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Frame analysis

Frame analysis is a sociological framework and analytical method developed by Erving Goffman in his 1974 book Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience, which posits that individuals structure their perception and interpretation of social reality through cognitive and interactive "frames"—schemata that organize experience by enabling people to locate, perceive, identify, and label occurrences within ongoing activity.^[1]^[2] These frames operate as interpretive lenses, transforming raw sensory input into meaningful events by imposing order on ambiguous situations, such as distinguishing a casual conversation from a ritualized performance or a genuine threat from playful simulation.^[1] Goffman emphasized primary frameworks as the foundational structures—divided into natural (unguided physical or biological processes) and social (guided by intentional human agency)—which underpin everyday sense-making before secondary transformations like "keying" (recasting activities in a different light, e.g., rehearsals as keyed versions of rehearsals) or "fabrications" (deliberate misrepresentations to alter perceptions).^[3]^[2] The method's significance lies in its application to micro-level social interactions, revealing how frames maintain coherence in face-to-face encounters while allowing for disruptions, such as "frame breaks" that signal anomalies or conflicts in interpretation.^[2] Goffman's approach draws on ethnographic observation and dramaturgical analogies, treating social life as a series of "strips" of activity analyzable for embedded assumptions about reality, which has influenced fields beyond sociology, including communication studies for dissecting media discourse and political framing.^[1]^[4] Notable extensions include its use in examining how news organizations construct issue salience through selective emphasis, though empirical applications often face challenges in operationalizing vague frame elements, leading critiques that the method's potential for causal insight into meaning construction remains underrealized without rigorous coding protocols.^[4]^[5] Despite such limitations, frame analysis endures as a tool for causal realism in understanding how interpretive structures shape behavior, with limited documented controversies centered more on interpretive flexibility than foundational flaws.^[5]

Historical Development

Erving Goffman's Foundational Contributions

Erving Goffman introduced frame analysis in his 1974 book Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience, conceptualizing frames as interpretive schemata that individuals apply to organize and make sense of ambiguous social situations.^[6] These frames function as natural cognitive structures, enabling people to answer the question "What is it that's going on here?" by imposing order on otherwise unstructured experience through empirical patterns observed in everyday interactions.^[6] Goffman emphasized that frames emerge from micro-level observations of human behavior, drawing on ethnographic insights into face-to-face encounters rather than abstract theorizing or macro-social structures.^[7] Central to Goffman's framework are primary frameworks, which provide the baseline answers to interpretive questions by classifying events as either natural—occurring independently of human design, such as weather phenomena—or social, involving guided activity attributable to human agency.^[8] Within social primary frameworks, Goffman distinguished between "serious" activities, treated as consequential and untransformed, and "fun" or playful ones, where events are reinterpreted without real-world stakes, such as in games or jest.^[6] These distinctions arise causally from participants' shared assumptions about reality, tested through real-time adjustments in interaction; for instance, an ambiguous gesture might be framed as accidental (natural) or intentional (social-serious) based on contextual cues like tone or setting, grounded in Goffman's analysis of observable behavioral sequences. Goffman further elaborated transformational processes acting on primary frameworks, notably keying, which involves systematic alterations to strip or rekey events into different modes, such as make-believe (e.g., play-acting a serious ritual as rehearsal) or contest (e.g., turning routine talk into verbal sparring).^[6] In contrast, fabrication denotes deliberate manipulations that mislead others about the operative frame, such as feigning ignorance to extract information, relying on the deceiver's control over cues to sustain the illusion.^[2] These mechanisms highlight causal dynamics in sense-making, where frames are not static but actively negotiated via empirical feedback from participants' responses, as evidenced in Goffman's detailed dissections of conversational "strips" and ritualized encounters.^[7] By focusing on such micro-interactions, Goffman's approach prioritizes verifiable patterns in unscripted social life over generalized cultural narratives.^[9]

Evolution in Communication and Sociology Post-1974

Following Erving Goffman's 1974 foundational work, frame analysis in communication studies evolved toward more structured theoretical models emphasizing selective emphasis and interpretive processes. Robert M. Entman, in his 1993 analysis, defined framing as the process by which communicators select certain aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient through repetition or reinforcement, thereby promoting a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation. This clarification distinguished framing from related concepts like agenda-setting— which prioritizes issue salience— and priming, which activates cognitive accessibility for judgment, while establishing causal pathways where frames influence public cognition by linking elite discourse to media outputs.^[10] In sociology and public discourse analysis, William A. Gamson advanced the concept of "frame packages" during the late 1980s, describing them as clusters of symbols, metaphors, visual images, and narratives that interpret public issues, such as nuclear power, by packaging interpretive frames with reasoning devices and cultural symbols to compete in media and public arenas.^[11] Gamson's approach highlighted how these packages emerge from ongoing public discourse rather than isolated media acts, integrating sociological views of collective interpretation with communication flows, and empirically tracing their contestation across advocacy groups and news coverage without assuming uniform media dominance. Empirical research shifted frame analysis toward testable hypotheses, particularly through experimental designs examining frames' effects on causal attributions. Shanto Iyengar's 1991 studies demonstrated that news frames— contrasting episodic (individual-focused) with thematic (societal/contextual)— causally influenced viewers' responsibility attributions for issues like poverty and unemployment, with thematic frames increasing societal blame and episodic frames elevating individual accountability, as measured in controlled television news exposures.^[12] This integration with psychological schema theory positioned frames as cognitive structures that organize incoming information by emphasizing certain attributes, facilitating hypothesis-driven tests of how frames alter attributions without relying on unverified normative assumptions about media intent.^[13] Such developments underscored frame analysis's causal realism, linking interpretive selection to observable effects on public reasoning.

