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Holographic interferometry

Holographic interferometry is an optical measurement technique that utilizes the interference of coherent light waves, such as those from lasers, to detect and quantify minute surface deformations, displacements, or changes in the refractive index of materials with sub-wavelength precision, often down to fractions of a micrometer.^[1]^[2] By recording and reconstructing wavefronts from an object beam and a reference beam on a holographic medium, it produces interference fringe patterns that reveal phase differences corresponding to physical changes in the object under study.^[3] This method enables non-contact, full-field analysis, offering advantages over traditional interferometry for complex three-dimensional surfaces.^[1] The technique emerged in the mid-1960s, building on foundational holography work by Emmett N. Leith and Juris Upatnieks, who in 1964 demonstrated off-axis holography using lasers.^[1] Early interferometric applications were pioneered by Robert L. Powell and Karl A. Stetson in 1965–1966.^[3] Significant advancements in the 1970s and 1990s introduced pulsed lasers, digital recording with charge-coupled devices (CCDs), and phase-shifting techniques.^[1]^[3] At its core, holographic interferometry employs methods such as double-exposure, real-time, and time-averaged techniques to visualize deformations and vibrations, relying on coherent illumination from lasers like helium-neon or ruby.^[2]^[3] It finds applications in non-destructive testing for flaw detection in aerospace components, vibration analysis of structures, flow visualization, and biomedical imaging.^[3]^[1] As of 2025, advancements in AI-integrated digital holographic interferometry have further enhanced real-time 3D analysis and biomedical applications.^[4]

Fundamentals

Core Principles

Holographic interferometry is a coherent optical measurement technique that integrates principles of holography and interferometry to detect and quantify minute surface displacements of objects, on the order of the wavelength of light used, typically in the range of microns for visible lasers. This sensitivity arises from the ability to record and reconstruct the full complex light field, including both amplitude and phase, from the object. Pioneering work demonstrated its application in visualizing deformations through interferometric comparison of object states. At its core, the technique relies on the interference between two light beams: the object beam, which scatters off the surface of the object, and a reference beam, which interferes with it to form the hologram. When the object undergoes deformation, such as due to stress, temperature change, or vibration, the phase of the object beam shifts relative to the reference beam. Upon reconstruction, this phase difference manifests as interference fringes—bright and dark bands that represent loci of equal optical path difference. These fringes directly encode the displacement information, with the pattern's density and orientation providing quantitative data on the magnitude and direction of changes. The relationship between the observed fringes and the underlying displacement is captured by the fringe order N, defined as

N = \frac{\Delta \phi}{2\pi},

where \Delta \phi denotes the phase change induced by the object's displacement along the line of sight or in three dimensions, depending on the setup geometry. Each integer fringe order corresponds to a phase shift of $2\pi, equivalent to an optical path change of one wavelength. This formulation allows for precise mapping of deformations by analyzing fringe spacing and order. Coherent light sources, particularly lasers, are indispensable for holographic interferometry, as their high temporal and spatial coherence ensures stable phase relationships across the beam paths and over the exposure duration, enabling the formation of high-contrast interference patterns without blurring from path length variations. In contrast to classical interferometry, which primarily captures intensity variations from real-time two-beam superposition and is constrained to measuring differences in a single dimension or plane, holographic interferometry records the entire wavefront, facilitating full three-dimensional displacement analysis by reconstructing virtual images that can be viewed from multiple angles.

Hologram Formation and Reconstruction

In holographic interferometry, hologram formation begins with the splitting of a coherent laser beam into two parts: an object beam that illuminates the target object and scatters light from its surface, and a reference beam that travels directly to the recording medium.^[5] The scattered object beam then interferes with the reference beam at the recording plane, producing a complex interference pattern of fringes that encodes both the amplitude and phase of the wavefront reflected from the object.^[5] This pattern is captured on a photosensitive medium, such as a high-resolution photographic emulsion or a photopolymer plate, which undergoes a chemical or physical change to permanently store the interference data.^[5] The process relies on the coherence of the laser light to generate stable fringes, typically with spacings on the order of the wavelength, enabling the faithful recording of three-dimensional wavefront information. The mathematical representation of the recorded hologram intensity H(x,y) is H(x,y) = |O(x,y)|^2 + |R(x,y)|^2 + O^*(x,y) R(x,y) + O(x,y) R^*(x,y), where O(x,y) and R(x,y) denote the complex amplitudes of the object and reference waves, respectively.^[5] This expression, derived from the interference of the two waves under the Fresnel diffraction approximation for thin holograms or the coupled-wave theory for volume holograms, separates into intensity terms and cross-terms that carry the essential phase and amplitude data for reconstruction.^[5] The first two terms represent self-interference (DC components), while the latter two encode the desired object information through conjugate and direct diffraction orders. Reconstruction involves illuminating the developed hologram with a beam matching the original reference wave in wavelength and angle, which causes the stored fringes to diffract the incident light and regenerate the original object wavefront.^[5] This diffraction reconstructs both a virtual image (appearing behind the hologram in the original object position) and a real image (projected in front), with the latter often used in interferometry setups for direct comparison.^[5] The process exploits the reciprocity between recording and readout, ensuring aberration-free imaging when the illuminating beam replicates the reference precisely. Several key parameters govern the performance and resolution of the hologram. The laser wavelength \lambda directly sets the minimum fringe spacing, typically around 0.5–1 \mum for visible light, influencing the overall resolution and sensitivity to phase shifts.^[6] The distance from the object to the recording medium affects the curvature of the wavefronts and the validity of paraxial approximations, with closer distances yielding higher spatial frequencies and finer detail capture but increasing setup complexity.^[5] Additionally, the thickness of the recording emulsion—often 5–20 \mum—determines the hologram type: thin emulsions (<1 \mum) act as surface gratings with broad angular acceptance, while thicker ones enable volume holograms that exhibit Bragg selectivity, enhancing resolution but narrowing the replay angle and wavelength tolerance.^[7] An advancement in the post-1990s period introduced digital holography, where the photosensitive medium is replaced by a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor array to electronically capture the interference pattern as a digital array of intensity values.^[8] This allows for immediate storage and processing without chemical development, with reconstruction performed numerically using algorithms like the Fresnel transform to compute the complex wavefront from the recorded data.^[8] CCD-based recording, typically with pixel sizes of 5–10 \mum, supports real-time applications in interferometry while maintaining sub-wavelength phase resolution through phase-shifting techniques.^[8]

