Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Fumonisin

Fumonisins are a family of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungi, particularly Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, which contaminate cereal crops such as maize, wheat, and rice during growth or storage under warm, humid conditions.^[1]^[2] These toxins, with fumonisin B1 (FB₁) being the most abundant and potent analog, feature a polyketide backbone modified by tricarballylic acid ester groups, rendering them chemically stable during food processing.^[3] Globally, fumonisins affect approximately 25–50% of maize crops, leading to significant agricultural losses and posing risks to food safety and human health.^[4] In animals, exposure to fumonisins causes severe toxic effects, including equine leukoencephalomalacia (a fatal brain disorder in horses), porcine pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in swine lungs), and hepatotoxicity or nephrotoxicity in various species through inhibition of ceramide synthase, disrupting sphingolipid metabolism.^[3] In humans, epidemiological studies link high dietary intake—primarily from maize-based staples in regions like South Africa, China, and parts of Latin America—to esophageal cancer, neural tube defects in newborns, and stunted growth in children, with FB₁ classified as a Group 2B possible carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).^[2]^[4] The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 μg/kg body weight per day to mitigate these risks.^[3] Regulatory bodies monitor fumonisin levels in food and feed to protect public health; for instance, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides guidance limits of 2–4 ppm in human foods and 5–100 ppm in animal feeds, depending on the product.^[1] Management strategies emphasize prevention through crop rotation, resistant maize varieties (e.g., Bt hybrids), proper drying and storage of grains, and post-harvest interventions like sorting, nixtamalization, or enzymatic detoxification using tools such as FUMzyme.^[4] Despite these measures, contamination remains a challenge in developing regions, underscoring the need for integrated approaches combining agricultural practices, surveillance, and dietary diversification.^[2]

Discovery and Nomenclature

Discovery

Fumonisins were first isolated in 1988 from corn cultures of the fungus Fusarium moniliforme (now known as Fusarium verticillioides) strain MRC 826 by a team led by Willem C. A. Gelderblom and Paul G. Thiel at the Programme on Mycotoxins and Experimental Carcinogenesis, Medical Research Council, in Tygerberg, South Africa. This strain had been previously implicated in outbreaks of equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), a fatal neurological disease in horses, prompting the investigation using a short-term rat liver cancer initiation-promotion bioassay to identify bioactive compounds.^[5] The isolation yielded two major compounds, later characterized as novel mycotoxins.^[6] The toxins were named fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) due to their production by Fusarium moniliforme, with FB₁ identified as the primary component exhibiting hepatocarcinogenic and hepatotoxic effects in rats. Structural elucidation confirmed FB₁ as a diester of a tricarballylic acid and a long-chain amino polyol, distinguishing it from previously known Fusarium mycotoxins.^[7] Early characterization involved collaborative efforts between the South African team and researchers from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), who analyzed similar isolates from U.S. corn samples to confirm toxin production across strains.^[5] In the early 1990s, fumonisins were confirmed as the causative agents of porcine pulmonary edema (PPE), a lethal respiratory disease in swine, following U.S. outbreaks linked to moldy corn feed; experimental dosing with FB₁-containing cultures reproduced the condition, with symptoms appearing within days.^[8] This milestone built on 1990 reports associating F. moniliforme isolates from PPE cases with fumonisin production.^[9] In 2002, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified fumonisin B₁ as a Group 2B possible human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and limited human data.^[10]

Classification and Types

Fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins produced primarily by Fusarium species, classified into four main series—A, B, C, and P—based on variations in their backbone structure, functional groups, and side chain modifications. The B series (FB) represents the most prevalent and well-studied group, consisting of analogs such as FB₁, FB₂, FB₃, and FB₄, which share a 20-carbon aminopolyol backbone with two tricarballylic acid (TCA) side chains esterified to hydroxyl groups at C14 and C15. These analogs differ primarily in their hydroxylation patterns along the backbone: FB₁ possesses hydroxyl groups at C3, C5, and C10, while FB₂ lacks the hydroxyl at C10, FB₃ lacks it at C5, and FB₄ lacks both.^[11]^[12] The A series (FA) analogs, such as FA₁ and FA₂, are N-acetyl derivatives of the B series, featuring an acetyl group on the amino terminus at C2, and they may exhibit different hydroxylation patterns.^[13] In contrast, the P series (FP) includes analogs with a modified terminal group at the C2 position, such as a 3-hydroxypyrrolidine moiety replacing the aminomethyl group of the B series, while the C series (FC) is distinguished by a shortened 19-carbon backbone lacking the methyl group adjacent to the amine compared to the B series. These less common series, particularly the A and P types, are typically produced by modified or specific Fusarium strains under certain conditions.^[14]^[12]^[15] In naturally contaminated samples, such as maize, the B series dominates, with FB₁ comprising 70–80% of the total fumonisins, FB₂ accounting for 15–25%, and FB₃ making up 3–8%, reflecting their relative production efficiencies in fungal cultures. The A, C, and P series analogs occur at much lower levels, often below detectable thresholds in standard agricultural samples, underscoring the prominence of the B series in environmental and food safety contexts.