Core Theoretical Concepts

Primary Frameworks and Keying

Primary frameworks, as conceptualized by Erving Goffman, constitute the foundational interpretive structures through which individuals organize and ascribe meaning to otherwise equivocal occurrences in their environment.^[1] These frameworks operate as unarticulated defaults, guiding perception and action by presupposing the nature of events without explicit negotiation; they are empirically verifiable in routine social interactions where participants implicitly align on causal attributions, such as interpreting a falling object as governed by gravity rather than intent.^[2] Goffman delineates two principal categories: natural frameworks, which pertain to unguided physical phenomena subject to impersonal laws (e.g., a thunderstorm interpreted as meteorological rather than agentive), and social frameworks, which involve purposeful human conduct infused with intentionality (e.g., a verbal exchange presumed to carry motives like persuasion or ritual courtesy).^[1] In interaction rituals, such as casual greetings, participants default to social frameworks, evidenced by observable cues like reciprocal eye contact and tonal inflections that signal shared agency, underscoring the causal role of these lenses in maintaining orderly conduct.^[2] Keying refers to the systematic alteration of a primary-framed activity into a reframed variant, preserving the underlying structure while layering a new interpretive overlay, often signaled through conventional markers like altered tone or props.^[14] Common forms include make-believe (e.g., children's pretend play transforming mundane actions into simulated narratives, observable in their use of verbal disclaimers like "let's pretend"), contests (e.g., boxing as a keyed variant of combat, bounded by rules and referees to lower stakes), and parody (e.g., satirical mimicry exaggerating traits for critique, cued by ironic delivery).^[1] These transformations do not alter the factual substrate—such as physical movements—but redirect their significance, with empirical breakdowns arising from miskeying, as when a participant fails to detect the playful cue, leading to escalated conflict due to mismatched causal expectations (e.g., responding to a jest as literal insult).^[2] Such disruptions highlight the causal realism of keying: shared recognition sustains the frame, while misalignment exposes vulnerabilities in interpretive alignment, verifiable through post-hoc accounts of interactional faux pas. Keying differs fundamentally from fabrications, which involve deliberate discrepancies designed to induce false beliefs through covert mismatches between presented and actual frames, rather than overt, consensual transformations.^[1] Whereas keyings are typically transparent to participants via contextual signals (e.g., exaggerated gestures in parody signaling non-literal intent), fabrications rely on deception, such as a confidence scheme fabricating a social framework of trust to exploit natural assumptions of reciprocity.^[2] This distinction is grounded in observable behavioral indicators: keyings permit meta-commentary on the transformation (e.g., "I'm just kidding"), fostering resilience against errors, while fabrications evade such scrutiny to sustain illusion, with breakdowns occurring upon detection of incongruities like inconsistent cues.^[14] Empirically, these processes manifest in micro-interactions where frame adherence predicts behavioral coherence, as deviations prompt renegotiation or rupture.

Secondary Frames and Transformational Mechanisms

Secondary frames function as hierarchical or overlaid interpretive structures that augment primary frameworks, introducing subordinate layers of meaning to the same factual substrate. These meta-structures, such as institutional lenses applied to raw events, allow for multiple coexisting readings by embedding additional contextual or relational elements, as evidenced in discourse analyses where secondary frames nest within dominant ones to modulate emphasis without fabricating data. For instance, a primary event like a market transaction can acquire secondary overlays of regulatory compliance or ethical valuation, enabling analysts to discern competing interpretive tracks within unified observations.^[15]^[16] Transformational mechanisms dynamically alter frame applications through systematic processes like keying, which recasts an activity into a simulated or patterned equivalent—such as reinterpreting a factual negotiation as a rehearsal exercise—while preserving the core elements' verifiability. Rekeying extends this by layering further transformations onto keyed frames, as in iterative simulations that compound meta-levels of pretense, observed in interactional studies of conversational shifts. Frame bridging links otherwise disjointed but congruent frames, fostering expanded alignments; empirical examinations of rhetorical exchanges reveal its operation in integrating disparate interpretive strands, such as causal-economic sequences with normative ones, to amplify coherence without causal invention.^[17]^[18]^[19] These mechanisms adhere to realism by selectively illuminating causal chains inherent in events rather than generating spurious links, with effects verifiable through audience response metrics. Controlled studies on framed expositions demonstrate that recipients exhibit heightened recall of frame-salient attributes and causal pathways, as participants in memory tasks prioritized elements matching the imposed interpretive overlay, underscoring frames' role in perceptual filtering over fact alteration. Such findings, drawn from experimental designs tracking differential retention, affirm that transformational processes influence cognitive prioritization without overriding empirical reality.^[20]^[21]

Methodological Approaches

Qualitative and Rhetorical Analysis

Qualitative and rhetorical analysis constitutes a cornerstone of interpretive methodologies in frame analysis, focusing on the nuanced dissection of discourse to reveal how frames emerge through linguistic and symbolic choices. Researchers apply hermeneutic techniques to textual materials, such as speeches, news articles, and policy documents, identifying frames via patterns in vocabulary, syntax, and narrative arcs that guide interpretation. This approach privileges depth over breadth, enabling scrutiny of how rhetorical strategies— including ethos, pathos, and logos—construct interpretive schemata that influence audience cognition.^[22] Rhetorical criticism within this framework treats metaphors and narratives as primary frame devices, examining their capacity to evoke causal associations and moral valuations. For instance, depicting social issues through "war" metaphors—such as the "war on drugs" or "war on terror"—primes audiences for militaristic responses emphasizing confrontation and elimination, whereas "medical" metaphors frame the same phenomena as treatable conditions requiring diagnosis and therapy. Linguist George Lakoff, in his analysis of political rhetoric, contended that such devices activate entrenched conceptual metaphors, thereby shaping policy preferences by aligning with conservative emphases on authority and strictness or progressive orientations toward nurturance.^[23]^[24] Empirical applications, as in studies of environmental discourse, demonstrate how "catastrophe" frames versus "opportunity" frames alter risk perceptions through vivid imagery and temporal urgency.^[25] Drawing from Erving Goffman's foundational emphasis on interactive framing, ethnographic variants observe frame negotiation in situated contexts, such as conversational turn-taking or group deliberations, where participants key, transform, or contest frames in real time. Data from semi-structured interviews or focus groups capture these dynamics, revealing how individuals invoke shared schemata to maintain coherence or resolve ambiguities, as seen in analyses of workplace negotiations or public deliberations.^[2] To mitigate interpretive subjectivity, validity hinges on triangulation: cross-referencing findings from diverse textual sources, observer accounts, or analytical perspectives to corroborate frame identifications and expose potential biases in source selection or researcher preconceptions.^[26] This method underscores causal links between rhetorical form and interpretive outcomes, grounded in observable discursive evidence rather than assumed ideological neutrality.