Historical Development

Discovery and Early Experiments

Holographic interferometry was invented in 1965 by Robert L. Powell and Karl A. Stetson at the University of Michigan's Willow Run Laboratories, building on the off-axis holography developed by Emmett N. Leith and Juris Upatnieks in 1964 using lasers, which enabled practical recording of holograms of diffuse objects. This extended the principles of holography originally proposed by Dennis Gabor in 1948 for electron microscopy and further developed by Yuri N. Denisyuk in 1962 through volume holograms using reflected light. Their work capitalized on the recent availability of lasers, which provided the coherent light essential for recording high-quality holograms of diffuse objects, unlike earlier incoherent methods limited to specular surfaces.^[9] The first demonstrations involved double-exposure holograms to measure vibrations in engineering structures, using a continuous-wave helium-neon laser (Spectra-Physics model 110) operating in multiple transverse modes. In one seminal experiment, Powell and Stetson recorded a hologram of a 35 mm film can driven by a solenoid to vibrate at audio frequencies, revealing time-averaged fringe patterns that mapped contours of constant vibration amplitude upon reconstruction. This approach overcame limitations of conventional two-beam interferometry, which struggled with phase stability for rough surfaces, by preserving the full wavefront information in the hologram.^[10]^[9] A key early experiment detailed in their 1966 publication demonstrated the technique's versatility through interferogram evaluation, including real-time vibration analysis of diffuse objects, where fringe patterns directly visualized dynamic displacements without requiring analytical wavefront expressions. These fringes highlighted small perturbations, such as those from mechanical strain, establishing holographic interferometry's precision for non-destructive testing. Initial challenges arose from object movement during exposure, necessitating pulsed lasers for dynamic studies; while continuous-wave setups sufficed for static or low-frequency vibrations, high-speed events required short-pulse sources like Q-switched ruby lasers, which were adapted in the late 1960s to freeze motion and enable double-exposure recordings of transient phenomena.^[9]

Key Advancements

In the 1970s, a significant advancement came with the introduction of heterodyne holography, which enabled quantitative phase measurements in holographic interferometry by employing frequency-shifted reference beams to produce a beat frequency for precise fringe analysis.^[11] This technique, pioneered by Dändliker and colleagues in 1973, allowed for automated detection of phase differences with resolutions approaching λ/100, overcoming the qualitative limitations of earlier double-exposure methods that relied on manual fringe counting. The 1980s saw the emergence of electronic holography, particularly through TV holography (also known as electronic speckle pattern interferometry or ESPI), which replaced traditional wet chemical processing with real-time video displays using vidicon or CCD sensors.^[12] Developed by Løkberg and others starting around 1980, this approach facilitated instantaneous observation of interference fringes on a monitor, enabling dynamic studies of deformations and vibrations without the need for hologram development, thus improving accessibility for industrial applications.^[13] From the 1990s to the 2000s, the integration of phase-shifting algorithms with CCD arrays revolutionized the field by establishing digital holographic interferometry (DHI), which permitted automated, numerical fringe analysis and phase reconstruction directly from recorded holograms.^[14] Seminal work by Schnars and Jüptner in 1994 demonstrated direct hologram recording on CCDs followed by computational reconstruction, while phase-shifting techniques, such as those by Yamaguchi in 1997, enhanced accuracy by extracting absolute phase maps with sub-fringe precision.^[15]^[16] These developments shifted holographic interferometry from analog to fully digital workflows, achieving quantitative measurements with resolutions below λ/100 and enabling software-based automation. In the 2010s, further progress included the adoption of fiber-optic delivery systems for remote and flexible beam routing in DHI setups, allowing interferometry in confined or hazardous environments without compromising coherence.^[17] Concurrently, femtosecond lasers were incorporated for high-speed applications, capturing ultrafast transient phenomena like shock waves or micro-explosions with pulse durations under 100 fs, thus extending the technique to picosecond-scale dynamics.^[18] These innovations maintained the sub-wavelength accuracy (< λ/100) while broadening the temporal resolution for real-world engineering challenges. Into the 2020s, ongoing research has explored AI-assisted fringe unwrapping using deep learning models to automate phase retrieval in noisy or complex patterns, as demonstrated in convolutional neural network approaches since 2021, though full integration remains under active development as of 2025.^[19] Overall, these advancements have evolved holographic interferometry from qualitative visualization to precise, quantitative metrology with enhanced speed and versatility.

