurity's protections accrue primarily to those already in secure roles, rendering security more rhetorical than substantive for marginalized segments.^[5] Gendered and migratory patterns exacerbate these gaps through part-time employment traps, with women comprising over 35% of part-time workers (versus 14% for men) and immigrants facing even higher involuntary part-time rates due to skill mismatches and discrimination. Part-time status often fails to accumulate sufficient hours for full UI eligibility, locking workers—particularly mothers and non-Western immigrants—into low-benefit cycles that hinder transitions to full-time roles and full coverage.^[149]^[150] Consequently, flexicurity's wage compression effects are limited to full-time insured cohorts, leaving pre-existing inequalities in hours and earnings unaddressed, as evidenced by stagnant female full-time employment rates around 60-70% and immigrant employment gaps persisting at 20-30 percentage points below natives.^[151]^[152]

Recent Developments (2010s–2025)

Responses to Post-Great Recession and COVID-19

In the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis, Denmark adjusted its flexicurity framework to address rising unemployment, which increased by approximately 4 percentage points from pre-crisis lows, peaking at 7.8% in late 2012.^[153] ^[6] In June 2010, the government halved the maximum duration of unemployment insurance benefits from four years to two years, aiming to incentivize faster re-employment while preserving the system's generosity up to that threshold.^[154] ^[9] This reform was coupled with intensified activation measures, including stricter job-search requirements and mandatory participation in active labor market policies (ALMPs) such as skills training and job placement services, to counteract potential moral hazard from extended benefits.^[155] These changes reinforced the model's emphasis on work availability, contributing to a relatively swift employment recovery without prolonged structural scarring.^[5] The flexicurity system's labor market flexibility facilitated rapid adjustment to the recessionary shock, as low employment protection enabled firms to reduce headcounts efficiently, while robust unemployment benefits and ALMPs mitigated income losses and supported worker mobility into growing sectors.^[9] ^[6] Empirical evidence indicates that long-term unemployment remained contained compared to many EU peers, with high job turnover rates ensuring most spells were short-lived, as the model's design prioritized quick reallocation over job preservation during downturns.^[5] Poverty rates did not spike significantly, attributable to the security component's role in buffering demand shocks without distorting labor supply incentives excessively.^[9] During the COVID-19 pandemic, Denmark temporarily augmented flexicurity with a job retention scheme launched on March 9, 2020, providing wage compensation to employers facing revenue losses exceeding 20-40% due to lockdowns, where the state covered up to 75% of salaries (capped at DKK 30,000 monthly) and firms contributed 25%.^[156] ^[157] This measure, extended multiple times through 2021 and costing around DKK 10.2 billion initially, deviated from traditional firing flexibility to preserve firm-specific human capital and limit layoffs, resulting in unemployment rising by only about 1 percentage point—far below the EU average—and a muted contraction in hours worked.^[158] ^[86] The scheme's design targeted short-term disruption, with eligibility tied to verifiable economic hardship, preventing broad moral hazard while aligning with flexicurity's adaptive ethos.^[159] Post-crisis adaptations included enhanced digital tools for job matching via platforms like Jobnet, integrated with ALMPs to accelerate placements amid remote work shifts, though these built incrementally on pre-existing infrastructure rather than wholesale redesign.^[5] Targeted activation programs for immigrants and low-skilled workers, emphasizing language training and sector-specific upskilling, addressed integration gaps exposed by the shocks, supporting the model's causal mechanism of flexibility absorbing layoffs while security averts entrenched exclusion.^[160] Overall, these responses demonstrated flexicurity's resilience, as evidenced by sustained employment rates above 75% and limited hysteresis effects, underscoring how deregulated adjustment combined with income support preserved macroeconomic stability.^[75] ^[86]

Reforms Addressing Sustainability