Quantitative Content Analysis

Quantitative content analysis in frame analysis employs systematic, rule-based coding to tally the occurrence and attributes of frames within defined units of media content, such as news articles or broadcasts, enabling aggregate measures of prevalence and variation. Coders apply deductive protocols derived from theoretical frame definitions, assessing indicators like keywords, thematic emphasis, or rhetorical structures, often using yes/no questions for binary presence-absence judgments to minimize subjectivity. Inter-coder reliability is established through metrics such as Cohen's kappa, targeting values above 0.70 to ensure consistent application across multiple analysts, with discrepancies resolved via training or adjudication.^[27]^[28] A prominent protocol originates from Semetko and Valkenburg's (2000) examination of European politics coverage in press and television news from 1990 to 1992, where they operationalized five generic frames through standardized questions: conflict (e.g., "Does the story emphasize disagreement?"), responsibility (e.g., "Does it hold government or others accountable?"), human interest (e.g., "Does it provide emotional, personal angles?"), economic consequences (e.g., "Does it discuss financial impacts?"), and morality (e.g., "Does it interpret via moral terms?"). Applied to a sample of over 2,000 news items, this approach yielded frequency counts showing, for instance, conflict frames dominating in 46% of television stories versus 31% in newspapers, highlighting medium-specific patterns.^[29] Key metrics include frame frequency (raw counts or percentages of units containing a frame), salience (e.g., proportion of text devoted or lead placement), and balance (co-occurrence of competing frames within a story). Iyengar (1991) exemplified this in analyzing U.S. network television news (ABC, CBS, NBC) from 1981 to 1986, categorizing over 900 stories on issues like poverty and terrorism as episodic (focusing on specific events or individuals, comprising the majority—around 70-80% for poverty coverage—or thematic (providing societal context and trends). Episodic dominance correlated with dispositional attributions of responsibility, quantified via chi-square tests comparing frame distributions across issues.^[30] Statistical analyses, such as chi-square tests of independence, assess differences in frame use across outlets, time periods, or conditions; for example, significant chi-square values (p < 0.05) have revealed elevated conflict frames in cable news versus broadcast, with effect sizes via contingency coefficients indicating practical variance. These tests support causal inferences about frame-building factors, like outlet ideology, by comparing observed frame frequencies against expected uniform distributions in stratified samples. Reliability extends to post-hoc validations, ensuring metrics like salience avoid inflation from ambiguous units.^[31]^[32]

Computational and Automated Techniques

Computational techniques for frame analysis employ natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning algorithms to detect and classify interpretive frames at scale, enabling analysis of vast datasets that exceed manual capacities.^[33] These methods emerged prominently post-2010, with post-2020 advancements focusing on data-driven models that identify patterns in linguistic cues, such as word co-occurrences and syntactic structures indicative of framing devices.^[34] Unsupervised approaches, including Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling, infer frame clusters by probabilistically assigning documents to latent topics based on term distributions, as applied to news corpora to reveal dominant interpretive schemas without predefined categories.^[33] Supervised classifiers, trained on labeled datasets, achieve targeted frame identification by learning associations between textual features and frame annotations. The Media Frames Corpus, developed by Card, Boydstun, and colleagues, annotates frames across diverse issues like immigration and health policy, serving as a benchmark for training models on 20,000+ articles with reliability metrics exceeding human inter-coder agreement in scalability tests. Recent iterations incorporate Boydstun's Policy Frames Codebook (initially 2014, with extensions in subsequent corpora), which codifies 15 dimensions such as "capacity/efficacy" and "scope of responsibility" for automated detection in policy discourse. Transformer-based models, particularly BERT variants fine-tuned for frame tasks, have advanced nuanced detection since 2020 by leveraging contextual embeddings to capture subtle framing variations, including in short-form social media texts. A 2024 study demonstrated BERT's efficacy in generic news frame detection, achieving F1-scores of 0.75-0.85 on held-out test sets for frames like "conflict" and "human interest," outperforming traditional bag-of-words classifiers in handling polysemy and negation.^[35] These models facilitate frame asymmetry analysis—disparities in frame application across actors or topics—via embedding similarity metrics on large-scale data, as in 2023 applications to social movement tweets.^[36] Validation against human coding confirms automated techniques' reliability, with multiple studies reporting Krippendorff's alpha agreements of 0.70-0.85 between machine predictions and expert annotations on corpora exceeding 10,000 documents, while enabling 100- to 1,000-fold increases in throughput compared to manual methods.^[36] Such benchmarks, drawn from comparative evaluations, underscore that supervised and deep learning approaches preserve interpretive fidelity in high-volume settings, though they require domain-specific tuning to mitigate overfitting on training biases.^[35]