Techniques

Double-Exposure Holography

Double-exposure holography is a foundational technique in holographic interferometry designed to detect and quantify static deformations in objects by comparing two discrete states. The procedure begins with recording a hologram of the undeformed object using a coherent light source, where the object beam interferes with a reference beam on a high-resolution photographic plate. After processing or without development in some setups, a load or deformation—such as mechanical stress—is applied to the object, followed by a second exposure on the same plate. During reconstruction, the reference beam illuminates the developed plate, simultaneously reconstructing both wavefronts, which interfere to reveal phase differences as a fringe pattern. This method was pioneered in the mid-1960s through independent discoveries that established its principles for deformation analysis. The interference fringes produced during reconstruction provide a direct visualization of the displacement field, with bright fringes appearing where the optical path difference introduced by the deformation equals an integer number of wavelengths. Mathematically, the out-of-plane displacement \Delta at the Nth fringe order is given by

\Delta = \frac{N \lambda}{1 + \cos \theta},

where \lambda is the wavelength of the illuminating light and \theta is the angle between the illumination direction and the line of sight (assuming normal observation). This relation highlights the technique's sensitivity to geometric factors, enabling the interpretation of fringe spacing and density as contours of equal displacement, which can be analyzed to derive strain distributions. Dark fringes correspond to half-integer multiples, completing the pattern that maps the deformation across the object's surface.^[20] For static analysis, double-exposure holography excels due to its exceptional sensitivity to both in-plane and out-of-plane displacements, achieving resolutions on the order of micrometers or better without physical contact with the object. This makes it particularly valuable for precise, full-field measurements in controlled environments. The experimental setup demands a stable platform, such as a vibration-isolated optical table, to minimize external disturbances during the double recording, along with a continuous-wave laser like the He-Ne at 632.8 nm for coherent illumination, beam splitters for dividing the light into object and reference paths, mirrors for alignment, and a photographic plate with fine grain size for high fringe contrast. Careful synchronization of exposures ensures the reference beam remains unchanged, preserving phase information.^[20] A practical example involves assessing tensile strain in metal specimens, such as an aluminum plate under uniaxial loading with a central circular hole to induce stress concentrations. The first exposure captures the unloaded state, followed by loading to a known tensile force for the second exposure; reconstruction yields fringe patterns that contour the out-of-plane displacements around the hole, allowing computation of local strains from fringe orders and facilitating validation against theoretical stress models. This application demonstrates the method's utility in materials engineering for non-destructive evaluation of mechanical behavior.

Real-Time and Time-Average Methods

Real-time holographic interferometry enables the observation of dynamic changes in an object by first recording and processing a hologram of the object in its initial state, then reconstructing the virtual image from this hologram while illuminating the live object with the same coherent light source. This setup produces interference fringes that appear immediately as the object deforms or vibrates, allowing continuous monitoring without the need for multiple exposures. The technique was pioneered by Stetson and Powell in 1966, who demonstrated its use for analyzing diffuse objects by employing the hologram as a fixed reference wavefront against the changing object wavefront.^[21] To facilitate reusability in real-time setups, thermoplastic recording plates are often used, as they allow in situ development and erasure through electrical charging and heating processes, enabling multiple recordings on the same plate without chemical processing. This contrasts with photographic emulsions, which require wet development and are less practical for live observations. Real-time methods are particularly suited for slow deformations or low-frequency vibrations where the changes occur over seconds to minutes, providing qualitative visualization of fringe patterns that indicate displacement contours. In contrast, time-average holographic interferometry is designed for studying harmonic vibrations by exposing the hologram over many cycles of the object's motion, effectively averaging the interference pattern to reveal stationary fringes. Introduced by Powell and Stetson in 1965, this method records a single hologram while the object vibrates sinusoidally, and the reconstructed intensity distribution is modulated by the zeroth-order Bessel function of the first kind, J_0(\phi_0 \sin \omega t), where \phi_0 is the maximum phase difference due to vibration amplitude, \omega is the angular frequency, and t is time; dark fringes occur where J_0(\phi) = 0, corresponding to vibration antinodes with specific amplitudes, while nodal lines of zero displacement appear bright.^[22]^[23] The time-average approach is ideal for high-speed periodic phenomena, such as acoustic vibrations or ultrasonic modes, where the averaging suppresses motion blur and isolates mode shapes, often using pulsed or continuous lasers to capture the integrated effect over the exposure time. Quantitative analysis of these fringes involves solving for the vibration amplitude from the fringe orders, as the m-th dark fringe corresponds to \phi = j_m, where j_m is the m-th zero of J_0 (e.g., j_1 \approx 2.405) and \phi = \frac{4\pi d \cos \theta}{\lambda} for out-of-plane displacement d and angle \theta, so d = \frac{j_m \lambda}{4\pi \cos \theta}. This calibration allows precise mapping of amplitude distributions across the object surface.^[22] A key limitation of the time-average method arises with non-periodic or transient motions, which can cause blurring in the averaged hologram due to incomplete cycle integration, reducing fringe contrast. This issue can be mitigated by employing stroboscopic illumination, where short laser pulses are synchronized to specific phases of the motion, effectively sampling the vibration like a series of quasi-static exposures to preserve fringe sharpness.^[24]