Denmark has pursued reforms between 2022 and 2024 to bolster the fiscal sustainability of its flexicurity model amid pressures from an aging population, which is projected to elevate welfare service expenditures. These adjustments emphasize stricter activation mandates within active labor market policies, reinforcing the "right and duty to activation" that conditions unemployment benefits on proactive job-seeking and participation in training or job placement programs.^[161] Such measures aim to accelerate re-employment while curbing long-term benefit dependency, aligning with broader efforts to maintain generous safety nets without unchecked fiscal expansion.^[162] Complementing these, Denmark's 2024 Fiscal and Structural Policy Plan incorporates expenditure caps and efficiency targets to address demographic shifts, including automatic adjustments to retirement ages linked to life expectancy gains, as established in prior welfare agreements but reaffirmed in recent planning.^[163] ^[164] Local government incentives for cost savings in welfare delivery further support these goals, targeting reductions in administrative overhead while preserving core flexicurity elements like income security.^[165] Preliminary outcomes include sustained high employment rates, reaching 76.6% in 2023 for the working-age population, with notable gains among older workers and non-EU immigrants through targeted activation.^[89] ^[166] Despite these steps, welfare spending persists at elevated levels, necessitating ongoing vigilance to balance work incentives with security provisions and prevent erosion of the model's efficiency under right-leaning policy influences favoring streamlined public finances.^[162] Reforms reflect a pragmatic shift toward integrating technological tools, such as data-driven job matching in public employment services, to enhance placement speed without diluting benefit generosity.^[167] Overall, these changes have contributed to employment upticks in vulnerable cohorts, though comprehensive cost containment remains challenged by demographic realities.^[165]

Contemporary Debates on Viability

Proponents of flexicurity's ongoing viability highlight its empirical resilience, as evidenced by Denmark's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate remaining at 2.6% through August 2025, among the lowest in Europe despite global economic pressures.^[121] This low rate is attributed to the model's active labor market policies, which facilitate rapid reallocation of workers amid technological shifts, positioning Denmark as a benchmark for Western economies grappling with population aging and productivity demands.^[168] Advocates further contend that flexicurity's emphasis on lifelong training enhances adaptability to artificial intelligence and automation, enabling workers to transition into emerging roles rather than face displacement, as seen in Danish firms' integration of AI without proportional job losses.^[169]^[170] Critics, however, argue that flexicurity's security components face mounting unsustainability due to demographic pressures, with Denmark's age dependency ratio reaching 57.64% in 2024 and projected to rise further amid an aging population and non-Western immigration increasing the foreign-born share to 12.6% by 2025.^[171]^[172] Such trends strain welfare financing, as higher dependency ratios elevate the ratio of non-workers to contributors, potentially eroding the generous benefits that underpin the model. LSE analyses describe the flexibility-security balance as precarious, with reliance on short-term and zero-hour contracts fostering income instability and undermining long-term security, even as flexibility rises across Europe.^[173] Moreover, Denmark's high labor tax wedge—around 45%—is said to deter investment and hinder growth by increasing costs for employers and reducing incentives for entrepreneurship, contrasting with lower-tax models that prioritize dynamism.^[174]^[175] Balanced perspectives in 2020s discourse suggest that while full flexicurity emulation may falter in heterogeneous societies lacking Denmark's cultural cohesion and trust levels, partial adaptations—such as enhanced training paired with selective deregulation—could prove viable elsewhere.^[176] Debates increasingly explore hybrids blending flexicurity's activation elements with U.S.-style market flexibility, arguing that transplanting the Danish model wholesale overlooks institutional variances but that targeted reforms could address automation and aging without excessive fiscal burdens.^[177] These views emphasize causal links between policy design and outcomes, cautioning against overreliance on high-tax redistribution amid global migration and technological flux.^[52]

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Four components make up the core of the Commission's view: flexible and reliable contractual arrangements; comprehensive life-long learning strategies; ...Missing: pillars | Show results with:pillars
[73]
Unemployed persons - Statistics Denmark
The unemployment statistics are compiled on the basis of the files of the Historical register of Insurance fund members (HAMR) maintained by the National ...
[74]
Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate)
Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) - Denmark from The World Bank: Data.
[75]
The Danish labor market, 2000–2022 - IZA World of Labor
A key property of the flexicurity model is a high level of job turnover, implying that the unemployed (including youths entering the labor market) can find jobs ...
[76]
Labour Force Survey (LFS) - Statistics Denmark
Labour Force Survey (LFS). Employment rate (15-64 years). 77.3 %. Q2 2025. ILO ... The employment rate shows the proportion of each age group that is employed.