Applications Across Domains

Framing in News Media and Journalism

In news media, framing involves journalists' selection and emphasis of particular aspects of events or issues, thereby constructing interpretive packages that guide audience understanding. This process shapes public perception by highlighting certain causes, consequences, and solutions while omitting others. Empirical content analyses reveal recurring generic frames across outlets, including conflict (emphasizing disagreement or competition), responsibility (attributing causes to individuals, groups, or government), human interest (personalizing stories through emotional anecdotes), economic consequences (focusing on financial impacts), and morality (invoking ethical judgments). These frames, identified through deductive coding in a 2000 study of European press and television coverage of EU politics, appeared variably but with conflict being the most prevalent, present in up to 30% of stories depending on the outlet and topic.^[29] A dominant pattern in journalistic framing is the prevalence of episodic over thematic approaches, where episodic frames depict isolated events or individual cases (e.g., a specific crime incident) and thematic frames contextualize issues within broader systemic trends (e.g., societal factors in crime rates). Shanto Iyengar's analysis of U.S. television news from the 1980s found episodic framing in approximately 59% of poverty stories and 73% of unemployment reports, fostering attributions of responsibility to individuals rather than society or policy failures. This episodic dominance persists in contemporary news, as confirmed by later studies of broadcast and print media, which attribute it to the medium's demand for vivid, concrete narratives that enhance viewer engagement over abstract analysis.^[12] Framing intersects with agenda-setting by amplifying specific causal attributions, influencing how audiences infer responsibility for issues like economic downturns or public health crises. For instance, media emphasis on individual-level causes in episodic crime coverage leads viewers to attribute blame to personal failings rather than structural inequalities, as demonstrated in experiments where exposure to such frames reduced support for systemic reforms. Thematic framing, though less common, can shift attributions toward institutional or societal factors, but its underuse in routine reporting limits broader causal realism in public discourse.^[37] Studies of frame diversity reveal variation across news outlets, with elite national media often converging on conflict and episodic frames for efficiency, while local or specialized outlets incorporate more thematic or responsibility elements tailored to audience interests. Content analyses of U.S. and European coverage during crises, such as the 2008 financial meltdown, show that while mainstream broadcasters emphasized economic consequences uniformly, interpretive outlets diverged in morality and human interest applications, reflecting editorial priorities rather than monolithic uniformity. This diversity underscores journalism's role as frame constructors responsive to competitive pressures, though empirical patterns indicate a systemic tilt toward simplifying frames that prioritize immediacy over depth.^[38]

Political Communication and Policy Debates

In political communication, elite actors deploy frames to structure policy debates by performing core tasks: diagnostic framing to pinpoint problems and causal attributions, prognostic framing to outline remedies, and motivational framing to generate urgency for collective response. These elements enable elites to contest causal realities, such as whether policy failures stem from individual behaviors or institutional barriers, thereby shaping legislative priorities without reliance on media amplification. For instance, in U.S. welfare policy discourse during the 1990s, conservative elites diagnostically framed poverty and aid receipt as symptoms of a "culture of dependency" rooted in personal irresponsibility, prognostically advocating work requirements and benefit caps to restore agency, which contributed to the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act's passage amid bipartisan support for reform.^[39]^[40] Ideological divergences in framing reflect competing causal ontologies, with right-leaning communicators prioritizing individual agency—positing that behaviors like delayed workforce entry drive outcomes—over structural determinism, often yielding prognostic policies favoring incentives for self-sufficiency. Left-leaning elites counter with diagnostics emphasizing systemic inequities, such as labor market rigidities, to motivate redistributive expansions. Empirical analyses of debate transcripts and speeches reveal these frames' persistence in elite rhetoric, where agency-oriented diagnostics correlate with policy strings attached to aid, tested through content audits showing higher efficacy in garnering cross-aisle consensus when aligned with observable behavioral data on program participation.^[41]^[42] Robert Entman's cascading activation model elucidates how elite-originated frames in policy arenas propagate downward via repetition in official statements, surveys, and hearings, fostering alignment among policymakers and stakeholders prior to broader dissemination. In the model's application to foreign policy debates post-9/11, elite emphasis on terrorism as a deliberate threat—rather than geopolitical blowback—cascaded to sustain public and congressional backing for military authorizations, validated through pre- and post-event surveys tracking frame adoption rates among respondents exposed to official narratives. This mechanism underscores causal realism in elite discourse, where frames grounded in verifiable attributions (e.g., agency in compliance data) more effectively steer policy enactment than abstracted structural appeals, as evidenced by longitudinal opinion polls linking elite frame dominance to legislative outcomes.^[43]^[44] Frame alignment processes are central to understanding how social movements mobilize participants by linking individual interpretations of reality to collective action goals. According to Snow, Rochford, Worden, and Benford, frame alignment involves the congruence of movement frames with adherents' preexisting beliefs, achieved through specific mechanisms that facilitate micromobilization. These include bridging, which connects ideologically compatible but previously unlinked frames; amplification, which heightens the salience and emotional intensity of core values or beliefs; extension, which expands the frame's applicability to broader issues to attract diverse supporters; and transformation, which reinterprets problematic elements of existing frames to resolve inconsistencies.^[45]^[46] Such processes enable movements to generate interpretive schemas that resonate with potential recruits, fostering participation by making grievances actionable.^[47] Empirical applications illustrate how frame alignment contributes to movement success when frames align with cultural values and audience experiences. In the U.S. civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, activists employed injustice frames emphasizing systemic denial of equal rights and opportunities, which bridged with broader American ideals of fairness and liberty, amplifying calls for legal reform and nonviolent protest.^[48] This resonance helped mobilize widespread support, as evidenced by the movement's role in landmark legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Similarly, the Tea Party movement, emerging in 2009 amid opposition to federal bailouts and healthcare reforms, amplified frames of individual liberty and fiscal restraint, extending them to critiques of government overreach to attract conservative grassroots participants concerned with economic sovereignty.^[49] Success in both cases depended on frame resonance—civil rights through justice-oriented appeals that tapped egalitarian norms, and Tea Party through liberty frames aligning with anti-statist sentiments—rather than mere ideological purity.^[50] While frame alignment promotes internal cohesion and sustained action by unifying diverse actors around shared diagnostics and prognostics, it can also engender echo chambers that prioritize confirmatory evidence, sidelining counterarguments and empirical disconfirmation. This dynamic raises debates over whether rigid framing accelerates radicalization—by entrenching polarized identities that resist compromise—or enables pragmatic adaptation when frames incorporate flexibility for negotiation. For instance, transformation processes may evolve frames toward extremism if initial alignments amplify grievances without prognostic alternatives, as seen in some movement splintering toward intransigence.^[39]^[51] Scholars note that while alignment fosters motivational potency, over-reliance on it risks insulating movements from broader societal feedback, potentially undermining long-term efficacy in favor of short-term solidarity.^[52]