Phase-Shifting and Digital Variants

Phase-shifting interferometry (PSI) enhances the precision of holographic interferometry by introducing controlled phase shifts between the reference and object beams, allowing direct extraction of the phase difference from intensity measurements. Typically, phase steps of π/2 are introduced using a piezoelectric transducer (PZT) attached to a mirror in the reference arm, enabling the recording of multiple interferograms at different phase positions.^[25] The phase φ is then calculated using the arctangent formula for four-step PSI:

\phi = \tan^{-1} \left( \frac{I_4 - I_2}{I_1 - I_3} \right)

where I_1, I_2, I_3, I_4 represent the intensities recorded at phase shifts of 0, π/2, π, and 3π/2, respectively; this method achieves sub-wavelength accuracy by mitigating errors from linear intensity variations.^[26] Digital holographic interferometry (DHI) extends these capabilities through numerical reconstruction of the complex wavefront from a single or few recorded holograms captured by a digital sensor like a CCD or CMOS array. In off-axis or in-line configurations, the hologram intensity I(x,y) is processed via the inverse Fourier transform to retrieve the object wave U(x,y):

U(x,y) = \mathcal{F}^{-1} \left\{ \mathcal{F}(I) \cdot H \right\}

where \mathcal{F} denotes the Fourier transform and H is a transfer function tailored to the setup, such as a bandpass filter for off-axis separation of real and virtual images; this approach supports both deformation mapping and quantitative phase retrieval without physical reconstruction.^[1] Common error sources in these techniques include the introduction of a spatial carrier frequency in off-axis DHI to distinguish spectral components, which can lead to resolution loss if not optimized, and 2π ambiguities in the wrapped phase maps requiring unwrapping. Phase unwrapping algorithms, such as the quality-guided path method, address this by prioritizing pixels with high reliability (e.g., based on modulation intensity or residue checks) to trace continuous paths, minimizing propagation of errors in noisy interferograms.^[27]^[28] In the 2020s, integration of machine learning has advanced automated analysis in DHI and PSI, with convolutional neural networks trained on simulated interferograms to perform phase demodulation and unwrapping, reducing processing time from minutes to seconds in industrial quality control applications.^[29]^[30] Hardware innovations, such as spatial light modulators (SLMs) based on liquid crystal on silicon, enable adaptive optics in holographic setups by dynamically adjusting phase patterns to compensate for aberrations or introduce precise shifts, improving stability in real-time interferometry.^[31]

Applications

Vibration and Deformation Analysis

Holographic interferometry provides a non-contact, full-field method for analyzing vibrations in mechanical structures, particularly through time-average techniques that capture mode shapes and resonance frequencies. In this approach, the object is excited to vibrate sinusoidally while the hologram is exposed over multiple cycles, resulting in interference fringes that delineate regions of zero displacement (nodal lines) and quantify amplitude variations according to Bessel function distributions. This enables the visualization of complex vibrational behaviors in components like engine parts and bridges, where traditional point-wise sensors fall short in capturing spatial details. For instance, in jet engine turbine blades, time-average holography has mapped multiple resonant modes, such as flexural and torsional vibrations, with frequencies ranging from 1,173 Hz to over 45,000 Hz, confirming theoretical predictions and identifying potential fatigue sites.^[32]^[3]^[33] Deformation analysis via holographic interferometry excels in mapping strain fields across materials such as composites and welds, offering quantitative 3D displacement measurements through multi-illumination configurations. By employing multiple illumination directions—typically three orthogonal sensitivity vectors—simultaneous recording of in-plane and out-of-plane components becomes possible, allowing derivation of full strain tensors from phase differences in reconstructed wavefronts. In composite structures, this technique visualizes localized strains induced by loading, such as in aluminum plates under compression, where measured displacements align with expected elastic behaviors (modulus 73 GPa, Poisson's ratio 0.33). For welds, it detects residual stress-induced deformations by comparing pre- and post-loading holograms, revealing anomalies in joint integrity without surface preparation. Phase-shifting methods enhance precision in these measurements by resolving phase ambiguities to sub-wavelength accuracy.^[34]^[35]^[36] A notable case study involves aerospace testing of turbine blades, where holographic interferometry assesses structural integrity under operational stresses. Fringe patterns from double-exposure holograms quantify displacements, with higher fringe density indicating greater deformation gradients; for example, 10 fringes per mm at a 532 nm wavelength corresponds to approximately 2.7 μm out-of-plane displacement over 1 mm, signaling potential flaws like cracks or imbalances. These results integrate seamlessly with finite element analysis (FEA) for model validation, where experimental mode shapes and strains (e.g., errors below 7% in displacement components) refine simulations of blade dynamics, ensuring reliability in high-vibration environments. Recent advancements, including real-time digital variants, extend this to additive manufacturing, enabling in-situ monitoring of warpage in layered builds to mitigate defects during fabrication.^[33]^[37]^[34]^[38]