[77]
Employment - annual statistics - European Commission
For those aged 15-24 years, the employment rate increased by 4.7 pp for men and by 4.4 pp for women. Line chart showing employment rate by age group and sex as ...Missing: Denmark | Show results with:Denmark
[78]
Structural Unemployment in Denmark - OECD
In the Danish Ministry of Finance the level of structural unemployment is estimated using two indicators - NAIRU and ITRU. The two indicators basically reflect ...Missing: NAWRU | Show results with:NAWRU<|separator|>
[79]
Youth Unemployment Rate for Denmark (SLUEM1524ZSDNK) | FRED
Youth Unemployment Rate for Denmark (SLUEM1524ZSDNK) ; 2024: 12.121 ; 2023: 11.499 ; 2022: 10.533 ; 2021: 10.808 ; 2020: 11.588.
[80]
Euro area unemployment at 6.3% - Euro indicators - Eurostat
Oct 2, 2025 · In August 2025, the youth unemployment rate was 14.6% in the EU, up from 14.4% in July 2025, and 14.0% in the euro area, stable compared with ...Skip to the content · Youth unemployment · Tables · Notes for users
[81]
[PDF] RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DANISH LABOUR MARKET
The Danish labour market has undergone a remarkable change during the 1990s with a reduction of the unemployment rate from about 12 per cent in 1993 to less ...
[82]
https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?df%5Bds%5D=DisseminateFinalDMZ&df%5Bid%5D=DSD_TENURE%40DF_TENURE_AVE&df%5Bag%5D=OECD.ELS.SAE
[83]
Real Gross Wage Growth in Denmark | Helgi Library
Historically, Real Gross Wage Growth in Denmark reached an all time high of 3.02% in 2004 and an all time low of -3.10% in 1994. Denmark has been ranked 47th ...
[84]
Hiring, employment, and health in Scandinavia: the Danish ...
Oct 19, 2016 · In the 28 European Union member countries, the unemployment rate increased from 7% in the start of 2008 to 11% in 2013 (Eurostat 2015a).
[85]
The Danish Flexicurity Labour Market During the Great Recession
The flexicurity model has coped with the Great Recession in the sense that gross flows in the labour market remain high, most unemployment spells are short.
[86]
OECD Economic Surveys: Denmark 2021
The Danish economy has recovered quickly from the COVID-19 crisis. Rapid ... Unemployment increased by around 1 percentage point, less than in most EU countries.
[87]
Employment security and labour market flexibility in Denmark
An example of the Danish model is in the labour market strategy that Denmark has followed since the 1990s, the so-called 'flexicurity' system—a term coined in ...Missing: reforms | Show results with:reforms
[88]
The Danish labor market, 2000–2022 - IZA World of Labor
Denmark is often highlighted as a “flexicurity” country with lax employment protection legislation, generous unemployment insurance, and active labor market ...
[89]
Labour Market Information: Denmark - EURES - European Union
The employment rate for women in 2023 was 54.2%, men had an employment rate of 60.3%, and for the youth the employment rate was 56.2%, all below the national ...
[90]
Part-time and Partly Equal: Gender and Work in the Netherlands
Sep 11, 2019 · Nearly 60% of women in the Dutch labour market work part-time, roughly three times the OECD average for women, and over three times the rate for Dutch men.
[91]
Netherlands Youth Unemployment Rate - Trading Economics
Youth Unemployment Rate in Netherlands increased to 8.80 percent in September from 8.60 percent in August of 2025. Youth Unemployment Rate in Netherlands ...
[92]
Unemployment Benefits in the Netherlands: How to Apply and ...
The minimum duration of the benefit is three months, while the maximum duration is 38 months. Throughout the benefit period, you are required to actively seek ...<|separator|>
[93]
Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2024 - Country Notes
Nov 28, 2024 · The national employment rate in the Netherlands stands at 82.3%, above the OECD benchmark of 69.4%.
[94]
(PDF) The European flexicurity concept and the Dutch and Danish ...
Sep 14, 2018 · The Dutch flexicurity model has a narrower focus on normalizing atypical work, while recent reforms support this narrow flexicurity model.
[95]
Labor market reforms in Europe: towards more flexicure labor ...
Sep 21, 2017 · The paper provides an overview of reform patterns and tries to assess whether and to what extent these reforms have led to less dualized, more 'flexicure' ...
[96]
https://academic.oup.com/ser/article/7/2/305/1635889
[97]
[PDF] Flexicurity – a state-of-the art review - Adapt
As their names suggest, these different flexicurity pathways respond to different problems that are visible, to differing degrees, in European labour markets.
[98]
(PDF) Flexicurity in Austria: Social Partnership just renamed?
Flexicurity is a European labour market policy which should compensate the ongoing flexibilization of employment relations by advances in employment security ...
[99]
[PDF] WORKING PAPER Labour Market Reforms and the Crisis in Portugal
According to the MoU, EPL reforms aimed at: reducing labour market segmentation, fostering job creation and easing job switching.
[100]
Flexicurity or Flexicarity? - A Portuguese Overview - ResearchGate
“Flexicurity” became top of the list in the policy agenda in the European Union, but there is doubt that such an agenda for encompassing labour market reform ...
[101]
[PDF] The 2012 Labour Market Reform in Spain | OECD
OECD indicators on employment protection legislation (EPL) indicate that the reform has significantly reduced the rigidity of the Spanish legislation on.
[102]
Spanish unemployment and the effects of the 2012 labour market ...
Jul 4, 2016 · The unemployment rate is currently at 20% and has been above this level for over five years (although it has gone down from 25% two years ago) even as the ...
[103]
Spain's labour market reforms: the road to employment
It concludes that the labour market flexibilisation approach has not helped to reduce unemployment, nor has it contributed to the process of reactivating the ...
[104]
Flexibility And Earning Potential, Two Lures Of The Gig Economy
Feb 15, 2023 · Our research showed that gig workers valued their flexible lifestyle above nearly everything else, with 63 percent saying that flexibility is the key reason ...
[105]
The Gig Economy's Next Act: Balancing Flexibility and Security for ...
Nov 21, 2024 · Proposition 22 allowed gig workers to remain independent contractors while gaining benefits like minimum earnings standards and healthcare stipends.
[106]
The Gig Trap: Algorithmic, Wage and Labor Exploitation in Platform ...
May 12, 2025 · The business model of major platforms in the US exploits the prospect of flexible work to classify platform workers as independent contractors.
[107]
SkillsFuture Singapore | Homepage
SkillsFuture for You · Discover learning opportunities and training support · Discover career initiatives and workforce support · Find jobs that match your skills.SkillsFuture for Individuals · SkillsFuture Movement · SkillsFuture for EmployersMissing: flexicurity | Show results with:flexicurity
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Can Flexible Jobs Drive the Future of Work? Lessons from MENA
Nov 11, 2024 · A recent World Bank study shows empirical evidence that flexible employment arrangements, such as online gig work, significantly enhance female labor force ...
[109]
Can Denmark's Flexicurity System Be Replicated In Developing ...
Sep 27, 2019 · Abstract. Finding a new balance between flexibility and security is a big challenge for all. According to the European Council “Providing ...
[110]
Flexicurity, Casualization and Informalization of Global Labour Markets
This chapter attempts to examine how global restructuring has impacted labour markets in the North and the South. The point of departure is that although ...
[111]
[PDF] Job Mobility and Creative Destruction: Flexicurity in the Land of ...
Jun 14, 2017 · Our empirical analysis shows, we believe, that a move in the Austrian direction is a very promising avenue for countries facing high ...
[112]
Job Mobility and Creative Destruction: Flexicurity in the Land of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · An empirical cross‐country analysis shows that job mobility is positively correlated with the growth of employment and negatively correlated ...
[113]
[PDF] Sluggish Productivity Growth in Denmark (EN) - OECD
Jul 2, 2012 · In 2000, Denmark ranked eighth among OECD countries in terms of labour productivity; by 2011, it had become twelfth (Figure 1, Panel A and B).
[114]
Doing Business 2020: OECD High-Income Economies Remain ...
Oct 24, 2019 · In 2018-19, New Zealand repeats as world's easiest place to do business, followed by Denmark 4th; the Republic of Korea 5th; the United States 6 ...