Empirical Evidence and Case Studies

Studies on Media Bias and Asymmetric Framing

Empirical content analyses have quantified media bias through indicators such as the frequency of citations to ideologically aligned think tanks. In a 2005 study published in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Tim Groseclose and Jeffrey Milyo developed an index of media bias by comparing the citation patterns of major U.S. news outlets to those of members of Congress. They assigned Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) scores—ranging from -100 (most conservative) to +100 (most liberal)—to think tanks and media citations, finding that outlets like The New York Times, CBS News, and USA Today had adjusted ADA scores averaging around -20 to -70, positioning them to the left of the median congressional Democrat (approximately -10 at the time) and far left of the overall congressional median near zero.^[53] This citation-based metric suggested a systematic left-leaning asymmetry in source selection, as conservative think tanks like the American Enterprise Institute were cited less frequently relative to liberal ones like the Center for American Progress.^[54] Subsequent quantitative studies have extended bias measurement to linguistic slant, revealing patterns consistent with asymmetric framing in word choice that align more closely with left-leaning narratives. Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse M. Shapiro, in their 2010 Econometrica paper "What Drives Media Slant?", constructed a slant index by analyzing the similarity of newspaper phrases to those used in congressional speeches by Democrats versus Republicans from 1870 to 2004. Their dataset of over 1.3 million articles from 387 U.S. dailies showed that, after controlling for topic, many mainstream papers exhibited slant scores favoring Democratic language—e.g., higher frequencies of terms associating economic issues with government intervention over market solutions—driven primarily by reader demand in liberal-leaning markets rather than ownership.^[55] However, the analysis also identified counterexamples of right-slant in outlets like The Wall Street Journal, where phrasing emphasized individual agency, highlighting that while mainstream dominance leans left, alternative media can produce opposing asymmetries.^[56] In coverage of social issues like inequality and crime, empirical framing studies document imbalances favoring systemic over individual causal explanations, particularly in progressive-leaning outlets. A 2022 analysis in Socius examined U.S. mainstream news framing of racial, gender, and wealth inequality across 2010–2019, finding that articles in outlets like The New York Times disproportionately emphasized structural factors (e.g., 65% of inequality stories invoked systemic barriers) compared to individual merit or choice (under 20%), even when event characteristics were similar, suggesting an inherent frame preference rather than reactive reporting.^[57] Similarly, content analyses of crime reporting, such as a 2021 Equal Justice Initiative review of over 800 stories, revealed that progressive media framed urban violence through lenses of socioeconomic disadvantage and policing inequities (e.g., "systemic roots" mentioned in 40% more cases than perpetrator agency), while conservative alternatives like Fox News inverted this by prioritizing individual accountability frames at rates exceeding 70%.^[58] Frame balance metrics, derived from ratios of systemic-to-individual attributions, indicate disparities where left-leaning coverage scores below 0.5 (favoring systemic) versus above 1.5 in right-leaning sources, underscoring verifiable imbalances in mainstream dominance.^[59]

Effects on Public Opinion and Decision-Making

Experimental studies have demonstrated that framing influences risk perception and decision-making, as evidenced by Kahneman and Tversky's 1981 demonstration of the Asian disease problem, where identical outcomes framed as gains versus losses led to divergent choices: 72% favored a certain gain in the gain frame but only 22% in the loss frame. Similar effects extend to policy domains, where responsibility attribution frames alter support levels; for instance, framing health issues as individual versus societal responsibilities reduces endorsement of collective policy interventions in experimental settings.^[60] Longitudinal and field research reveals that while initial framing effects on public opinion are detectable, they often exhibit limited persistence, decaying over time due to moderation by preexisting beliefs and counter-framing. A systematic review of 30 studies on news framing persistence found that effects endure beyond immediate exposure in most cases but weaken significantly after days or weeks, with audience resistance through motivated reasoning playing a key role.^[61] Meta-analyses of political framing experiments, encompassing over 100 studies, confirm statistically significant but modest average effects on attitudes (d ≈ 0.20-0.30), heavily contingent on recipients' prior ideologies and exposure to competing frames. Empirical evidence indicates framing efficacy across ideological lines, including conservative emphases in economic contexts; polls and experiments show that frames portraying policies as threats to economic freedom or incentives for dependency shift opinion toward market-oriented solutions, with effects comparable to progressive responsibility frames in magnitude. For example, reframing redistributive policies through conservative values like opportunity and self-reliance has increased support among conservative identifiers by 10-15 percentage points in targeted surveys.^[62] These outcomes underscore causal pathways from frames to cognition but highlight realism in their bounded impact, as strong priors and repeated counterarguments mitigate long-term sway on decision-making.