Non-Destructive Testing

Holographic interferometry serves as a powerful tool for non-destructive testing (NDT) by enabling the detection of internal defects such as cracks, delaminations, and voids in composite materials. This is achieved through the analysis of out-of-plane displacement fringes generated by applying controlled loads, such as thermal heating or pressure differentials, which cause subtle surface deformations that highlight subsurface flaws. For instance, vacuum stressing has proven effective in revealing a 0.5 cm × 0.5 cm flaw (0.25 cm²) under five plies of boron-epoxy in bonded panels, where the interference patterns directly correlate with defect locations without requiring physical contact or invasive procedures.^[39] Thermal loads, while less sensitive for tightly bound defects, induce measurable phase shifts in the holograms to visualize delaminations in carbon fiber reinforced polymers.^[1] Holographic contouring extends this capability by mapping surface topography to uncover subsurface irregularities, employing techniques like wavelength shifting or object tilt to generate contour lines with intervals as fine as 1 μm. These contours, formed via double-exposure holograms, reveal deviations in surface height that indicate hidden voids or inconsistencies in materials like metals and composites, aiding in the assessment of structural integrity during manufacturing.^[40] The method's non-contact nature makes it ideal for inspecting rough or curved surfaces without altering the specimen. In industrial applications, holographic interferometry has been adopted for quality control in aerospace components, with pulsed variants developed in the 1980s for detecting structural faults like cracks in aircraft fuselages, reducing inspection downtime in field settings.^[41] Similarly, it supports inspection of wind turbine blades by identifying delaminations and voids through fringe analysis, complementing other NDT methods for post-manufacturing verification.^[42] The technique offers sensitivity to defects causing displacements greater than λ/10 (where λ is the laser wavelength), with pulsed holographic interferometry particularly suited for large objects like turbine blades or aircraft parts to mitigate environmental vibrations.^[43] Advancements in the 2020s have led to portable holographic systems incorporating diode lasers, facilitating on-site field testing of composites and structures with enhanced mobility and reduced setup complexity. These systems achieve sub-micrometer resolution for real-time defect mapping, broadening NDT applications beyond controlled lab environments.^[44]

Flow Visualization and Medical Uses

Holographic interferometry has been employed in flow visualization to map density gradients and refractive index variations in aerodynamic environments, particularly using double-exposure techniques. In wind tunnel experiments, double-exposure holographic interferometry with diffuse illumination captures phase shifts caused by changes in air density around models, producing interferograms that reveal refractive index gradients with sub-micron sensitivity.^[45] This method is especially effective for visualizing shock waves in supersonic flows, where rapid double-exposure holograms record time-varying wavefront distortions, enabling quantitative analysis of wave propagation and strength.^[46] For instance, digital variants of this approach have analyzed high-density gradients in hypersonic wind tunnels, generating clear interferograms that highlight boundary layer transitions and shock interactions without invasive probes.^[47] In medical applications, holographic interferometry provides non-invasive measurement of tissue deformations, such as skin strain in dermatological studies and displacements in ocular structures. Digital holographic interferometry (DHI) assesses skin biomechanics by quantifying out-of-plane displacements under mechanical or thermal loads, revealing strain patterns in human skin samples exposed to ultraviolet radiation, which aids in understanding photoaging and elasticity loss.^[48] In ophthalmology, the technique measures corneal deformations, including post-surgical changes; for example, double-exposure holograms of incised human eyes evaluate radial incisions' impact on corneal elasticity, showing fringe patterns indicative of residual strain after procedures like radial keratotomy.^[49] Retinal displacement monitoring uses laser Doppler holography to detect micron-level movements in vivo, correlating blood flow dynamics with tissue shifts in the human retina for early glaucoma detection.^[50] Biomedical applications extend to bone healing assessment, with 1990s studies utilizing holographic interferometry to analyze vibration responses in healing fractures. Researchers applied the method to quantify relative displacements across fracture interfaces in animal models, observing reduced fringe densities as callus formation progressed, indicating improved mechanical integrity during vibration-induced healing.^[51] More recently, endoscopic holographic interferometry has emerged for internal organ monitoring; by 2022, lensless micro-endoscopy integrated with digital holography enabled real-time imaging of subsurface tissue deformations in flexible fiber setups, adaptable for gastrointestinal or respiratory organ assessment without rigid probes.^[52] Emerging uses in microfluidics leverage holographic platforms for lab-on-chip analysis, where spatial holographic interferometry tracks refractive index changes in microchannels to visualize biomolecular flows and cell interactions at high resolution.^[53] These fields face specific challenges, including biocompatibility of illumination sources and speckle reduction in scattering media. Low-power laser illumination ensures tissue safety in biomedical settings, adhering to ocular exposure limits to prevent photothermal damage during prolonged scans.^[54] In scattering environments like biological tissues or turbid fluids, speckle noise degrades interferograms; correlation-based techniques, such as multi-look digital holography, suppress speckle by averaging phase-correlated frames, improving signal-to-noise ratios by up to 20 dB in medical imaging applications.^[55] Real-time methods briefly enhance dynamic flow and tissue monitoring but require adaptive filtering to maintain fringe visibility.^[56]

Advantages and Limitations

Strengths and Precision

Holographic interferometry exhibits exceptional sensitivity to surface displacements, capable of detecting changes as small as λ/20, where λ is the wavelength of the illuminating light; for instance, at 532 nm, this corresponds to approximately 0.025 μm.^[57] This high sensitivity arises from the interferometric comparison of wavefronts before and after deformation, allowing precise measurement without physical contact.^[58] Furthermore, it provides full-field data over large areas, up to 1 m² in typical setups, capturing the entire deformation pattern simultaneously across the observed surface.^[59] Compared to traditional methods like strain gauges, holographic interferometry offers significant advantages, including the acquisition of three-dimensional displacement information without requiring surface preparation or attachment of sensors, which can alter the object's behavior.^[60] Strain gauges, being contact-based and limited to point measurements, often introduce disturbances and fail to provide holistic 3D views, whereas digital variants of holographic interferometry enable real-time feedback for dynamic monitoring.^[61] Key factors influencing precision include the laser's coherence length, which must exceed the maximum optical path difference across the object—typically greater than the object's size for diffuse surfaces—to maintain interference visibility.^[62] In digital holographic interferometry (DHI), spatial resolution is constrained by the detector's pixel count; for example, a 1024×1024 CCD array can resolve fringe spacings down to about 1 mm, depending on the optical setup and field of view.^[63] Holographic interferometry holds a comparative edge over moiré interferometry in analyzing complex geometries, where it achieves faster data acquisition and processing for out-of-plane deformations due to its holographic recording efficiency.^[64] Quantitatively, with proper calibration in phase-shifting techniques, phase retrieval errors can be kept below 1%, ensuring reliable displacement quantification.^[1]

Challenges and Practical Constraints

Holographic interferometry is highly sensitive to environmental disturbances, necessitating stringent vibration isolation to maintain path length stability on the order of less than 0.1 μm during recording and reconstruction.^[65] This requirement arises from the technique's reliance on coherent light interference, where even minor displacements can introduce phase errors and degrade fringe visibility.^[66] For analog implementations, processing the holographic plates further demands a controlled darkroom environment to prevent exposure to stray light during chemical development, adding logistical complexity to experimental setups.^[67] Speckle noise, inherent to coherent laser illumination, significantly reduces the contrast of interference fringes in holographic interferometry, complicating the interpretation of displacement maps.^[68] Mitigation strategies include spatial filtering to decorrelate speckle patterns or temporal averaging of multiple exposures, though the latter extends acquisition times to several seconds per measurement, limiting real-time applications.^[69] The initial setup for holographic interferometry involves substantial costs and technical complexity, with professional-grade lasers alone often exceeding $10,000 due to requirements for high coherence and stability.^[70] While digital variants, emerging prominently in the 2000s, have reduced barriers through affordable CCD sensors and software reconstruction, the overall system integration still demands expertise in optics and alignment.^[71] Scalability poses a key constraint, as the technique is generally limited to objects smaller than 1 m in size owing to the finite coherence length of typical lasers, which restricts the allowable path differences between object and reference beams.^[62] Spatial coherence further confines the field of view, making large-scale measurements challenging without specialized configurations; for broader applications, alternatives like electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) are preferred, as they tolerate shorter coherence lengths.^[72] As of November 2025, data processing demands for phase unwrapping in digital holographic interferometry remain intensive but have been mitigated by GPU acceleration and AI techniques, achieving real-time performance up to hundreds of frames per second for high-resolution holograms.^[30]^[73] Recent advancements include deep learning for automated phase processing and speckle noise reduction, enhancing robustness in dynamic and medical applications.^[74] In medical applications, laser safety concerns persist, with risks of retinal damage from unintended eye exposure necessitating strict adherence to ANSI Z136.3-2024 standards for protective measures during in vivo imaging or endoscopy.^[75]

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[PDF] applications of holography - to vibrations, transient
The transient response of a 20" cantilever beam was,determined by using the technique of stored-beam (real-time) holographic interferometry ... by Powell and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[23]
(PDF) Phase Shifting Interferometry - ResearchGate
PDF | Phase shifting interferometry is a well-established technique for areal surface characterisation that relies on digitisation of interference data.
[24]
Phase-Shifting Interferometry | - The University of Arizona
This paper describes a method to enhance the capability of two-wavelength phase-shifting interferometry. By introducing the phase data of a third wavelength, ...
[25]
(PDF) Quality-guided phase unwrapping technique - ResearchGate
Quality-guided phase unwrapping is a widely used technique with different quality definitions and guiding strategies reported. It is thus necessary to do a ...
[26]
https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/jcwyant/published-papers/phase-shifting-interferometry/
[27]
Deep learning in optical metrology: a review | Light - Nature
Feb 23, 2022 · In this review, we present an overview of the current status and the latest progress of deep-learning technologies in the field of optical metrology.<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
Application of Deep Learning in the Phase Processing of Digital ...
This paper provides an overview of the principles behind DHM and the characteristics of each phase processing step. It offers a thorough analysis of the ...
[29]
Adaptive holographic interferometer based on optically addressed ...
Aug 8, 2025 · We report the realization of an adaptive holographic interferometer relying on an optically addressed liquid crystal spatial light modulator ...
[30]
Holographic Interferometry - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
From Equation (19.5), the maxima will be separated by a distance equal to λ/2θ. Measurement of the spatial frequency of the fringes thus easily yields the angle ...
[31]
Holographic Analysis of Turbine Blades' - ASME Digital Collection
Holographic techniques have been employed to study various turbine blade char- acteristics. The studies were performed using both helium-neon continuous ...
[32]
(PDF) Simultaneous 3D digital holographic interferometry for strain ...
Sep 2, 2025 · This work introduces a digital holographic interferometer in a simultaneous 3D configuration to detect superficial strains.
[33]
[PDF] Deformation measurement by digital holographic interferometry
Digital holographic interferometry measures deformation by comparing wave fronts of light beams recorded at different times, using 2x exposure.Missing: 3D | Show results with:3D
[34]
[PDF] Holographic interferometry as a method to detect welding failures on ...
In this work, samples of welding points between ribbed iron bars, obtained from a collapsed structure were studied. The possible causes of truss breakdown are ...Missing: strain field composites
[35]
An application of holographic interferometry to structural modal ...
Sep 23, 2025 · Holographic Interferometry has been successfully employed to characterize the materials and behavior of diverse types of structures under ...
[36]
Optical Measurement Systems for Industrial Inspection XIII - SPIE
Aug 31, 2023 · ... additive manufacturing using imaging confocal microscopy. Narcís ... The holographic interferometry technique works by quantifying the ...
[37]
[PDF] cr HOLOGRAPHIC AND ULTRASONIC DETECTION OF BOND ...
A discontinuity in the fringe pattern indicated an abnormal local surface displacement from which was inferred the presence of an underlying flaw. Double- ...
[38]
Holographic contouring of the surface topography and study of the ...
When properly adjusted this method allows the construction of contour maps of the surfaces with contour intervals Δz ranging from 1 μm to several millimetres.Missing: subsurface irregularities
[39]
(PDF) Pulsed holographic interferometry: a technique for the ...
Aug 9, 2025 · A technique and associated hardware lias been developed to apply pulsed holographic interferometry as a non-destructive inspection (NDI) tool ...
[40]
Comparison of nondestructive testing techniques for the inspection ...
May 30, 2018 · ... wind turbine blade postmanufacturing control can assess the quality of the blade easily. ... holographic interferometry and infrared thermography.
[41]
55 Years of Holographic Non-Destructive Testing and Experimental Stress Analysis: Is there still Progress to be expected?
### Summary of Holographic Interferometry in NDT
[42]
Portable digital holographic camera featuring enhanced field of view ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Digital holography offers a full-field and high-resolution technique for non-destructive testing and inspection of electro-opto-mechanical ...Missing: diode | Show results with:diode
[43]
[PDF] Evaluation of Diffuse - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
The flow visualization was based on diffuse- illumination, double-exposure, holographic interferometry. The main purpose of this investigation was to test the.
[44]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343987281_Portable_digital_holographic_camera_featuring_enhanced_field_of_view_and_reduced_exposure_time
[45]
[PDF] Digital holographic interferometry for analyzing high density ... - HAL
Jul 28, 2017 · Abstract: Digital holographic interferometry has been developed by ONERA for analysing high refractive index variations encountered in ...Missing: turbine blades
[46]
Assessment of ultraviolet radiation impact on human skin tissue ...
Feb 10, 2025 · In this research, the effects of UV radiation on human skin exposed to different energy doses are evaluated using digital holographic interferometry (DHI).Missing: retinal corneal post-
[47]
Holographic interferometry of intact and radially incised human eye ...
A double-pulse holographic interferometer operating at 632.8 nm was used to measure corneal deformation in 20 whole-globe eyes from donors 45 to 83 years of age ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[48]
In vivo laser Doppler holography of the human retina - PMC
We report here on the implementation of laser Doppler holographic perfusion imaging in the human retina. In contrast with previous attempts on rodent eyes ...
[49]
Holography in biomaterials
Double-exposure holographic interferometry is a static technique where the effect of applying a small load to the object can be seen by fringes that ...Missing: tensile metal example
[50]
Real-time holographic lensless micro-endoscopy through flexible ...
Here, we present an approach that allows holographic, bend-insensitive, coherence-gated, micro-endoscopic imaging using commercially available multi-core fibers ...Missing: organ 2020s
[51]
Spatial microfluidic holographic integrated platform for label-free ...
Jul 1, 2025 · In this study, we design a spatial microfluidic holographic integrated (termed SMHI) platform, which combines a compact digital holographic ...
[52]
Holographic interferometry in biomedical sciences - ScienceDirect
This paper reviews the state of the art of holographic interferometry in medicine. Areas in which the technique may find applications in the future are ...Missing: biocompatibility | Show results with:biocompatibility
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Strategies for reducing speckle noise in digital holography - PMC - NIH
This review article provides a broad discussion about the noise issue in DH, with the aim of covering the best-performing noise reduction approaches that have ...Digital Holography: Tackling... · Noise Process In Dh · Fig. 8. Mldh-Bm3d In The...Missing: media | Show results with:media
[54]
Speckle-Correlation Holographic Imaging: Advances, Techniques ...
Reflective scatterers produce speckle patterns with high angular sensitivity and partial polarization retention, making them ideal for precision applications ...
[55]
[PDF] Digital Shearography for NDT: Determination and - ScienceDirect.com
According to the discussions in section 2.2, the smallest. 218 measurable deformation wmax is ranged from λ/10 and λ/20, depending on the test environment,.<|separator|>
[56]
https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6732/12/8/776
[57]
55 Years of Holographic Non-Destructive Testing and Experimental ...
Mar 10, 2022 · The paper looks back to the history of holographic metrology, honors the inventors of the main principles, discusses criteria for the selection ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
The use of full-field measurement methods in composite material ...
The aim here is to examine the interest and the limitations of full-field measurement techniques in composite materials characterization.
[59]
A Review: Non-Contact and Full-Field Strain Mapping Methods for ...
This process, known as holographic interferometry, allows for the measurement of differences in optical phases caused by surface strain [102].
[60]
Coherence requirement in digital holography
In this paper the coherence requirement for different holographic setups (Fresnel hologram, Fourier hologram, and image-plane hologram) is compared.
[61]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11510936/
[62]
Comparative holographic moire interferometry for nondestructive ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Comparison of the suggested technique with conventional holographic interferometry shows its reliability for localizing defects. The comparative ...
[63]
Digital Holographic Interferometry for the Measurement of ... - MDPI
Since holographic interferometry is very sensitive, the optical setup has been put on a vibration-isolated optical table. Photonics 08 00200 g002. Figure 2 ...
[64]
Interferometry and holography in a low-gravity environment
(1) and (2) shows that the system is extremely sensitive to vibration and requires careful alignment. Since we are measuring changes in path length in terms ...
[65]
Holographic interferometry and recording media
Materials used to record holograms are much less sensitive than those used for conventional photography, but the resolution is much higher.Missing: analog | Show results with:analog
[66]
Strategies for reducing speckle noise in digital holography - Nature
Aug 1, 2018 · Optical techniques for noise reduction in DH mainly involve the reduction of the light coherence, engineering the light sources in the recording ...
[67]
Reduction of speckle noise in holographic images using spatial ...
Averaging the set of numerically produced images leads to a strong reduction of speckle noise in both amplitude and phase difference images. The experimental ...Missing: mitigation | Show results with:mitigation
[68]
Laser Interferometers | Form & Transmitted Wavefront - ZYGO
ZYGO offers a range interferometers, from cost-effective production level to instruments optimized for difficult environments, and the highest resolution ...Verifire · Verifire MST · Verifire™ Asphere+ · Qualifire
[69]
Compact, low cost, large field-of-view self-referencing digital ...
Here we describe the development of a low-cost large field of view self-referencing digital holographic microscope based on wavefront division interferometer.<|separator|>
[70]
DIGITAL SPECKLE-PATTERN INTERFEROMETRY by Katherine ...
interferometry techniques use a comparison between speckle patterns to obtain object information, just as in holographic interferometry. in both cases the ...
[71]
Fast phase processing in off-axis holography by CUDA including ...
Feb 8, 2016 · Using the GPU implementation, we extracted the unwrapped phase maps from the recorded off-axis holograms at 35 frames per second (fps) for 4 ...Missing: demands | Show results with:demands
[72]
https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/188115/azu_td_8603336_sip1_c.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y