[115]
Rankings - Doing Business
Economies are ranked on their ease of doing business, from 1–190. A high ease of doing business ranking means the regulatory environment is more conducive.Ease of Doing Business Scores · Doing Business · India · Select an economy
[116]
Unemployment statistics and beyond - European Commission
By contrast, less than 10% of the unemployed in Denmark, Sweden, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Austria, France and Estonia had been unemployed for this long.
[117]
Unemployment statistics at regional level - European Commission
The long-term unemployment share, defined as the percentage of unemployed people who have been unemployed for 12 months or more, stood at 38.5 % on average in ...
[118]
Denmark - Long-term unemployment by sex - quarterly data
Denmark - Long-term unemployment by sex - quarterly data was 0.90 % of population in the labour force in March of 2025, according to the EUROSTAT.
[119]
New lows for EU unemployment in 2024 - News articles - Eurostat
May 23, 2025 · The long-term unemployment rate, as a percentage of the labour force, was 1.9% in 2024. This was similarly the lowest level in the entire ...<|separator|>
[120]
Denmark Long Term Unemployment Rate - Trading Economics
Long Term Unemployment Rate in Denmark averaged 1.14 percent from 1992 until 2025, reaching an all time high of 2.70 percent in the second quarter of 1993 and ...
[121]
Denmark Net Unemployment Rate - Trading Economics
Unemployment Rate in Denmark averaged 6.15 percent from 1980 until 2025, reaching an all time high of 12.90 percent in March of 1994 and a record low of 1.60 ...
[122]
[PDF] THE THREAT EFFECT OF ACTIVE LABOR MARKET PROGRAMS
Geerdsen and Holm (2007) report that a 50 percentage point increase in the risk of enrolment in an ALMP results in approximately 50% increase in the hazard of.
[123]
The effects of active labour market policies for immigrants receiving ...
We estimate the effect of active labour-market programmes on the exit rate to regular employment for non-western immigrants in Denmark who receive social ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[124]
https://academic.oup.com/esr/article/24/2/183/613705
[125]
[PDF] Self-Perceived Job Insecurity and Social Context
Bringing up the rear are Denmark, Ireland, Norway and Austria, which is the. European country whose workers are least affected by job insecurity, with only 9 ...
[126]
Flexicurity and job satisfaction in Europe: The importance of ...
In this paper we study the effect of a micro-level measure of flexicurity on workers' job satisfaction.
[127]
Do flexicurity policies protect workers from the adverse health ...
Flexicurity policies comprise a relatively novel approach to the regulation of work and welfare that aims to combine labour market flexibility with social ...Missing: criticisms controversies
[128]
[PDF] CEBI WORKING PAPER SERIES Claus Thustrup Kreiner Michael ...
6 The total costs of active labor market programs are close to 2 percent of GDP per year and makes Denmark, by a wide margin, the OECD country that spends most ...
[129]
Denmark: 2025 Article IV Consultation-Press Release - IMF eLibrary
Jul 4, 2025 · Make Active Labor Market Policies (ALMPs) more cost-effective. At two percent of GDP, Denmark's spending on ALMPs is among the highest in the ...Missing: UI | Show results with:UI
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Sizing up Welfare States: How do OECD countries compare?
Feb 2, 2023 · Income support includes public spending worth 1.6% of GDP on sickness and disability cash payments, 1.1% on family cash benefits and 0.6% on ...<|separator|>
[131]
Top Personal Income Tax Rates in Europe, 2025 - Tax Foundation
Feb 11, 2025 · Denmark (55.9 percent), France (55.4 percent), and Austria (55 percent) have the highest top personal income tax rates in Europe in 2025.
[132]
The Free Enterprise Welfare State: A History of Denmark's Unique ...
Oct 27, 2023 · Despite common misperceptions, middle-class workers in Denmark pay relatively high taxes for Denmark's large government.
[133]
[PDF] Denmark - IMF eLibrary
Gross debt declined from 36½ percent of GDP in 2021 to around 30 percent in 2022, among the lowest in the European Union. Text Table 1. Denmark: Fiscal Budgeted ...
[134]
Estimating labor supply responses to Danish tax reforms
This paper estimates the elasticity of labor supply at the intensive margin by applying the latest estimation strategies from the elasticity of taxable income ...Estimating Labor Supply... · 5. Results · Appendix B. Additional...
[135]
Laffer Curve: Statutory vs. Effective Tax Rates in Europe
Sep 17, 2024 · Critics of the Laffer Curve argue that its simplicity does not capture the complexity of modern economies and that the effects of changes in ...Missing: flexicurity | Show results with:flexicurity
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[PDF] The Dynamics of Job Search in Unemployment
The Danish UI system is based on voluntary membership. ... unemployment spell, as UI recipients gradually lower their reservation wages and they also start.
[137]
Low wage after unemployment - the effect of changes in the UI system
First, a generous UI system will increase reservation wages and thereby increase the effective minimum wage. This will exclude the least productive ...
[138]
Does an Increase in Unemployment Income Lead to Longer ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Danish unemployment assistance depends on age; it increases by 70% when unemployed individuals turn 25. This feature is used to identify the ...<|separator|>
[139]
[PDF] Danish for All? Balancing Flexibility with Security: The Flexicurity ...
Between 1993 and 2000, Denmark enjoyed a period of rapid economic growth. Labor market reforms reinforced growth, reducing the unemployment rate to a 25-year ...
[140]
(PDF) Denmark: Flexibility, security and labour market success
But in most cases, an employee can be dismissed with a notice of a few days or weeks. ... Table 5.4: The Danish paid leave arrangements in the labour market ...
[141]
[PDF] MIGRANT INTEGRATION IN DENMARK AND EUROPE - IMF eLibrary
In. Denmark, unemployment among the foreign-born in the 2014 survey sample is twice as high as for natives (8 percent versus 4 percent), and inactivity is much ...
[142]
Labour market status (RAS) - Statistics Denmark
The RAS provides information on Danish labor force participation by socio-economic status. In 2023, the employment rate for persons of Danish origin was 78.2%.
[143]
Long-term unemployment is double for non-Western immigrants
Mar 6, 2025 · According to the report, while 14.2% of the unemployed with Danish origins are long-term unemployed as of January 2025, the rate is 25.8% for […] ...
[144]
[PDF] Denmark: from integration to repatriation
Since 2016, integration programmes and employment policies targeted at refugees and family-reunified migrants have been reformed to promote faster labour market ...
[145]
Migrant integration in Denmark - Migration and Home Affairs
Most recently, the Danish government proposed tying the social benefits of migrant women to the completion of 37-hour work weeks in so-called 'useful jobs'.
[146]
[PDF] A Successful Danish Social Model
Denmark has one of the lowest unemployment rates and the fewest number of long-term unemployed. Denmark is also the most efficient country when it comes to ...
[147]
[PDF] Overview and analysis minimum income schemes in Denmark
The non- insured unemployed can apply for means-tested social assistance, including cash benefit which is among the lowest levels of the social safety net in ...
[148]
[PDF] Inequality in Denmark through the Looking Glass | OECD
Nov 17, 2016 · This paper delivers a broad assessment of income inequality in Denmark. As a necessary preamble to provide a basis for discussion, ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Flexicurity and atypical employment in Denmark
In 2007, 36 % of all female employed were in part-time employment (compared to 14 % of men), and only 4 % of women were self-employed (compared to 9 % of ...
[150]
Trapped in Precariousness? Risks and Opportunities of Female ...
Apr 8, 2020 · We explore the risks and opportunities of job transitions (to unemployment, inactivity, full-time work and promotion) of female immigrants and natives in part- ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] From Flexicurity to FlexicArity? Gendered Perspectives on the ...
In Denmark, women are on the labour market in almost the same numbers as men ... most of the collective agreements prohibited part-time jobs below 15 ...
[152]
[PDF] DANISH FLEXICURITY MODEL
European Commission identifies the flexicurity concept through: 1. flexible and reliable contractual arrangements; 2. comprehensive lifelong learning; 3.
[153]
Denmark - Unemployment rate: From 15 to 74 years
Historically, Denmark - Unemployment rate: From 15 to 74 years reached a record high of 7.80% in December of 2012 and a record low of 3.70% in December of 2008.
[154]
Denmark Trims Its Generous Safety Net - The New York Times
Aug 16, 2010 · The government in June cut into its benefits system, the world's most generous, by limiting unemployment payments to two years instead of four.
[155]
“Shelter from the storm?” - Danish flexicurity and the crisis
Jul 8, 2013 · However, the most controversial elements in the agreement was a shortening of the duration of unemployment benefits from four to two years and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[156]
The Danish Wage Compensation Scheme helping companies and ...
Jun 16, 2020 · The scheme became effective on March 9th 2020 and was originally to run until the 8th of June, but was later extended till 29th of August.
[157]
Why Denmark is paying salaries for virus-hit companies
Apr 9, 2020 · AFP's Camille Bas-Wohlert explains why Denmark has dumped the flexicurity model during the coronavirus crisis, instead choosing to pay ...
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https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/0f71e518-9e7c-430e-923c-190c0d7d184b_en?filename=2020-european-semester-national-reform-programme-denmark_en.pdf
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[PDF] Job Retention during the Covid-19 Pandemic
The wage compensation scheme for employees was introduced in March 2020, following the lockdown of the Danish economy. The scheme became effective on March 9, ...
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Tackling Denmark's Post-Crisis Labour Market Challenges
Denmark takes steps to improve employability of people at the margins of the labour market. Among them are immigrants, low-skilled workers and the disabled.
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SGI 2024 | Denmark | Key Challenges
A sequence of reforms has ensured that the welfare state can cope with an aging population and that fiscal policy is sustainable. However, several challenges ...
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[PDF] Denmark's Fiscal and Structural Policy Plan 2024
Oct 31, 2024 · The EU member states have agreed on a reform of the common fiscal rules in the. EU, which came into force on April 30, 2024.
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Something Is Wonderful in the State of Denmark - Dollars & Sense
Jul 24, 2025 · Twenty years ago, the Danish parliament passed a welfare reform act that tied the retirement age to a life expectancy of age 60. The current ...
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OECD Economic Surveys: Denmark 2024
Population ageing will increase spending on welfare services, calling for savings and efficiency gains at the local level. Municipalities have a strong ...Missing: aging | Show results with:aging
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The Nordic labour market after the pandemic
Between 2020 and 2022, the employment rate for those born outside of the EU rose almost eight percentage points in Denmark (to 72%), seven in Finland (70%), six ...
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Artificial intelligence and labour market matching | OECD
The present paper reviews the literature and some recent policy developments in this field, while bringing new evidence from interviews held with key ...Missing: Danish activation
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SGI 2024 | Denmark | Economic Sustainability
The “flexicurity” model includes flexible hiring and firing rules, a generous social safety net, and active labor market policies. The social safety net covers ...Viable Critical... · Adaptive Labor Markets · Sustainable Taxation
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a case study of Denmark's transformation into a talent stock market
Jul 4, 2025 · While Denmark's flexicurity model has been a benchmark for labor market flexibility and social security in the 2D economy, it faces challenges ...
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Job maker or job taker? How artificial intelligence is defying the ...
Jul 1, 2025 · We're now repeating our French study in Denmark, comparing firms that adopt AI with similar firms that don't. Again, we're finding a ...
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Denmark - Age Dependency Ratio (% Of Working-age Population)
Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population) in Denmark was reported at 57.64 % in 2024, according to the World Bank collection of development indicators.Missing: migration | Show results with:migration
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Denmark's Turn to Temporary Protection - Migration Policy Institute
May 21, 2025 · As such, Denmark offers an opportunity for a growing low-skilled workforce that includes many migrants on student visas who seem primarily ...
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Why the “flexicurity” model of the labour market is not sustainable
Sep 17, 2024 · The current social contract is based on the hiring of workers on flexible contracts, such as on a part-time, temporary, short-term or zero-hour basis.Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
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[PDF] Eurosclerosis at 40: labor market institutions, dynamism, and ...
The average labor tax wedge on labor has stayed stable in both the US and. Europe—with European taxes being about 45% (a percentage point gap of about 12.
[175]
EU cannot afford to miss out on flexicurity - Politico.eu
The Danish model is financed by one of the highest tax levels in Europe. Sweden and Finland, which apply similar models, are also high-tax countries.<|separator|>
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(PDF) The Danish Flexicurity Model-a Lesson for the US?
This success is ascribed the so-called Danish flexicurity model, where an easy access to hiring and firing employees (flexibil-ity) is combined with extensive ...
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUyLT-_y0KA