Criticisms, Limitations, and Debates

Methodological and Epistemological Challenges

One persistent methodological challenge in frame analysis is the subjectivity inherent in manual coding processes, where coders must interpret latent interpretive structures from texts. Inter-coder reliability often proves low, especially in nuanced or multifaceted content, with studies reporting Krippendorff's alpha values below 0.70, indicating inconsistent frame identification across researchers.^[63] This variability stems from reliance on predefined categories that may overlook contextual subtleties, compromising the method's objectivity and replicability. Epistemologically, the recursive layering of frames—wherein one frame embeds subordinate frames—risks infinite regress, as analysts could perpetually unpack nested interpretations without resolution, necessitating arbitrary cutoffs that introduce bias.^[64] Measurement difficulties further complicate validation, particularly in differentiating frame salience (prominence in audience cognition) from simple textual presence. Coding schemes typically tally frame indicators like metaphors or omissions, yet these do not guarantee perceptual emphasis, as salience emerges from text-receiver interactions rather than textual features alone.^[65] Experimental assessments of framing effects, drawn from psychology, face critiques for lacking ecological validity, with lab-induced manipulations failing to mirror sustained, real-world exposure where competing influences dilute isolated frame impacts.^[66] Such gaps hinder causal claims about how detected frames shape outcomes, favoring descriptive over inferential analysis. Debates persist over the generalizability of findings, as frame analysis predominantly samples Western media and audiences, embedding assumptions of individualistic schemata ill-suited to collectivist or non-liberal contexts. Reviews highlight this ethnocentrism, noting scant integration of diverse cultural data, which curtails cross-context applicability and risks overgeneralized models.^[67] Addressing these requires hybrid approaches, such as computational tools for scalability, though they too grapple with validating latent semantics against human judgment.^[36]

Ideological Biases in Framing Research and Applications

Research in framing effects within political communication has been critiqued for reflecting the ideological skew prevalent in social sciences, where surveys indicate that a majority of researchers hold left-liberal political attitudes, potentially influencing the selection of frames scrutinized and the interpretations of their impacts.^[68] For instance, analyses of media framing studies reveal a pattern of disproportionate emphasis on critiquing conservative or right-leaning frames, such as those portraying individual responsibility in policy issues, while progressive frames emphasizing systemic inequities or collective moral imperatives receive less rigorous empirical scrutiny for potential manipulative effects.^[69] This asymmetry is evident in domains like gun control coverage, where content analyses from 2024 document a prevailing bias in mainstream outlets toward frames favoring stricter regulations, aligning with left-leaning policy preferences, over balanced examinations of self-defense or Second Amendment emphases.^[70] In applications to public discourse, such as climate change, framing research often highlights media tendencies to prioritize catastrophic narratives—portraying the issue as an existential crisis requiring immediate collective intervention—over adaptation-focused frames that stress technological innovation and individual agency, with data from 2024 showing elite outlets amplifying alarmist coverage at rates up to 30% higher than regional sources in earlier periods, though the gap has widened.^[71] This left-tilted framing pattern, documented in peer-reviewed studies, correlates with ideological biases in news sharing and consumption, where left-leaning audiences engage more with moralized urgency frames, potentially sidelining causal analyses of economic trade-offs or historical adaptation successes.^[72] Controversies arise when such frames are deployed to advance causal realism debates, pitting individual accountability (e.g., market-driven solutions) against collective responsibility models, with empirical evidence from polarization studies indicating that asymmetric ideological movement—Republicans shifting rightward more rapidly—exacerbates frame entrenchment without proportional critique of progressive moralizing.^[73] Counterperspectives from right-leaning analyses argue that market competition in media ecosystems fosters frame resilience, as partisan outlets enable audience sorting that counters elite-driven monopolies on interpretation, evidenced by Pew data from 2014 onward showing conservatives relying on ideologically aligned sources to challenge dominant frames.^[74] Advocates for depoliticized standards call for empirical benchmarks prioritizing verifiable outcomes over assumed power imbalances, urging framing research to incorporate balanced source evaluations and longitudinal data on frame efficacy across ideologies to mitigate inherent researcher predispositions.^[75] Broader debates highlight the risk of field-wide distortions, where unexamined assumptions of elite-favoring frames overlook competitive dynamics that empirically sustain diverse viewpoints, as seen in rising conservative media penetration since the 2010s.