Chemical Structure and Properties

Molecular Structure

Fumonisins are a family of mycotoxins characterized by a linear polyketide backbone consisting of 20 carbon atoms in the case of the prototypical fumonisin B1 (FB₁), which mimics the structure of the sphingoid base sphinganine. This backbone is an aminopolyhydroxyalkane with an amino group at the C-2 position and hydroxyl groups at C-3, C-5, C-10, C-14, and C-15, enabling its interference with sphingolipid metabolism.^[16]^[17]^[11] The molecular formula of FB₁ is C₃₄H₅₉NO₁₅, reflecting its diester structure formed by the attachment of two tricarballylic acid (propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid) side chains to the hydroxyl groups at C-14 and C-15 of the backbone. These tricarballylic esters are critical functional groups that contribute to the molecule's polarity and biological activity, with the ester linkages involving the 1-carboxy groups of the acids and the specified backbone hydroxyls. The overall architecture positions the free amino group and hydroxyls to structurally resemble free sphinganine and its acyl-CoA derivatives, facilitating competitive inhibition in biochemical pathways.^[16]^[18]^[19] FB₁ serves as the primary structural representative of the B-series fumonisins, with congeners such as FB₂ differing by the absence of a hydroxyl group at C-10. The core 20-carbon chain and tricarballylic side chains are conserved across major variants, underscoring the shared molecular scaffold responsible for their toxicological profile.^[11]^[20]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Fumonisins, exemplified by the predominant fumonisin B1 (FB₁), manifest as a white to off-white hygroscopic crystalline powder.^[21] This physical form arises from their polar molecular architecture, facilitating moisture absorption under ambient conditions. The molecular weight of FB₁ is 721.8 Da, a value consistent across analytical characterizations that underscores its classification as a high-molecular-weight mycotoxin.^[22] FB₁ demonstrates high solubility in water, exceeding 20 mg/mL at room temperature, attributed to its ionic amino and multiple carboxylic acid groups that promote hydration and dissolution.^[23] In contrast, it exhibits low solubility in non-polar solvents like chloroform or hexane, reflecting the molecule's hydrophilic nature driven by these polar functional groups. The pK_a values for FB₁ are approximately 3.5 for the tricarballylic acid moieties and 9.2–9.3 for the primary amine, influencing its ionization and behavior in aqueous environments across physiological pH ranges.^[24] Regarding stability, fumonisins are notably thermostable, enduring temperatures up to 100°C during typical food processing without significant degradation, as evidenced by retention in cooked maize products. However, they undergo hydrolysis and degradation under strong alkaline conditions, such as pH >10, where the ester linkages in the side chains are cleaved, reducing toxicity.^[25] FB₁ shows weak inherent UV absorption, with detection often relying on derivatization for enhanced signal at wavelengths around 390–410 nm.^[26]^[27]

Biosynthesis

Producing Fungi

Fumonisins are primarily produced by certain species within the fungal genus Fusarium, particularly Fusarium verticillioides (formerly known as F. moniliforme) and F. proliferatum, which are the most prolific and commonly associated producers due to their high toxin yields and frequent occurrence in agricultural settings.^[28] These species generate fumonisins such as FB1 and FB2 through polyketide synthase-mediated pathways, with F. verticillioides capable of producing up to 17,900 mg/kg of FB1 under optimal conditions.^[28] Ecologically, F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum serve dual roles as endophytes and pathogens in maize (Zea mays), colonizing plant tissues asymptomatically as endophytes while also inciting diseases like ear rot when conditions favor pathogenesis.^[29] They exhibit a global distribution, thriving in warm, humid environments such as sub-Saharan Africa, the US Corn Belt, and tropical regions of South America and Asia, where maize cultivation predominates.^[30]^[28] In addition to the primary producers, minor fumonisin production has been documented in species like F. nygamai and F. napiforme, though their contributions are less significant and often limited to specific geographic isolates.^[28] Strain variability is notable, with toxigenic strains possessing the FUM gene cluster—responsible for fumonisin biosynthesis—contrasting non-toxigenic ones that lack this cluster or produce negligible amounts, leading to genetic clustering within Fusarium sections such as Liseola.^[28] This variability influences the reliability of fumonisin detection in field populations, where less than 50% of isolates from secondary species may be toxigenic.^[28]

Biosynthetic Pathway

The fumonisin biosynthetic pathway is encoded by a gene cluster consisting of 17 contiguous genes, designated FUM1 and FUM6 through FUM21, located on the chromosomes of Fusarium species such as Fusarium verticillioides.^[31]^[32] This cluster orchestrates the production of fumonisins through coordinated expression of enzymes involved in polyketide assembly and subsequent modifications. The primary host for this pathway is Fusarium verticillioides, where the cluster enables mycotoxin synthesis during infection of maize kernels.^[31] The pathway initiates with the iterative condensation of acetate units by the polyketide synthase encoded by FUM1, which assembles a linear polyketide chain backbone consisting of approximately 18 carbons.^[33] This chain undergoes further modifications, including the addition of an amine group via the aminotransferase activity of FUM8, which transfers an amino group from alanine to form the aminopolyol structure essential for fumonisin activity.^[34] Subsequent steps involve the esterification of tricarballylic acid moieties to hydroxyl groups on the backbone, catalyzed by enzymes encoded by FUM10 (acyl-CoA synthetase), FUM14 (nonribosomal peptide synthetase-like condensation domain), and FUM15 (hydroxylase), resulting in the characteristic tricarballylic ester side chains.^[35] These reactions proceed iteratively, with FB1 emerging as the predominant product due to the efficiency of the hydroxylations and esterifications at key positions.^[36] Regulation of the pathway occurs primarily at the transcriptional level, with expression of the FUM cluster regulated in response to carbon sources such as glucose and sucrose, with sucrose repressing production under certain conditions.^[37] This nutrient-dependent control ensures that fumonisin production aligns with favorable growth conditions in the host plant environment.^[38]

Occurrence and Contamination

In Crops and Environment

Fumonisins primarily contaminate maize kernels, where they are produced by Fusarium species such as Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum during pre- and post-harvest stages. In infested fields, total fumonisin concentrations can reach up to 100 ppm, particularly in regions with favorable conditions for fungal growth, though average levels in commercial maize often range from 1 to 5 ppm. These mycotoxins accumulate mainly in the pericarp and germ of the kernel, leading to widespread contamination in maize-based agricultural products.^[39]^[40]^[41] Globally, fumonisin incidence is highest in major maize-producing areas, with hotspots including the US Midwest Corn Belt, where up to 50% of samples exceed regulatory thresholds in drought-affected years; China, reporting a positive rate of 87% in new-season maize from 2017–2021; Italy, particularly in northern Italian fields, with frequent detections; and South Africa, linked to historical outbreaks from contaminated maize consumption. Contamination extends beyond raw grain, carrying over into silage where fumonisins persist at levels of 0.5–10 ppm, and into processed foods such as tortillas, where hydrolysis during nixtamalization reduces but does not eliminate total fumonisins, retaining 40–50% of original concentrations. Estimates suggest that 25–50% of global maize and maize products are affected to varying degrees.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[4] While maize is the dominant substrate, fumonisins occur in trace amounts in other cereals like sorghum, wheat, and rice, typically below 1 ppm and far less prevalent than in maize. In sorghum, contamination is generally low to medium, with levels rarely exceeding 2 ppm in commercial production areas, and in wheat, detections are sporadic and associated with co-infestation by Fusarium species.^[40]^[45]^[46]^[47] Fumonisins exhibit environmental persistence, remaining stable in soil and plant residues for extended periods, which facilitates year-to-year contamination cycles as Fusarium propagules overwinter in maize stubble and debris. This residue-bound stability contributes to recurring infections in subsequent crops, with studies showing fumonisin residues detectable in field soils at concentrations up to 0.1–1 ppm even after harvest. Such persistence underscores the role of crop rotation and residue management in breaking contamination cycles.^[48]^[49]

Factors Influencing Production

Fumonisins are primarily produced by Fusarium species, such as Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, with environmental conditions playing a critical role in modulating toxin levels in maize. Temperature and water activity are key climatic factors influencing production; optimal fumonisin synthesis occurs at 25–30°C and a water activity (a_w) of 0.98, where fungal growth and toxin biosynthesis are maximized on maize substrates.^[50]^[51] Drought stress further exacerbates production by compromising maize plant defenses, increasing susceptibility to Fusarium infection and elevating fumonisin concentrations during kernel development.^[52]^[53] Agronomic practices also significantly affect fumonisin yields. Insect damage, particularly from the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), creates entry wounds in maize ears and stalks, facilitating Fusarium colonization and substantially higher toxin accumulation compared to undamaged plants.^[54]^[55] Similarly, elevated nitrogen fertilization rates, such as those exceeding 200 kg N ha⁻¹, enhance fumonisin production by promoting lush plant growth that indirectly supports fungal proliferation, though excessive rates can sometimes stress plants and amplify contamination.^[56]^[57] Post-harvest handling influences fumonisin levels through storage conditions. Moisture contents above 15% in stored maize grains foster Fusarium growth and toxin production, as these levels correspond to a_w values permissive for fungal activity, leading to rapid contamination if not controlled.^[58]^[59] Emerging global trends linked to climate change, including warmer temperatures and erratic precipitation, are projected to heighten fumonisin risks in maize-producing regions by extending favorable conditions for Fusarium throughout the growing and storage seasons.^[60]^[61]

Toxicology and Health Effects

Mechanism of Action

Fumonisins, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1), exert their toxicity primarily by inhibiting ceramide synthase, a key enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis that catalyzes the N-acylation of sphinganine or sphingosine with fatty acyl-CoA to form dihydroceramide or ceramide, respectively.^[62] This inhibition blocks de novo sphingolipid synthesis, resulting in the accumulation of sphinganine and its 1-phosphate derivative, while depleting levels of complex sphingolipids such as ceramides, sphingomyelin, and glycosphingolipids.^[62] The structural mimicry of FB1 to sphingoid bases like sphinganine enables this interference in the biosynthetic pathway.^[62] FB1 binds competitively to the active site of ceramide synthase, occupying the substrate-binding pocket and preventing the normal interaction of sphinganine and acyl-CoA.^[63] In mammalian cells, this binding exhibits an IC50 in the range of 1-10 μM, with variations depending on the specific ceramide synthase isoform and tissue, such as approximately 7 μM in neuronal cells and 0.1 μM in rat liver microsomes.^[64]^[65] The disruption of sphingolipid homeostasis leads to several downstream cellular consequences. Depletion of complex sphingolipids compromises cell membrane integrity and fluidity, impairing signal transduction and membrane-associated functions.^[62] Accumulated sphingoid bases, such as sphinganine, promote apoptosis by activating pathways involving protein kinase C and calcium signaling.^[62] Additionally, the inhibition indirectly interferes with folate metabolism by compromising glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins essential for folate transporters, thereby reducing folate uptake and utilization in cells.^[66]

Effects in Animals

Fumonisins, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1), are highly toxic to horses, primarily manifesting as equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), a fatal neurological disorder characterized by liquefactive necrosis in the white matter of the brain. Horses ingesting feed contaminated with FB1 at concentrations exceeding 10 ppm develop symptoms including ataxia, head pressing, circling, and depression, often progressing to coma and death within 1 to 3 days of onset. In confirmed cases from 1989 to 1990, FB1 levels in implicated feeds ranged from less than 1 ppm to 126 ppm, with the majority surpassing 10 ppm across various feed types such as corn, screenings, and pelleted rations. Experimental feeding of naturally contaminated rations at 44 ppm and 88 ppm FB1 induced ELEM in horses after 30 to 60 days of exposure, confirming the mycotoxin's role in brain lesion formation. This condition arises from FB1's inhibition of ceramide synthase, disrupting sphingolipid metabolism essential for neural integrity. In swine, fumonisins induce porcine pulmonary edema (PPE), a syndrome involving acute accumulation of fluid in the lungs and hydrothorax, leading to respiratory distress, cyanosis, and sudden death. Feeds contaminated at 20 to 360 ppm FB1 have been associated with outbreaks of PPE, where mortality rates in affected herds reached up to 20%, particularly in growing pigs exposed for several days to weeks. Experimental studies demonstrate that FB1 concentrations of 175 ppm in diets provoke severe pulmonary edema within 5 to 7 days, accompanied by elevated pulmonary artery pressure, reduced cardiac output, and left-sided heart failure. Lower levels, such as 101 ppm, elevate serum liver enzymes and cause hepatic apoptosis, while 23 ppm induces histologic liver damage, highlighting dose-dependent multi-organ effects in pigs. Fumonisins exhibit toxicity across other animal species, with rats showing pronounced hepatotoxicity including apoptosis, necrosis, and proliferation of hepatocytes at dietary FB1 levels as low as 23 ppm. In poultry, exposure to FB1 results in reproductive impairments such as decreased egg production and hatchability, alongside reduced growth rates at concentrations exceeding 50 ppm in feed. Acute toxicity studies in mice report an intraperitoneal LD50 for FB1 of approximately 15 mg/kg body weight, underscoring its potential for rapid systemic effects in rodents.

Effects in Humans

Fumonisins, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1), have been epidemiologically linked to increased incidence of esophageal cancer in regions with high maize consumption, such as Transkei in South Africa and certain areas in China. In South Africa, studies in high-risk areas showed correlations between chronic consumption of moldy corn contaminated with Fusarium verticillioides and esophageal cancer rates, with estimated daily intakes ranging from 14 to 440 μg/kg body weight in affected populations.^[67] Similarly, in China's Henan and Linxian regions, elevated FB1 levels in home-grown corn (up to 1,108 μg/kg) were associated with higher esophageal squamous cell carcinoma risk, where dietary exposure from contaminated grains contributed to the disease burden in maize-dependent communities.^[12] These associations are supported by prospective cohort studies measuring urinary sphingolipid biomarkers as indicators of fumonisin exposure.^[68] Maternal exposure to fumonisins has been implicated in elevated risks of neural tube defects (NTDs) in offspring, notably in populations along the Texas-Mexico border and in parts of China. In Texas, a 1990–1991 cluster of NTDs among Mexican-American women consuming corn tortillas was linked to fumonisin contamination in maize, with exposure levels proportionate to risk up to a threshold beyond which fetal lethality may occur, potentially through disruption of folate transport and sphingolipid metabolism.^[69] In China, similar patterns emerged in Shanxi Province, where high maize intake and fumonisin presence correlated with NTD incidence, and maternal exposure interfered with folate-dependent neural tube closure, as evidenced by altered sphingolipid profiles in exposed individuals.^[70] Animal models corroborate these human risks, demonstrating dose-dependent NTDs in rodents via comparable mechanisms.^[71] Acute effects of fumonisin exposure in humans are rare and typically limited to gastrointestinal distress, such as nausea and vomiting, observed at high single doses from heavily contaminated food, though no large-scale outbreaks have been documented.^[12] For chronic exposure, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 μg/kg body weight per day for fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 combined, based on no-observed-adverse-effect levels for nephrotoxicity in animal studies extrapolated to humans, emphasizing the need to minimize long-term intake to prevent potential carcinogenic and developmental risks.^[72]

Detection and Analysis

Analytical Methods

Analytical methods for fumonisin detection primarily rely on chromatographic and immunoassay techniques, enabling precise identification and quantification in contaminated samples such as maize and feed. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection remains a standard approach, particularly after post-column derivatization to enhance sensitivity, as fumonisins exhibit weak native fluorescence due to their structure.^[73] In HPLC-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD), samples are typically extracted with methanol-water mixtures, cleaned up via solid-phase extraction, and derivatized with o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) to form fluorescent isoindoles, followed by separation on a reversed-phase C18 column using a methanol-phosphate mobile phase. This method achieves limits of detection (LOD) in the range of 0.04–0.13 µg/kg for major analogs like fumonisin B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2), with limits of quantification (LOQ) around 2.7–3.0 µg/kg, and recovery rates often exceeding 95%.^[73]^[74] HPLC-FLD provides high specificity for individual fumonisin analogs but requires skilled operation and derivatization steps, making it suitable for confirmatory analysis in laboratories.^[74] Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has emerged as the gold standard for multi-mycotoxin screening, offering simultaneous detection of fumonisins alongside other toxins without derivatization, leveraging electrospray ionization in positive mode for structural confirmation via multiple reaction monitoring. Extraction protocols similar to HPLC are used, often with acetonitrile-water-formic acid, followed by optional cleanup; typical LODs range from 0.001–1 µg/kg (1–1000 ng/g) in food matrices like maize, with LOQs of 0.01–10 µg/kg and recoveries of 80–115%.^[73]^[75] This technique excels in sensitivity and selectivity, enabling trace-level detection in complex samples, though it demands expensive instrumentation and expertise.^[76] Immunoassays, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), provide rapid, cost-effective screening alternatives, utilizing antibodies specific to fumonisin structures for competitive binding formats. Commercial ELISA kits, like AgraQuant, involve methanol-water extraction and colorimetric detection at 450 nm, achieving LODs of approximately 0.2–0.5 ppm (200–500 µg/kg) and recoveries near 100%, though they may overestimate total fumonisins due to cross-reactivity among analogs.^[74]^[76] While less accurate than chromatography for precise quantification, ELISA's speed (under 2 hours) and portability make it ideal for field or high-throughput testing, often serving as a preliminary step before confirmatory methods.^[74] Emerging methods, including aptamer-based biosensors and microfluidic assays, aim for real-time, on-site detection by exploiting nucleic acid aptamers that bind fumonisins with high affinity, integrated with fluorescence or electrochemical readouts. For instance, aptamer-linked enzyme assays on microfluidic platforms achieve LODs below 1 ng/mL for FB1, offering advantages in portability and reduced sample volume over traditional methods.^[77]^[78] These innovations, such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering aptasensors, provide rapid results (under 30 minutes) and sensitivities comparable to LC-MS/MS, with potential for multiplexed mycotoxin monitoring in resource-limited settings.^[79]

Sampling and Quantification

Effective sampling of fumonisins in grains, particularly corn, requires composite strategies to account for the heterogeneous distribution of contamination, which can lead to significant variability in results. For whole maize, a recommended approach involves collecting 50 increments of 100 g each to form a minimum 5 kg bulk sample, while maize on the cob necessitates sampling 50 cobs for at least 7.5 kg; processed products like flour or meal use 10 increments of 100 g for a 1 kg sample.^[80]^[81] In practical settings, such as truckloads, a 6-foot spiral hand probe is used to gather a minimum 5-pound aggregate sample following USDA representative patterns, with larger loads like train cars requiring at least 10 pounds collected during movement via augering at intervals.^[82]^[83] Stratified methods, including thorough mixing and subsampling from multiple pile locations, reduce variability by minimizing bias from localized hotspots of Fusarium infection.^[80] Sample preparation begins with dividing the bulk sample—typically 45 kg—into 1.1 kg test portions using riffle division, followed by comminution in a Romer mill to ensure at least 70% of particles pass a 20-mesh sieve.^[80]^[82] Extraction employs solvent-based methods, commonly methanol-water mixtures (70:30 or 80:20 v/v), to solubilize fumonisins from 25 g subsamples, achieving efficient recovery.^[84]^[85] Cleanup often involves immunoaffinity columns to isolate fumonisins B1 and B2 from matrix interferences, with reported recovery rates ranging from 79% to 102% at spiking levels of 150–250 μg/kg in corn products.^[86] These steps maintain recoveries between 80% and 110% across various grain matrices, supporting reliable downstream analysis.^[87] Quantification focuses on total fumonisin levels, calculated as the sum of FB1, FB2, and FB3 concentrations, often determined via HPLC or ELISA following extraction.^[80]^[88] In heterogeneous matrices like corn, uncertainty is dominated by sampling variance, with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 16.6% at 2 mg/kg, contributing to an overall test CV of 21% when including preparation (9.1%) and analysis (9.7%) variances.^[80] This highlights the need for standardized protocols to ensure representative assessments in contaminated lots.^[82]

Regulation and Risk Management

Regulatory Limits

Regulatory limits for fumonisins have been established by major international and national authorities to mitigate health risks associated with exposure, particularly the potential for nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity in humans and animals.^[72] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued guidance in 2001 recommending maximum levels of total fumonisins (FB1 + FB2 + FB3) at 2–4 ppm in uncooked corn products intended for human consumption, such as degermed dry-milled products (2 ppm), whole or partially degermed dry-milled products (4 ppm), and dry-milled corn bran (4 ppm); these levels remain in effect as reaffirmed in subsequent FDA mycotoxin oversight documents through the 2020s.^[89] For animal feeds, the FDA advises limits of 5 ppm in corn and corn by-products destined for equine and rabbits, and 20 ppm for swine (resulting in no more than 10 ppm in the total ration for swine), with higher thresholds for less sensitive species like ruminants (up to 30 ppm in the ration).^[89] In the European Union, Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 sets maximum levels for the sum of fumonisins B1 and B2 ranging from 0.2 to 1.4 mg/kg (wet weight) in maize-based foods, including 0.2 mg/kg in processed cereal-based baby foods containing maize, 0.8 mg/kg in maize-based breakfast cereals and snacks, 1.0 mg/kg in maize for final consumers and certain milling products, and 1.4 mg/kg in other maize milling products not for direct consumption; unprocessed maize grains are limited to 4.0 mg/kg.^[90] This regulation, effective from 2023 and consolidated as of 2025, repealed the prior EC No 1881/2006 while maintaining similar thresholds for fumonisins to ensure consumer safety.^[90] The Codex Alimentarius Commission has established maximum levels for total fumonisins (FB1 + FB2 + FB3) at 4 mg/kg in unprocessed maize and 2 mg/kg in maize flour and maize meal, adopted in updates to the General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (CXS 193-1995) as of 2024 to facilitate international trade while protecting public health.^[91] The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 μg/kg body weight per day for fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 (alone or combined), based on a no-observed-adverse-effect level from equine studies extrapolated to humans; this value has been reaffirmed in JECFA evaluations through 2025 with no major revisions despite ongoing monitoring of emerging exposure data.^[72]

Prevention and Control Strategies

Cultural practices play a crucial role in minimizing fumonisin contamination during maize production. Crop rotation with non-host crops, such as legumes, reduces Fusarium inoculum in the soil, thereby limiting fungal infection and subsequent toxin production.^[92] Planting resistant hybrids, including Bt maize varieties that express insecticidal proteins, decreases ear damage from pests like the European corn borer, which serves as a vector for Fusarium verticillioides, resulting in fumonisin levels up to 90% lower compared to susceptible varieties. Timely harvest at physiological maturity, before prolonged exposure to environmental stresses like drought, further prevents stress-induced fungal proliferation and toxin accumulation.^[93] Post-harvest handling is essential for preventing further fumonisin development and reducing existing contamination. Rapid drying of harvested maize to below 14% moisture content inhibits fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis during storage.^[94] Sorting and removal of damaged or discolored kernels can eliminate up to 75% of contaminated grains, as these are primary sites of infection.^[43] For animal feed, chemical treatments such as ammoniation have been employed to partially detoxify fumonisins, though efficacy varies and it is more commonly used in combination with other methods.^[95] Biocontrol strategies offer environmentally friendly alternatives for fumonisin management. Application of non-toxigenic Fusarium strains, such as F. oxysporum variants like "Fusaclean," competes with toxigenic species for resources, reducing fumonisin production by up to 80% in field trials.^[43] Integration of these approaches into Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems along the supply chain ensures systematic monitoring and intervention at key stages, from farming to processing, to maintain low contamination levels.^[96] Recent advances in 2024-2025 include AI-enhanced monitoring, such as near-infrared spectroscopy coupled with artificial neural networks for real-time detection of fumonisin in maize, enabling proactive supply chain adjustments.^[97]

References

[1]
Mycotoxins - FDA
Sep 26, 2024 · Certain strains of the Fusarium molds produce mycotoxins called fumonisins. These molds commonly infect corn but also sometimes infect other ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative<|control11|><|separator|>
[2]
Mycotoxins - World Health Organization (WHO)
Oct 2, 2023 · Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of moulds (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
[3]
Fumonisins: Impact on Agriculture, Food, and Human Health ... - MDPI
Fumonisins are an important class of mycotoxins produced by F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides along with others such as F.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
[4]
The occurrence and management of fumonisin contamination across the food production and supply chains
### Summary of Key Points on Fumonisins: Occurrence, Health Risks, Management
[5]
Discovery and occurrence of the fumonisins: a historical perspective
This article describes the events leading to the discovery of the fumonisins in South Africa in 1988 and highlights the first 10 years (1988-1998) of fumonisin
[6]
Fumonisins: Isolation, chemical characterization and biological effects
The fumonisin B mycotoxins (FB1 and FB2) have been purified and characterized from corn cultures of Fusarium moniliforme strain MRC 826. Fumonisin B1 (FB1,
[7]
Structure elucidation of the fumonisins, mycotoxins from Fusarium ...
The structures of the fumonisins, a family of structurally related mycotoxins isolated from cultures of Fusarium moniliforme, were elucidated by mass ...
[8]
Pulmonary edema and hydrothorax in swine produced by fumonisin ...
Pulmonary edema and hydrothorax were observed in mature swine that died approximately 5 days after consuming corn screenings.
[9]
Production of fumonisins by Fusarium moniliforme ... - ASM Journals
Production of fumonisins by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum isolates associated with equine leukoencephalomalacia and a pulmonary edema syndrome ...
[10]
[PDF] FUMONISIN B1 1. Exposure Data - IARC Publications
Toxins derived from Fusarium moniliforme were considered by a previous Working. Group in 1992 (IARC, 1993). Since that time, new data have become available ...
[11]
https://brill.com/view/journals/wmj/11/4/article-p493_2.pdf
[12]
Fumonisins: Impact on Agriculture, Food, and Human Health and ...
Jun 7, 2019 · Fumonisins (FBs) consist of two methyls (–CH3), one amine (-NH2), one to four hydroxyl (-OH-), and two tricarboxylic ester groups located at ...
[13]
Fumonisin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It is also classified in group 2B (probably carcinogenic) by the IARC (Alshannaq and Yu, 2017), with a role in the initiation of esophageal and liver cancer.
[14]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/fumonisin
[15]
[PDF] Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Fumonisin B1 and B2 ...
Dec 5, 2019 · FB1 typically accounts for 70%–80% of the total fumonisin produced, while FB2 usually makes up 15%–25% and FB3 3%–8% when cultured on maize, ...
[16]
Fumonisin B1 | C34H59NO15 | CID 2733487 - PubChem - NIH
Fumonisin B1 is a diester that results from the condensation of the 1-carboxy groups of two molecules of propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid with hydroxy groups ...Missing: key | Show results with:key
[17]
Fumonisin B1: A Tool for Exploring the Multiple Functions of ... - NIH
Oct 27, 2020 · Researchers have used fumonisin B1 (FB1), the most common fumonisin, as a probe to investigate sphingolipid metabolism in yeast and animals.
[18]
[PDF] Structure, synthesis, and biosynthesis of fumonisin B1 and related ...
Apr 10, 2000 · after the C-14 and C-15 hydroxyl groups are formed. Caldas and co ... Relative stereo- chemistry of fumonisin B1 at C-2 and C-3.
[19]
Fumonisin B1 - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Fumonisin B1 is a mycotoxin that interferes with the metabolism of sphingolipids and is associated with neural tube defects and certain types of cancer in ...
[20]
https://www.agilent.com/Library/applications/5968-2124_016653.pdf
[21]
FUMONISIN B<SUB>1</SUB> - Inchem.org
This monograph will focus mainly on FB 1 , the most abundant of the naturally occurring fumonisins. 2.2 Physical and chemical properties of the pure substance
[22]
None
### Physical and Chemical Properties of Fumonisin B1 (Sigma F1147)
[23]
FUMONISIN B1 - NCBI - NIH
Their biological functions are equally diverse: the compounds serve as structural components required for maintenance of membrane integrity, as receptors for ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[24]
[PDF] Simultaneous determination of fumonisins B1 and B2 in ... - UFMG
The pKa for silanol groups is about 6 and the pKa range for fumonisins is 3.5–9.3, thus, at pH 9 ... Assessment of dietary intake of fumonisin B1 in São Paulo, ...
[25]
Stability of Fumonisins in Food Processing - SpringerLink
... temperature and incubation period on production of fumonisin B1 by ... alkaline hydrolysis for the removal of fumonisins from contaminated corn, J.
[26]
Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Fumonisin B1 from Grain Dust
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) was extracted from corn, corn dust, and Fusarium ... UV detector was set at the absorption wavelength of 390 nm. A Hewlett ...
[27]
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/product/documents/403/191/f1147pis.pdf
[28]
Production of Fumonisin Analogs by Fusarium Species - PMC
This review focuses on the Fusarium species that produce fumonisins and the fumonisin analogs produced by each of these species.
[29]
Fusarium verticillioides of maize plant - PubMed Central - NIH
Abstract. Disease outbreaks have been recorded due to exposure to Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin, a mycotoxin produced by this fungus.
[30]
Fusarium verticillioides, a Globally Important Pathogen of Agriculture ...
May 11, 2017 · The fungus is distributed throughout the world, but predominant in humid tropical and subtropical regions and also present in the temperate ...Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[31]
The Fusarium verticillioides FUM Gene Cluster Encodes a Zn(II ...
Such genes can encode structural enzymes, regulatory proteins, and/or proteins that provide self-protection. The fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster includes 16 ...
[32]
Effects of Disruption of Five FUM Genes on Fumonisin Biosynthesis ...
A cluster of 17 fumonisin biosynthetic genes (FUM) have been identified and characterized in Fusarium verticillioides; these co-expressed genes include a gene ...
[33]
Self-Protection against the Sphingolipid Biosynthesis Inhibitor ...
Jun 16, 2020 · FB biosynthesis is initiated when the polyketide synthase Fum1 catalyzes synthesis of an octadecanoic acid precursor, which then undergoes ...
[34]
Effects of Disruption of Five FUM Genes on Fumonisin Biosynthesis ...
Jun 7, 2019 · FUM8 is the only fumonisin synthesis gene that functions as a transaminase, and FUM12 and FUM15 are able to partially compensate for the loss of ...
[35]
Tricarballylic ester formation during biosynthesis of fumonisin ... - NIH
The chemical structure of fumonisins contains two tricarballylic esters ... NMR structural studies of fumonisin B1 and related compounds from Fusarium moniliforme ...Missing: key | Show results with:key<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
A Natural Variation of Fumonisin Gene Cluster Associated ... - MDPI
Apr 3, 2019 · The fumonisin biosynthesis starts with a polyketide synthesis by FUM1. Subsequently, it was modified by other genes: FUM6, FUM7, FUM8, FUM3, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Effects of Different Carbon Sources on Fumonisin Production ... - NIH
Our results suggested that fumonisin production was regulated in F. proliferatum in response to different carbon source conditions.
[38]
Carbon Sources Influence Fumonisin Production in Fusarium ...
Aug 21, 2017 · 22 The hydroxyl group at C-3 is derived from acetate, whereas the hydroxyl groups at C-5, C-10, C-14, and C-15 are derived from molecular oxygen ...
[39]
Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of corn (maize, Zea mays ...
In 1998, samples from all hybrids exceeded 20 ppb aflatoxin (mean levels: 21–699 ppb) and 2 ppm fumonisins (mean levels: 23–79 ppm), the maximum levels ...
[40]
https://extension.psu.edu/from-aflatoxin-to-zearalenone-key-mycotoxins-you-should-know-fumonisins
[41]
The hidden threat of fumonisin in cattle feed - Alltech
Jun 28, 2021 · Fumonisin is commonly found in corn at levels of 2 parts per million (ppm) or less, but in recent years, testing has confirmed levels well above 30 ppm, and ...Missing: maize | Show results with:maize
[42]
Two genetically modified insect-resistant maize events reduced ...
Apr 6, 2025 · Hao et al. reported that fumonisin pollution was most common in new season maize in China, with a positive rate of 87.16% from 2017–2021. The ...
[43]
The occurrence and management of fumonisin contamination ...
The World Health Organization (WHO) has previously reported that about 50% of global maize and maize-based products were contaminated by FB1 to various extents ...
[44]
Fumonisins in African Countries - MDPI
Jun 19, 2022 · The most common and important sources of fumonisin contamination in humans and animals are cereals (rice, wheat, barley, maize, rye, oat, and ...Fumonisins In African... · 2. Results · 2.5. Fumonisins In Southern...<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
(PDF) Aflatoxins and fumonisins on sorghum grain from commercial ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The soft grain genotype NS5511 was more prone to aflatoxin contamination than the other cultivars. Fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. were absent ...Missing: wheat | Show results with:wheat
[46]
[PDF] Fumonisin B1 contamination in kharik grain sorghum in India
From this study it is observed that, contamination of fumonisins in sorghum is low to medium in kharif produce and grain is mostly safe for consumption. ...
[47]
Post-Harvest Handling of a Corn Field Affected by Fumonisin ...
Nov 3, 2017 · They do persist on crop residue, but they grow readily on many plant species, without causing disease symptoms. A comparative study in Australia ...
[48]
Shifts in Fusarium Communities and Mycotoxins in Maize Residues ...
Fusarium species often co-occur in plants [8,9], resulting in cereal products simultaneously contaminated by multiple mycotoxins, ranging from the most dominant ...
[49]
Effect of temperature and water activity on the production of ...
Dec 31, 2009 · Fumonisins are economically important mycotoxins which until recently were considered to originate from only a few Fusarium species.Discussion · Fungal Strains And Media · Fumonisin Analysis
[50]
Influence of water activity and temperature on growth and fumonisin ...
Feb 2, 2018 · This study compared for the first time the impact of both temperature and a W on growth and fumonisin production on irradiated wheat grains.
[51]
Genetic Factors Involved in Fumonisin Accumulation in Maize ...
Aug 20, 2015 · The variation of water content in maize kernel during ripening (measured as aW and kernel moisture) influences fumonisin production and can be ...
[52]
Mycotoxins and Crop Yield in Maize as Affected by Irrigation ... - MDPI
Mar 9, 2023 · While drought might result in an increased risk of aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of maize ... growth and fumonisin production [20,36].
[53]
Role of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) on ... - PubMed
The European corn borer (ECB) plays an important role in promoting Fusarium verticillioides infections and in the consequent fumonisin contamination in maize
[54]
Mycotoxins Produced by Fusarium spp. in Isogenic Bt vs ... - ACSESS
Jan 1, 2005 · European corn borer larvae cause physical injuries to stalks and ears and, therefore, are suspected to promote infections by Fusarium spp. In ...
[55]
Influence of agricultural practices on the contamination of maize by ...
The use of insect-resistant maize seeds tended to reduce fumonisin levels. However, higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer had a tendency to increase fumonisin ...Missing: factors damage
[56]
Influence of nitrogen fertilization on mycotoxin contamination of ...
High N fertilizer application (>300 kg N ha−1) significantly increased the zearalenone content, while for fumonisins the highest contaminations were related to ...Missing: agronomic damage
[57]
(PDF) Influence of Water Activity and Time Duration on Fusarium ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Influence of Water Activity and Time Duration on Fusarium Mycotoxins Production in Maize Grains During Post-Harvest Storage ... corresponds to 15% ...
[58]
Post-harvest storage of corn: effect of beginning moisture content on ...
These post harvest data indicated the importance of moisture content at the crop harvesting/predrying stage to control fungal growth and further fumonisin ...Missing: climate | Show results with:climate
[59]
Insights from modelling sixteen years of climatic and fumonisin ...
May 21, 2024 · Our study provides strong evidence of the impact of climate change on FB in South Africa and reiterates the significance of machine learning modelling.
[60]
Possible climate‐change effects on mycotoxin contamination of food ...
Jan 10, 2011 · Available information suggests that slightly elevated CO2 concentrations and interactions with temperature and water availability may stimulate ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Ceramide synthase inhibition by fumonisins: a perfect storm of ... - NIH
Fumonisins are mycotoxins that cause diseases of plants and, when consumed by animals, can damage liver, kidney, lung, brain, and other organs.
[62]
Article Mechanism of ceramide synthase inhibition by fumonisin B 1
Sep 5, 2024 · Firstly, FB1 directly binds to the C26-CoA binding pocket and hinders the substrate binding, resulting in weak inhibition of yCerS (left).
[63]
Fumonisin B1 inhibits sphingosine (sphinganine) N ... - PubMed - NIH
These studies establish that fumonisin B1 inhibits de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis by neuronal cells and, moreover, that limiting ceramide synthesis ...Missing: mammalian | Show results with:mammalian
[64]
Ceramide Synthase Inhibition by Fumonisin B1 Treatment Activates ...
The concentration of fumonisin B1 to inhibit. 50% of activity of ceramide synthase (IC50) was estimated to be 0.1lM for rat liver microsomes (Wang et al ...
[65]
Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 Interferes Sphingolipid Metabolisms and ...
Apparently, FB1 have interfered sphingolipid metabolisms by inhibiting the functions of ceramide synthase and folate transporters. In conclusion, FB1-caused ...
[66]
[PDF] Opinion on Fumonisin B1 - European Commission
Fumonisin-induced pulmonary oedema in swine appears to result from acute left-sided heart failure by altered sphingolipid biosynthesis Recent studies reviewed ...
[67]
Sphingolipids as biomarkers of fumonisin exposure and risk of ...
Our study is the first prospective study to assess the relationship between sphingolipid levels, as biomarkers of fumonisin exposure, and cancer incidence.Missing: intake | Show results with:intake
[68]
Exposure to Fumonisins and the Occurrence of Neural Tube Defects ...
Our findings suggest that fumonisin exposure increases the risk of NTD, proportionate to dose, up to a threshold level, at which point fetal death may be more ...
[69]
Assessing local determinants of neural tube defects in the Heshun ...
Feb 2, 2010 · Fumonisins in maze or other grains could be an important NTD factor [44, 45]. However, the north of China where our pilot study was conducted is ...
[70]
Fumonisins Disrupt Sphingolipid Metabolism, Folate Transport, and ...
Therefore, fumonisins are able to inhibit embryonic sphingolipid metabolism and this appears to interfere with folate utilization to produce embryotoxicity and ...
[71]
fumonisins - WHO | JECFA
The Committee concluded that adverse effects from fumonisin exposure may occur and that reduction of exposure to fumonisin and other toxins produced by F.
[72]
Comprehensive review of liquid chromatography methods for ...
This review had compiled and organized 88 chromatographic methods for fumonisins analysis, and the analysts can consult all the procedures with detail.
[73]
(PDF) HPLC and ELISA Methods for Detection and Quantification of ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of HPLC method with post column derivatisation method for confirmation of the restults of competitive ELISA assay ...
[74]
LC-MS/MS Analysis of Fumonisin B1, B2, B3, and Their Hydrolyzed ...
Feb 9, 2022 · An LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to determine the concentration of fumonisins and their metabolites in feed and excreta of broiler ...
[75]
A Review of the Methodology of Analyzing Aflatoxin and Fumonisin ...
Mar 5, 2020 · Current literature describes analytical methods capable of detecting aflatoxin and fumonisin at a single kernel level, such as liquid chromatography, ...
[76]
Advances in Aptamer-Based Biosensors for the Detection of ... - NIH
Aug 22, 2024 · Aptamer-based biosensors have become a new tool for food safety risk assessment and monitoring due to their high affinity, good specificity, and fast response.
[77]
Development of microfluidic enzyme-linked aptamer assays for ...
We have devised and presented two detection methodologies, comprising direct and indirect enzyme-linked aptamer assays (DELAA and IELAA), meticulously crafted ...
[78]
Sensitive ratiometric detection of Fumonisin B1 using a reusable Ag ...
Dec 31, 2024 · A ratiometric aptasensor using Ag-pSi SERS detects fumonisin B1 with high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, and rapid, reliable detection in ...
[79]
[PDF] Sampling and sample preparation methods for determining ...
Sample variance studies and sampling plans have been published for select mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, fumonisin, and deoxynivalenol, emphasizing the.Missing: strategies | Show results with:strategies
[80]
https://publications.iarc.who.int/_publications/media/download/1373/b43c4bc7b32727c9788ece5e75c7dd8392b3e3eb.pdf
[81]
One Sample Strategy: About the Program
The One Sample Strategy standardizes corn sampling and testing procedures to reduce variability of aflatoxin and fumonisin test results. When grain operators ...
[82]
[PDF] Sampling and Analyzing Feed for Fungal (Mold) Toxins (Mycotoxins)
Analysis of feeds for the presence of mycotoxins can help grain, feed and animal producers to minimize, if not eliminate, adverse health effects of mycotoxins ...
[83]
Rapid Determination of Fumonisins B1 and B2 in Corn by Liquid ...
A complete extraction of FB1 and FB2 was achieved at 10 min with 25 mL of the extraction solution or 15 min with 10 mL of extraction solution. Thus, the ...
[84]
B-TeZ IAC Fumonisin 3ml - Eagle Biosciences
Samples which content of Fumonisins are to be analyzed, e.g. wheat, maize etc., are extracted by the method of Prioli et al.1 using methanol-water (80/20 v/v) ...
[85]
Analysis of fumonisins in corn-based food by liquid chromatography ...
Feb 15, 2009 · At 150 and 250 μg kg−1 spiking levels, the recovery rates for fumonisin B1 and B2 in corn products varied from 79% to 102%, with a relative ...
[86]
[PDF] Determination of fumonisin B1 and B2 in corn products
and classified into fumonisin A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, and B4 based on their chemical structure. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), and fumonisin B3 (FB3) are ...
[87]
https://www.jfda-online.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2527&context=journal
[88]
Guidance on Fumonisin Levels in Human Foods and Animal Feeds
Sep 20, 2018 · The most prevalent of these mycotoxins in contaminated corn is FB1, which is believed to be the most toxic (1, 2). Occurrence in Raw Corn.
[89]
Consolidated TEXT: 32023R0915 — EN — 01.01.2025 - EUR-Lex
Jan 1, 2025 · Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006.
[90]
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:02023R0915-20250101
[91]
[PDF] C560 Corn Production Handbook - KSRE Bookstore
Crop rotation and fall tillage of corn residue reduce the disease levels. Page 33. 29. Disease and Cause. Symptoms. Occurrence. Management. Fusarium ear rot.
[92]
[PDF] Part II: Agronomic Considerations of Molds and Mycotoxins - Extension
A timely harvest insures that the crop will not stand in the field any longer than necessary. It is during the fall that conditions are optimum for Fusarium ...
[93]
Influence of Agronomic Factors on Mycotoxin Contamination in ...
We studied how three agronomic factors (crop diversification, tillage system and nitrogen fertilization rate) can affect fungal and mycotoxin contamination.2. Results And Discussion · 4. Materials And Methods · 4.3. 3. Total Fungal...Missing: persistence | Show results with:persistence
[94]
[PDF] Mycotoxins in Feed Grains and Ingredients - K-State Plant Pathology
Detoxification Strategies: There is limited infor- mation on detoxification of fumonisins. However, it has been shown that ammoniation reduces fumonisin levels.
[95]
[PDF] Manual on the application of the HACCP ystem in Mycotoxin ...
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a food safety management system that is based upon the systematic identification and assessment of hazards ...
[96]
New Tool to Fight Maize Contamination: NIR Spectroscopy Shows ...
A recent study demonstrated that NIR spectroscopy combined with PLS regression and artificial neural networks (ANN) can rapidly and ...