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[9]
Goffman's programme - Understanding Society
Sep 6, 2010 · Here is a link to one of Goffman's course reading lists from 1970. The list is titled, "The Ethnography of Symbolic Forms: Frame Analysis," and ...
[10]
[PDF] Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of Three ...
The sociological foundations of framing were laid by Goffman (1974) and others who assumed that individuals cannot understand the world fully and constantly ...
[11]
Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power - jstor
All these packages, although differing in their conclusions, frame nuclear power in terms of a broader energy issue, comparing it with alternative sources.
[12]
Framing Responsibility for Political Issues - jstor
Finally, attributions of responsi- bility for the issue of unemployment were unaffected by the experimental manipulations of framing. Poverty and terrorism.
[13]
Is Anyone Responsible? - The University of Chicago Press
I believe, moreover, that Iyengar's notion of framing ... 5: Effects of Framing on Attributions of Responsibility for Poverty, Unemployment, and Racial Inequality
[14]
Frame Analysis: Erving Goffman and the Sociocognitive ...
Aug 1, 2024 · This paper revisits Erving Goffman's Frame Analysis fifty years after its publication. The paper first situates this book within the context ...Abstract · FRAMING · DISATTENTION · AFTERWORDMissing: primary | Show results with:primary
[15]
Primary and secondary frames as a hierarchy. - ResearchGate
... secondary frames are used to support this primary frame of risk. ... For example, Firkins and Candlin (2006) used frame analysis in their study of child ...
[16]
[PDF] Visual Frame Analysis Luhtakallio, Eeva - HELDA - Helsinki.fi
ceptually adjusting Goffman's frame analysis to studying visual social life ... secondary frames within dominant ones better described the analytical movement.
[17]
Frame Analysis and Communication - Sage Journals
Keying is a process of transforming a primary framework into a ... Like any theory, Goffman's approach is limited. It is designed to sensitize ...
[18]
[PDF] 301 EPISTEMIC REKEYING - ERIC
In addition to shifting from one frame to another, social groups can modify frames in ways that. Goffman (1974) describes as keying, and re-keying. The ...
[19]
[PDF] FRAMING PROCESSES AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Frame bridging refers to the linking of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally unconnected frames regarding a particular issue or problem.
[20]
Framing effects in value-directed remembering - PMC - NIH
Apr 29, 2022 · We investigated how framing task instructions and feedback in terms of gains and losses influences learners' ability to selectively remember valuable ...
[21]
Goffman's theory of frames and situated meaning-making in ...
In this paper, we suggested that Goffman's theory of frames could provide a sound basis for analyzing the role of accounting numbers in meaning-making ...<|separator|>
[22]
(PDF) QUALITATIVE NEWS FRAME ANALYSIS: A METHODOLOGY ...
Goffman used the idea of frames to label "schemata of interpretation" that allow people "to locate, perceive, identify, and label" occurrences or events. With ...
[23]
Metaphor, Morality, and Politics
To understand what metaphor has to do with conservative politics, we must begin with that part of our metaphor system that is used to conceptualize morality.Conservativism · Conservative Metaphors For... · Liberalism
[24]
Frame the Debate: Insights from Don't Think of an Elephant!
George Lakoff describes frames as “mental structures that shape the way we see the world.” Framing is the art of communicating such that one's language ...
[25]
Metaphorical framing in political discourse through words vs. concepts
Mar 25, 2019 · Results showed that, compared to non-metaphorical frames, both metaphorical-words and metaphorical-concepts frames positively influenced beliefs and attitudes.
[26]
The Use of Triangulation in Qualitative Research - ResearchGate
Jul 31, 2023 · Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena.<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Intercoder Reliability in Qualitative Research: Debates and Practical ...
Jan 22, 2020 · Evaluating the intercoder reliability (ICR) of a coding frame is frequently recommended as good practice in qualitative analysis.
[28]
(PDF) Intercoder Reliability in Qualitative Research: Debates and ...
Evaluating the intercoder reliability (ICR) of a coding frame is frequently recommended as good practice in qualitative analysis. ICR is a somewhat ...
[29]
(PDF) Framing European Politics: A Content Analysis of Press and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Conflict frame is one of the types of news frames considered for this study, according to Semetko and Valkenburg (2000) they explain that ...
[30]
Episodic vs. Thematic Stories - FrameWorks Institute
Jun 2, 2017 · Iyengar found that most news coverage of public issues is what he termed episodic. In short, episodic news frames are those that apply a ...
[31]
The U.S. cable televisions' framing of mass shooting - Frontiers
Jul 24, 2023 · Chi-square test for testing the difference among news frames. Examining the percentage of news frames reporting by channels for tweets ...
[32]
Chi-Square Test of Frame-Building Differences Between Trump and ...
This study investigates cross-platform differences in social media by analyzing the contending candidates who represent different political ideology during ...
[33]
[PDF] A Survey of Computational Framing Analysis Approaches
This survey explores computational methods for analyzing frames in large datasets, addressing the lack of comprehensive understanding of these methods.
[34]
[PDF] Media Framing: A Typology and Survey of Computational ...
Aug 16, 2024 · Next, we examine only the papers which were published at NLP and machine learning venues, ... • computational frame analysis *NLP. • narrative ...
[35]
A transformer-based approach to generic news frame detection - arXiv
Aug 30, 2024 · Framing is among the most extensively used concepts in the field of communication science. The availability of digital data offers new ...
[36]
Capturing a News Frame – Comparing Machine-Learning ...
Jul 7, 2023 · Framing is among the most prominent conceptual approaches in the social sciences to classify communication contents.Data & Methods · Topic Modelling: Latent... · Discussion And Conclusion
[37]
(PDF) Causal Attributions (Framing) - ResearchGate
Causal attributions are an element of a frame (Entman, 1991). Furthermore, a causal attribution organizes the anatomy of a problem within a text.
[38]
Episodic and Thematic Framing Effects on the Attribution of ...
Jan 19, 2021 · Results demonstrate that exposure to episodically framed crisis news caused a decline in the attribution of responsibility to individual citizens.
[39]
[PDF] Framing Processes and Social Movements
Frame bridging refers to the linking of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally unconnected frames regarding a particular issue or problem.
[40]
[PDF] Framing the Poor: Media Coverage and U.S. Poverty Policy, 19602008
and neglect frame includes articles about homelessness and slum living. The laziness and dysfunction frame includes single mothers and welfare dependency.
[41]
Framing Welfare Reform in Affluent Societies - jstor
the highly punitive discourse of welfare dependency. Despite the excuses ... with fundamentally reframing the broad contours of British social policy debate far ...
[42]
A systematic review on political ideology and persuasion
Sep 11, 2023 · This research offers a systematic review of the literature on how to best persuade and change the attitudes and behaviors of conservatives and liberals.
[43]
Cascading Activation: Contesting the White House's Frame After 9/11
Jun 24, 2010 · The model explains how interpretive frames activate and spread from the top level of a stratified system (the White House) to the network of ...
[44]
Cascading Activation: Contesting the White House's Frame After 9/11
Aug 7, 2025 · This article advances a coherent conception of framing within a new model of the relationship between government and the media in US foreign policy making.
[45]
Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement ...
Four frame alignment processes are identified: bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation. It is suggested that frame alignment is a necessary ...
[46]
[PDF] Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement ...
Mar 12, 2008 · Evidence of frame bridging abounds in contem- porary social movements. Indeed, for many SMOs today, frame bridging appears to be the primary.
[47]
(PDF) Frame Alignment Process, Micromobilization, and Movement ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Based on the theory of frame alignment processes (Snow et al., 1986) , we analyzed the alignment strategies used in the authorial texts ...
[48]
[PDF] The-Framing-Perspective-on-Social-Movements-Its-Conceptual ...
Frame bridging involves the linkage of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally disconnected frames regarding a particular issue. Bridging can occur ...
[49]
[PDF] Frame Analysis of the Tea Party Movement - Cornerstone
The Tea Party movement forms around three different principles. The first goal of the Tea Party is to protect individual liberties (Tea Party Patriots 2010).
[50]
The Tea Party Movement, Framing, and the US Media - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Media frames bracketed discussions over the authenticity of the Tea Party, the composition of its members, the movement's message, and whether ...
[51]
[PDF] What a Good Idea! Frames and Ideologies in Social Movement ...
Frame theory shapes interpretation of events, while ideology theory provides theories of society with value commitments. Ideologies can function as frames, but ...<|separator|>
[52]
[PDF] Radicalism within the Context of Social Movements: Processes and ...
The process of radicalization, wherein many professed radicals claim to have a more "authentic" or "true" sense of how to best achieve social change, draws ...
[53]
Measure of Media Bias* | The Quarterly Journal of Economics
We measure media bias by estimating ideological scores for several major media outlets. To compute this, we count the times that a particular media outlet cites ...
[54]
[PDF] QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS - School of Arts & Sciences
Oct 23, 2014 · A MEASURE OF MEDIA BIAS*. TIM GROSECLOSE AND JEFFREY MILYO. We measure media bias by estimating ideological scores for several major media ...
[55]
[PDF] What Drives Media Slant? Evidence From U.S. Daily Newspapers
We construct a new index of media slant that measures the similarity of a news out- let's language to that of a congressional Republican or Democrat.
[56]
[PDF] What Drives Media Slant? Evidence from U.S. Daily Newspapers
Our findings on the demand for slant, and on newspapers'response to consumer preferences, support theories that posit a role for consumers'prior beliefs in ...
[57]
Chronic frames of social inequality: How mainstream media ... - NIH
May 17, 2022 · To test whether mainstream news media's systematic differences in describing racial, gender, and wealth inequality are driven by differences in ...
[58]
Report Documents Racial Bias in Coverage of Crime by Media
Dec 16, 2021 · Media coverage was 50% more likely to refer to white defendants by name as compared to Black defendants.
[59]
[PDF] The presence of the White racial frame in partisan cable news ...
Dec 4, 2024 · Highlighting systemic issues and inequalities frame racism as a deeply rooted structural problem rather than simply the result of individual ...<|separator|>
[60]
A Systematic Review of Responsibility Frames and Their Effects in ...
Jan 20, 2022 · Experimental studies (n = 12) indicate that individual responsibility frames reduce policy support. The effects of responsibility frames were, ...
[61]
How Long Do News Framing Effects Last? A Systematic review of ...
Our results suggest that most studies report effects that persist beyond initial exposure and that may be influential for subsequent decision-making over time, ...
[62]
Moral reframing increases support for economically progressive ...
Jun 20, 2023 · Economically progressive candidates—candidates who champion redistributive policies designed to reduce inequality—rarely win elections in ...
[63]
Frame Analysis | SpringerLink
Oct 6, 2022 · Frame Analysis. Chapter; Open Access; First Online: 06 ... Due to the low inter-coder reliability of the frame property annotations (see Sect.
[64]
[PDF] Recursive Frame Analysis: Reflections on the Development of a ...
Mar 1, 2012 · However, unmanageable complexity can easily arise as one maps mapping, as this can become an infinite regress. ... frame analysis. The ...
[65]
[PDF] Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm
Because salience is a product of the interac- tion of texts and receivers, the presence of frames in the text, as detected by researchers, does not guarantee ...
[66]
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15291006241246966
[67]
A Comprehensive and Critical Literature Review on Framing Theory ...
Apr 21, 2025 · Studying framing in the digital media age presents unique methodological challenges owing to the volume, velocity, and variety of data.
[68]
Ideological biases in research evaluations? The case of research on ...
May 23, 2022 · Social science researchers tend to express left-liberal political attitudes. The ideological skew might influence research evaluations, ...Abstract · THE SURVEY EXPERIMENT · EMPIRICAL RESULT · CONCLUSION
[69]
Moral Framing and Ideological Bias of News - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · In this paper, we describe methods for characterizing moral frames in the news. We capture the frames based on the Moral Foundation Theory.
[70]
[PDF] Investigating the Influence of American Media Frames on Gun Control
Mar 13, 2024 · With partisan media and gun control, studies conclude that a majority of media outlets demonstrate a bias toward gun control, ...
[71]
The growing divide in media coverage of climate change | Brookings
Jul 24, 2024 · On any given day in 2011, there was a 30% chance that heartland news outlets would cover climate change more than elite newspapers. As the two ...
[72]
Ideological biases in social sharing of online information about ...
This study provides evidence that online sharing of news media content related to climate change is both polarised and politicised.Ideological Coding Of Source... · Results · Fig 4. Climate Media Content...
[73]
Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence in the United States
Sep 5, 2023 · Ideological polarization was highly asymmetric. Republican members of Congress were moving to the right ideologically much faster than ...
[74]
Political Polarization & Media Habits - Pew Research Center
Oct 21, 2014 · Liberals and conservatives turn to and trust strikingly different news sources. And across-the-board liberals and conservatives are more ...
[75]
Truth and Bias, Left and Right: Testing Ideological Asymmetries with ...
Apr 29, 2023 · This pre-registered study takes an alternative approach by, first, conceptualizing estimands in relation to all political news.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical