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Hydrogen technologies

Hydrogen technologies comprise the engineering processes for producing hydrogen from feedstocks like water or hydrocarbons, storing it in forms such as compressed gas or liquid, transporting it via pipelines or carriers, and utilizing it in fuel cells, turbines, or chemical syntheses to generate power or heat with minimal emissions when sourced renewably.^[1]^[2] Primarily developed to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors including heavy industry, long-haul aviation, and shipping, these technologies exploit hydrogen's gravimetric energy density exceeding that of gasoline while emitting only water upon oxidation, though over 95% of current global production—reaching 97 million tonnes in 2023—derives from fossil fuels via steam methane reforming, yielding significant carbon outputs absent capture and storage.^[3]^[2] Electrolysis using renewable electricity enables low-carbon "green" hydrogen, but entails substantial efficiency penalties, with end-to-end conversion losses often exceeding 70% in applications like vehicle propulsion or grid balancing, positioning it as inferior to direct electrification for passenger transport and heating where feasible.^[4]^[5]^[6] Key achievements encompass scaled electrolyzer manufacturing and pilot fuel cell deployments, such as in heavy-duty trucks and power plants, alongside U.S. Department of Energy initiatives funding hydrogen hubs to integrate production with carbon capture, yet persistent challenges like high costs—green hydrogen at $3-8 per kg versus $1-2 for grey—and infrastructure gaps have led to project delays and skepticism regarding scalability without subsidies.^[7]^[8]^[9] Controversies center on overstated potential amid thermodynamic realities, where hydrogen's versatility comes at the expense of energy dissipation, prompting critiques that resources might yield greater emission reductions via battery electrification or efficiency gains elsewhere, though its role in seasonal energy storage and synthetic fuels remains promising for niche durability demands.^[10]^[11]

History

Early discoveries and uses

In 1766, British chemist Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen gas by reacting metals such as zinc or iron with dilute acids like hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, producing a gas he described as "inflammable air" due to its high flammability and low density compared to common air.^[12] Cavendish accurately measured its properties, including a density approximately 7.8 times lighter than air, and observed that it formed water upon combustion with oxygen, though he did not fully interpret the reaction's implications at the time.^[13] This work established hydrogen as a distinct substance separate from previously known gases. In 1783, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogen (from Greek roots meaning "water-former") after conducting experiments that demonstrated its combination with oxygen to produce pure water, overturning earlier misconceptions about water's elemental nature.^[14] Lavoisier's precise quantitative measurements confirmed the 2:1 volume ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in water formation, laying foundational principles for stoichiometry and modern chemical nomenclature.^[15] One of the first practical applications emerged later that year when physicist Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first unmanned hydrogen-filled balloon on August 27, 1783, from Paris, achieving an ascent of about 3 kilometers and traveling roughly 25 kilometers downwind.^[16] On December 1, 1783, Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert conducted the first manned hydrogen balloon flight, reaching an altitude of approximately 550 meters over Paris and demonstrating hydrogen's utility as a lifting gas due to its low molecular weight.^[17] Into the early 19th century, hydrogen found use in high-temperature applications with the invention of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe by American chemist Robert Hare in 1801, which mixed hydrogen and oxygen streams to generate a flame exceeding 2,800°C, enabling the melting of platinum and other refractory metals for laboratory and metallurgical purposes.^[18] This device represented an early precursor to welding technologies and highlighted hydrogen's role in precise analytical chemistry, though its flammability—evident from Cavendish's initial observations of explosive mixtures with air—necessitated careful handling from the outset.^[12]

20th-century developments

In the 1930s, steam methane reforming (SMR) emerged as a key industrial process for large-scale hydrogen production, primarily to supply the Haber-Bosch synthesis of ammonia for fertilizers, relying on natural gas as the fossil feedstock.^[19] The first commercial methane steam reformer was commissioned in 1936 at Imperial Chemical Industries' (ICI) Billingham site in the UK, marking the transition from smaller-scale reforming of propane and butane to efficient natural gas-based operations that supported expanding agricultural needs.^[19] This method, initially pioneered by BASF in the early 1930s and refined through catalyst and reactor innovations, dominated hydrogen supply due to its cost-effectiveness despite producing carbon dioxide as a byproduct.^[20] During the 1960s, liquid hydrogen gained prominence in aerospace applications, particularly as a high-energy-density fuel paired with liquid oxygen in rocket propulsion.^[21] NASA's Saturn V rocket, central to the Apollo program, employed five Rocketdyne J-2 engines in its second stage and one in the third, each burning cryogenic liquid hydrogen and oxygen to achieve vacuum thrusts exceeding 200,000 pounds per engine, enabling lunar missions from 1967 onward.^[21] Development of the J-2 began in 1960, highlighting hydrogen's role in providing specific impulse advantages over kerosene-based fuels, though production remained tied to fossil-derived or electrolytic sources with logistical challenges in liquefaction and storage.^[22] Parallel early experiments in hydrogen for energy conversion focused on fuel cells, building on theoretical concepts but facing practical hurdles like efficiency and durability. In 1932, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon constructed the first viable alkaline fuel cell prototype, using a potassium hydroxide electrolyte, nickel electrodes, and pure hydrogen-oxygen feeds under elevated temperatures and pressures to generate electricity continuously. This design influenced later systems, including NASA's adaptations for space power. In 1966, General Motors unveiled the Electrovan, a converted GMC Handi-Van equipped with a 1.5-kilowatt proton-exchange membrane fuel cell stack fueled by liquid hydrogen and oxygen, achieving a 120-mile range and speeds up to 70 mph in demonstrations, though its bulk and cryogenic requirements limited it to prototypes.^[23] These efforts underscored hydrogen's potential for clean power but revealed dependencies on fossil-derived production and the need for infrastructure advancements.

Post-2000 advancements and policy pushes

In 2003, the United States launched the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative under President George W. Bush, committing $1.2 billion over five years to develop hydrogen-powered vehicles and infrastructure as a means to reduce oil dependence and emissions.^[24] The program aimed to achieve hydrogen production costs equivalent to $1 per gallon of gasoline by 2015 through advancements in fuel cells and storage, building on the earlier FreedomCAR partnership with automakers.^[25] However, these targets were not met, as persistent high costs for hydrogen production—exceeding $5 per kilogram in practice—and inadequate refueling infrastructure limited scalability, leading to program redirection toward broader energy research by the mid-2010s.^[26] Internationally, the European Union established the European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform in 2003 to coordinate research toward a hydrogen economy, emphasizing cost reductions and integration with renewable energy sources.^[27] Japan, through its Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), advanced hydrogen roadmaps in the early 2000s, focusing on fuel cell commercialization and societal adoption, including subsidies for stationary fuel cells that reached over 200,000 units by the decade's end despite high upfront costs.^[28] These policy pushes, driven by climate commitments and energy security, spurred collaborative R&D but encountered setbacks from inconsistent funding and technological hurdles, such as inefficient electrolysis efficiency below 70% at scale.^[29] Early commercial fuel cell vehicles emerged amid these efforts, with Honda leasing the FCX Clarity in 2008 to select U.S. customers, offering a 270-mile range but restricted to areas with dedicated hydrogen stations.^[30] Toyota followed with the Mirai in 2014, initially available in California with a 300-mile range and zero tailpipe emissions, yet adoption remained under 10,000 global units by 2016 due to sparse refueling networks—fewer than 50 public stations in the U.S.—and hydrogen prices over $10 per kilogram.^[31] These launches highlighted causal barriers like infrastructure chicken-and-egg problems, where low vehicle demand deterred station investments, underscoring the initiatives' empirical limitations despite policy advocacy.^[32]

Production methods

Steam methane reforming and fossil-based processes

Steam methane reforming (SMR) represents the dominant industrial process for hydrogen production, utilizing natural gas—predominantly methane—as feedstock reacted with steam at temperatures of 700–1,000°C and pressures of 3–25 bar over a nickel catalyst to generate syngas.^[33] The core endothermic reaction is CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂, which is highly energy-intensive and typically paired with combustion of additional natural gas for heat supply.^[34] This is followed by the water-gas shift (WGS) reaction, CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂, conducted in two stages (high- and low-temperature shifts) to maximize hydrogen yield, resulting in an overall stoichiometry of CH₄ + 2H₂O → 4H₂ + CO₂.^[33] The process achieves hydrogen purities of 70–80% post-reforming, with further purification via pressure swing adsorption to exceed 99.9%.^[35] SMR accounts for the majority of global hydrogen output, comprising approximately 60–70% of production in 2021–2023, primarily as "gray" hydrogen without emissions mitigation.^[35] ^[36] Global hydrogen production via this route emits around 920 million metric tons of CO₂ annually as of 2023, equivalent to roughly 10–12 kg CO₂ per kg H₂ due to both process reactions and fuel combustion for heat.^[36] ^[37] These unabated emissions stem from the inherent carbon content of methane and incomplete conversion efficiencies of 70–85%, underscoring SMR's cost-effectiveness—typically $0.67–2 per kg H₂ in regions with low natural gas prices—but environmental drawbacks.^[37] Other fossil-based variants, such as partial oxidation or autothermal reforming, supplement SMR but share similar high-emission profiles without capture.^[34] "Blue" hydrogen mitigates these emissions through integration of carbon capture and storage (CCS), targeting 85–95% capture of CO₂ from reformer flue gas and process streams.^[36] A prominent example is the Quest CCS project at Shell's Scotford facility in Alberta, Canada, operational since 2015, which captures over 1 million metric tons of CO₂ annually from three SMR units producing hydrogen for oil sands upgrading, achieving approximately 90% capture efficiency on hydrogen-related emissions.^[38] ^[39] Despite such advancements, residual emissions persist at 1–2 kg CO₂ per kg H₂ even at high capture rates, and CCS deployment adds $1–2 per kg to production costs due to equipment, energy penalties (10–20% efficiency loss), and storage logistics.^[37] ^[40] Blue hydrogen thus offers a transitional pathway for fossil-based production but requires policy incentives to compete economically with gray variants.^[36]

Electrolysis and low-emission variants

Electrolysis involves the electrochemical decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity, representing a key method for producing hydrogen without direct carbon emissions when powered by low-carbon sources. The process requires an electrolyte to facilitate ion transport, with hydrogen generated at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. Commercial systems typically achieve system efficiencies of 60-80%, translating to an electricity consumption of 50-55 kWh per kilogram of hydrogen produced, compared to the theoretical minimum of approximately 39.4 kWh/kg based on the higher heating value of hydrogen.^[41]^[42] Two dominant technologies are alkaline electrolysis (AEL), which uses a liquid potassium hydroxide electrolyte and hydroxide ion conduction, and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis, employing a solid polymer membrane for proton transport. AEL systems are mature, cost-effective for large-scale operation, and robust, but PEM electrolyzers offer higher current densities, faster response times to power fluctuations, and purer hydrogen output, making them suitable for dynamic inputs. Both types exhibit similar overall efficiencies, though PEM may consume slightly less energy per unit volume of hydrogen (4.1-4.3 kWh/Nm³ versus 4.6-4.8 kWh/Nm³ for AEL under comparable conditions).^[43]^[44]^[45] When coupled with renewable sources like solar or wind, electrolysis produces "green" hydrogen, but the intermittency of these inputs poses challenges, including variable load operation that can reduce stack efficiency or necessitate oversized capacity and storage to maintain output. PEM systems handle rapid ramping better than AEL, yet prolonged low loads or frequent cycling may accelerate degradation, with studies indicating potential efficiency losses of several percentage points under highly intermittent profiles without optimized controls. Grid dependency often inflates costs, with green hydrogen priced at $3.50-6.00/kg or higher in 2025, roughly 2-3 times that of steam methane reforming (SMR) at $1-2/kg, due to elevated electricity prices and capital requirements.^[46]^[47]^[48] Low-emission variants extend beyond renewables to include nuclear-powered electrolysis, providing baseload electricity for higher utilization rates and potentially lower costs than intermittent renewables. The U.S. Department of Energy's Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, announced in 2023 with $7 billion in funding, target clean hydrogen production at $1/kg by 2030 through integrated projects, some leveraging nuclear or carbon capture for electrolysis support, though many incorporate blue hydrogen (fossil-based with CCS) as a transitional low-emission pathway. These hubs emphasize scalable deployment, with electrolysis capacities projected to exceed gigawatt scales by decade's end.^[49]^[50]^[42]

Emerging and alternative pathways

Biomass gasification involves heating organic materials, such as agricultural residues or forestry waste, in a low-oxygen environment to produce syngas, from which hydrogen is extracted via water-gas shift reactions and purification.^[51] This method leverages renewable feedstocks but achieves hydrogen yields of approximately 68–87 grams per kilogram of dry biomass, with overall energy efficiencies ranging from 40% to 70% based on lower heating value, limited by tar formation, variable feedstock quality, and the need for extensive gas cleanup.^[52] ^[51] Scalability remains constrained by seasonal feedstock availability and competition with food production, confining it to niche applications like decentralized plants processing local waste.^[53] Nuclear thermochemical cycles, such as the sulfur-iodine (S-I) process, decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen using high-temperature heat (around 800–900°C) from nuclear reactors, avoiding electricity input and potentially reaching efficiencies up to 50% in theoretical models.^[54] Japan's High-Temperature Test Reactor (HTTR) has demonstrated core temperatures suitable for S-I integration, with the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) conducting continuous hydrogen production tests lasting 150 hours in bench-scale facilities as of 2019, though full-scale coupling awaits next-generation very high-temperature reactors.^[55] ^[56] These cycles offer dispatchable, low-emission output tied to nuclear baseload but face challenges from corrosive intermediates like hydriodic acid and material durability under extreme conditions, keeping technology readiness at prototype levels.^[54] Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting uses semiconductor materials to directly convert sunlight into hydrogen via photoanodes and cathodes immersed in electrolyte, mimicking photosynthesis but with solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies currently below 10% in lab prototypes due to charge recombination losses and material instability.^[57] Recent advances, such as doped thin films achieving higher incident photon-to-current efficiency, indicate progress toward stability over thousands of hours, yet scaling to practical areas (>1 m²) is hindered by cost-prohibitive rare-earth catalysts and degradation in real-world conditions.^[57] ^[58] Collectively, these pathways contribute less than 5% to global hydrogen output, dominated by fossil-derived methods, primarily due to high capital costs, low technology readiness (TRL 4–6), and feedstock or energy input dependencies that exceed those of established electrolysis or reforming.^[59] Their potential lies in hybrid systems integrating waste utilization or surplus heat, but economic viability requires breakthroughs in efficiency and durability to compete beyond demonstration scales.^[51] ^[60]

Storage and handling

Physical and material-based storage

Hydrogen storage in physical forms primarily involves compressing the gas or liquefying it to achieve higher densities than at ambient conditions, though both methods incur energy penalties for compression or cooling. Compressed gaseous hydrogen is typically stored at pressures of 350 bar or 700 bar in high-strength tanks, such as Type IV composite overwrapped vessels, enabling volumetric densities around 24–40 kg/m³ depending on pressure and temperature.^[61] The energy required for compression to these levels, accounting for multi-stage processes and inefficiencies, represents approximately 10% of hydrogen's lower heating value (LHV) for 700 bar systems.^[62] Liquid hydrogen storage achieves higher densities of about 70 kg/m³ but requires cryogenic cooling to -253°C (20 K), near its boiling point under atmospheric pressure.^[63] This process demands significant upfront energy for liquefaction, often 30–40% of the LHV, with ongoing boil-off losses from heat ingress ranging from 0.2% to 3% per day in insulated tanks, depending on insulation quality and tank size.^[64]^[65] Liquid hydrogen has been employed in space applications, such as NASA's Space Launch System, where cryogenic storage supports high-thrust engines despite boil-off challenges during ground holds.^[66] Material-based storage incorporates hydrogen into solids or chemical compounds to enhance volumetric efficiency and safety. Metal hydrides, such as magnesium-based or complex variants like alanates, can achieve gravimetric capacities up to 7–10 wt% hydrogen, offering densities exceeding 100 kg/m³ in some cases, but suffer from slow absorption/desorption kinetics requiring elevated temperatures (often >200°C) and limited cycle life due to degradation.^[67]^[68] Chemical carriers, including ammonia (NH₃) with 17.6 wt% hydrogen content and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) like dibenzyltoluene at around 6 wt%, store hydrogen through reversible binding, providing ambient-condition stability and volumetric densities of 50–60 kg/m³, though release often demands catalytic processes with energy inputs for dehydrogenation.^[69]^[70] These methods prioritize density over rapid accessibility, with practical efficiencies constrained by kinetic barriers and material reversibility.^[71]

Safety and leakage considerations

Hydrogen possesses unique physical properties that necessitate specific safety protocols during handling. It is odorless, colorless, and produces an invisible flame, rendering leaks undetectable by human senses without specialized equipment.^[72]^[73] Hydrogen's minimum ignition energy is approximately 0.02 millijoules, significantly lower than that of natural gas or gasoline, facilitating ignition from static sparks or electrical arcs.^[74] Its flammability range in air spans 4% to 75% by volume, broader than methane's 5% to 15%, which heightens fire risks under certain conditions.^[75]^[74] However, hydrogen's low density and high diffusivity promote rapid upward dispersion and dilution, often mitigating explosion hazards in open or ventilated environments compared to denser fuels like methane that accumulate in enclosures.^[76] Leakage of hydrogen also poses indirect environmental risks beyond immediate safety concerns. As an indirect greenhouse agent, hydrogen reacts with hydroxyl (OH) radicals in the troposphere, depleting these key oxidants and thereby extending the atmospheric lifetime of methane and other pollutants, which amplifies their warming effects.^[77] Model estimates of hydrogen's global warming potential vary due to uncertainties in OH feedback; short-term (e.g., 20-year) impacts per kilogram can approach 30-40 times that of CO2 in some assessments, though recent chemistry models suggest lower values than earlier projections, emphasizing the need for leak minimization to preserve climate benefits.^[78]^[79] International standards address these risks through rigorous design and operational requirements. The ISO 19880-1 standard specifies minimum criteria for gaseous hydrogen fueling stations, covering design, installation, commissioning, operation, inspection, and maintenance to ensure safety and environmental protection.^[80] Incidents remain infrequent; for instance, a June 10, 2019, explosion at the Kjørbo hydrogen station near Oslo, Norway, resulted from an assembly error in a high-pressure storage tank plug, leading to a leak and deflagration but no fatalities.^[81]^[82] Such events underscore the importance of component integrity and leak detection systems, with global hydrogen incident databases indicating low overall frequency relative to deployment scale.^[82]

Energy conversion

Fuel cells

Fuel cells convert the chemical energy of hydrogen into electrical power through an electrochemical reaction with oxygen, typically from ambient air, yielding water vapor and heat as the primary byproducts rather than combustion exhaust. This process operates without flames or moving parts beyond auxiliary systems, enabling higher theoretical efficiencies than thermal engines by bypassing the Carnot limit constraints of heat-to-work conversion. Practical electrical efficiencies range from 40% to 60%, depending on type, load, and operating conditions, with excess heat recoverable for cogeneration in some designs.^[83] Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), the predominant type for mobile applications, employ a solid polymer electrolyte membrane that conducts protons while separating reactants, operating at temperatures of 60–100°C for rapid startup and dynamic response. They achieve tank-to-electricity efficiencies of 50–60% under optimal conditions, though real-world automotive systems average closer to 50% due to auxiliary losses. PEMFCs rely on platinum-group metal catalysts to facilitate the oxygen reduction reaction, with current loadings around 0.3–0.4 g/kW contributing to stack costs exceeding $50/kW; U.S. Department of Energy targets aim for under 0.125 g/kW Pt equivalent to reduce expenses. Durability remains a challenge, with automotive-grade stacks targeting 5,000–8,000 hours before significant degradation from catalyst sintering or membrane thinning, though advancements in alloy catalysts have extended lifespans in testing.^[84]^[85] Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), favored for stationary power, utilize a dense ceramic electrolyte such as yttria-stabilized zirconia, enabling operation at 600–1,000°C where oxide ion conduction predominates and internal fuel reforming becomes feasible. This high-temperature regime supports electrical efficiencies exceeding 60% in simple cycle and up to 85% in combined heat and power configurations by utilizing waste heat for steam generation or process heating. SOFCs tolerate impure hydrogen feeds, including those with carbon monoxide, but face material degradation from thermal cycling and sulfur poisoning, limiting short-term dynamics compared to PEMFCs. Their suitability for cogeneration stems from the abundance of recoverable high-grade heat, making them viable for distributed generation or industrial integration.^[86] In full energy systems, hydrogen fuel cells integrated with renewable electrolysis exhibit well-to-wheel efficiencies of 25–35%, encompassing production losses (electrolysis at 60–80% efficient), compression/storage (5–10% losses), and conversion inefficiencies; this contrasts with 70–90% for battery electric vehicles using the same grid electricity, highlighting the thermodynamic penalties of gaseous fuel handling over direct wired transmission. Multiple analyses confirm fuel cells require 2–3 times more primary energy input per kilometer than BEVs under equivalent renewable sourcing, underscoring conversion chain vulnerabilities despite stack-level gains.^[87]^[88]

Direct combustion and turbines

Direct combustion of hydrogen involves igniting it with atmospheric oxygen to produce heat and steam, enabling its use in modified internal combustion engines (ICEs) and gas turbines with minimal structural changes to existing hardware. This approach leverages hydrogen's high flame speed and energy density per unit mass, allowing combustion efficiencies comparable to natural gas systems, though it requires adaptations for flame stability and emissions control.^[89] In gas turbines, hydrogen blending or full substitution has been tested in advanced dry low-NOx (DLN) combustors to maintain high thermal efficiencies, often exceeding 60% in combined-cycle configurations. General Electric's (GE) Vernova HA-class turbines, equipped with DLN 2.6e systems, support up to 50% hydrogen by volume in operational fuel mixes, with ongoing validations for higher blends. In January 2025, GE Vernova completed testing of a 100% hydrogen-fueled DLN combustor prototype for B- and E-class industrial turbines, demonstrating stable operation without diluents and low NOx levels through lean premixed combustion.^[90] NOx emissions, which rise due to hydrogen's elevated adiabatic flame temperatures above 2,000°C, are mitigated via techniques like excess air dilution, staged combustion, and selective catalytic reduction (SCR), achieving levels below 9 ppm in permitted plants.^[91]^[92] For internal combustion engines, hydrogen-fueled prototypes adapt diesel architectures for spark-ignition or compression-ignition modes, yielding brake thermal efficiencies of 30-40% under heavy-duty loads, though typically lower than fuel cell equivalents due to heat losses and pre-ignition risks. Cummins introduced a 15-liter hydrogen ICE in 2022, targeting 500 horsepower and 1,850 ft-lb torque for trucks and generators, with production-scale development announced in 2025.^[93]^[94] These engines benefit from hydrogen's wide flammability limits, enabling lean-burn operation to reduce peak temperatures and NOx formation, supplemented by water injection or exhaust gas recirculation for further control.^[95] Such modifications facilitate retrofitting of natural gas infrastructure, positioning direct combustion as a bridge technology for sectors with intermittent high-power demands.^[96]

Applications

Transportation systems

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) offer advantages in transportation applications, particularly for long-range and heavy-duty uses, due to their high energy density and rapid refueling times compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs). FCEVs generate electricity on-board via hydrogen-oxygen reactions in fuel cells, providing ranges exceeding 300 miles and refueling in under 20 minutes, which suits applications like trucking where charging infrastructure limitations hinder BEV adoption. However, deployment remains constrained by sparse refueling networks, with fewer than 100 public hydrogen stations in the United States as of 2025, limiting scalability.^[97] In passenger cars, the Toyota Mirai, introduced in 2014, exemplifies FCEV technology with an EPA-estimated range of approximately 402 miles for the 2025 model. Cumulative global sales of the Mirai reached around 25,000 units by mid-2025, starkly contrasting with over 20 million electric car sales projected worldwide in 2025, underscoring hydrogen's niche market position amid dominant BEV growth driven by established charging infrastructure and lower costs.^[98]^[99]^[100] For heavy-duty transport, such as trucks and buses, hydrogen's quick refueling—typically 8-20 minutes—and payload compatibility make it preferable for long-haul operations. The Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell truck, launched in 2020, achieves a range of about 250 miles (400 km) per fill with a 31 kg hydrogen capacity, enabling efficient logistics in regions like Europe and Switzerland where fleets have logged over 10 million kilometers collectively. These vehicles address BEV challenges like long charging downtimes and battery weight penalties in high-mileage scenarios.^[101]^[102]^[103] In aviation, hydrogen propulsion concepts promise zero-emission flight but face significant hurdles including cryogenic storage and aircraft redesign. Airbus's ZEROe program, unveiled in 2020, envisions hydrogen-electric aircraft for 100 passengers by 2035, featuring fuel cells and distributed propulsion; however, as of 2025, development has slowed with delays beyond initial timelines and scaled-back testing amid technical and infrastructural challenges. Historically, hydrogen's use in airships like the LZ 129 Hindenburg demonstrated risks, as a 1937 landing incident involving a hydrogen leak and spark led to a rapid fire, killing 36 people and eroding confidence in hydrogen for lighter-than-air craft.^[104]^[105] Refueling infrastructure deficits persist as a primary barrier, with global hydrogen station growth lagging demand; for instance, high production costs and distribution complexities restrict availability, confining FCEVs to pilot programs in select corridors rather than widespread use.^[97]^[106]

Industrial and stationary power

Hydrogen serves as a key feedstock in industrial processes, particularly in oil refining where it enables hydrotreating and hydrocracking to remove impurities and convert heavy hydrocarbons into lighter products. In 2023, global hydrogen demand reached 97 million tonnes, with refining accounting for approximately 40 million tonnes, or about 41% of total consumption, primarily for these upgrading operations.^[107]^[108] Within refining, hydrocracking represented around 35% of hydrogen use in 2024, driven by the need to process heavier crudes amid declining light sweet oil availability.^[109] Chemical industries, including ammonia synthesis, consume another 30-35% of hydrogen, though emerging applications like direct reduction of iron ore (DRI) are gaining traction for steel production. In steelmaking, hydrogen-based DRI processes replace carbon-intensive blast furnaces by using hydrogen as the reductant, producing direct reduced iron that can feed electric arc furnaces. Pilot-scale demonstrations, such as Sweden's HYBRIT project, commenced operations in August 2020 at a Luleå facility, producing over 5,000 tonnes of hydrogen-reduced iron by 2024 and enabling the delivery of fossil-free steel products.^[110]^[111] While green hydrogen from electrolysis powers such initiatives, blue hydrogen—produced via steam methane reforming with carbon capture—offers a transitional pathway, as seen in projects integrating captured CO2 storage to mitigate emissions during scale-up.^[112] These processes complement intermittent renewables by providing dispatchable heat and reduction capacity, though adoption remains limited to pilots due to hydrogen supply constraints. For stationary power, hydrogen fuel cells provide backup and baseload generation in microgrids and data centers, addressing grid intermittency where batteries fall short for extended durations. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), such as those from Bloom Energy, have been deployed for over 400 MW in data centers as of 2025, offering on-site power with fuel flexibility including hydrogen.^[113] Capital costs for SOFC systems align with natural gas turbines but exceed those of lithium-ion batteries for short-term storage, making hydrogen viable for long-duration needs like multi-day outages.^[114] Recent integrations, including a 2025 California microgrid combining hydrogen fuel cells with batteries for resilient backup in remote areas, demonstrate hybrid approaches to enhance grid stability.^[115]^[116]

Space and aerospace uses

Liquid hydrogen (LH₂) combined with liquid oxygen (LOX) serves as a high-performance propellant in rocket engines, prized for its specific impulse exceeding 450 seconds in vacuum conditions, which enables greater velocity increments despite cryogenic storage challenges. The NASA's Space Launch System (SLS), powering the Artemis program's return to the Moon, employs four RS-25 engines fueled by LH₂/LOX, delivering a vacuum specific impulse of 452 seconds at 109% power level.^[117] These engines, derived from the Space Shuttle program, prioritize thrust-to-weight efficiency in the near-vacuum upper atmosphere, where hydrogen's low molecular weight exhaust yields superior exhaust velocity compared to kerosene-based alternatives.^[118] Blue Origin's BE-3 engine, also LH₂/LOX-based, powers upper stages like those on the New Glenn rocket, offering higher specific impulse than methane-fueled options for orbital maneuvers and payload delivery.^[119]^[120] In vacuum environments, hydrogen propulsion excels for upper stages and satellite insertions, providing reliable restarts and precise control despite boil-off risks from LH₂'s low boiling point (-253°C), as its high energy density per unit mass outweighs volumetric inefficiencies.^[121] Aerospace applications extend to conceptual hydrogen-fueled aircraft, where NASA explores LH₂ for subsonic propulsion to reduce emissions, though it demands approximately four times the fuel volume of conventional jet fuel due to hydrogen's lower volumetric energy density (8.5 MJ/L for LH₂ versus 35 MJ/L for Jet A).^[122]^[123] This necessitates redesigned fuselages with insulated cryogenic tanks, but hydrogen's clean combustion—producing only water vapor—aligns with performance-driven goals in high-altitude flight where efficiency losses are secondary to thrust output.^[124]

Technical and economic challenges

Efficiency and energy losses

The production of hydrogen via electrolysis incurs inherent thermodynamic losses, with current proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers achieving electrical efficiencies of approximately 65% on a lower heating value (LHV) basis, though targets aim for 77% by 2030.^[125] Alkaline electrolyzers perform similarly, around 60-70%, limited by overpotentials and heat management in the reversible water-splitting reaction. Reconversion in fuel cells yields 40-60% efficiency, resulting in round-trip efficiencies for electricity-to-hydrogen-to-electricity storage of 25-45%, far below the 80-90% achievable with lithium-ion batteries due to fewer conversion steps.^[126] ^[127] Storage introduces further penalties: compressing hydrogen to 350-700 bar for vehicular use consumes 10-15% of its LHV, rising to 25-30% at higher pressures, as energy is expended against intermolecular forces without recoverable work. Liquefaction to cryogenic temperatures (-253°C) demands even greater input, typically 30-40% of the hydrogen's energy content, owing to the low critical temperature and entropy changes in the Joule-Thomson expansion process.^[63] These losses compound across the chain, as hydrogen's low volumetric density necessitates such conditioning for practical use. In transportation applications, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles exhibit tank-to-wheels efficiencies of 45-60%, reflecting fuel cell stack performance and electric drivetrain losses.^[128] Full well-to-wheels analysis for electrolytic hydrogen reveals overall chain efficiencies of 20-35%, assuming renewable electricity inputs, compared to 70-90% for battery electric vehicles using equivalent grid power—highlighting the cumulative dissipation from multiple irreversible processes.^[87] ^[129] This disparity arises from hydrogen's role as an intermediary carrier, where entropy generation in each step erodes primary energy availability.

Cost structures and scalability issues

The primary cost structure for hydrogen production revolves around capital expenditures (capex) for equipment like electrolyzers and steam methane reformers, alongside operational expenditures (opex) dominated by electricity or natural gas inputs. Gray hydrogen, derived from natural gas without carbon capture, incurs production costs of $1.5-2.5 per kilogram, reflecting mature infrastructure but vulnerability to fluctuating fossil fuel prices.^[48] Green hydrogen, produced via water electrolysis powered by renewables, currently ranges from $4.5-6 per kilogram, with recent analyses indicating a 25-40% cost escalation since 2022 due to inflation in electrolyzer components and supply chain disruptions.^[130]^[131] Scaling green production to meet projected demand requires substantial infrastructure outlays, with global committed investments already surpassing $110 billion across over 500 projects, yet only 11% of 2030 capacity having reached final investment decisions amid demand uncertainty.^[132]^[133] Fuel cell systems, essential for end-use conversion, face persistent capex barriers, with projected 2025 costs around $55 per kilowatt for automotive-grade stacks, failing to meet U.S. Department of Energy targets of $40 per kilowatt due to material and manufacturing inefficiencies.^[134] Broader system costs remain elevated at $1,784-4,500 per kilowatt across fuel cell types, driven by opex factors like catalyst degradation and balance-of-plant components.^[135] Scalability is further constrained by supply chain vulnerabilities, particularly platinum group metals for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells and electrolyzers, where even 10% market adoption for hydrogen vehicles could exhaust global platinum supply, inflating prices and mining demands.^[136] Nickel shortages pose risks for alkaline electrolyzers, lacking critical dependencies on third countries but highlighting raw material bottlenecks in non-precious metal alternatives.^[137] Cost reduction trajectories underscore scalability challenges, with hydrogen technologies exhibiting learning rates of approximately 10-15% per capacity doubling for electrolyzers—slower than the 18% observed in battery systems—limiting exponential declines as production volumes grow.^[138] This moderated pace, evident in persistent electrolyzer system costs despite planned capacity expansions to 48 million tonnes annually by 2030, ties scalability to unresolved demand signals and infrastructure interdependencies rather than rapid technological maturation alone.^[139]

Infrastructure dependencies

As of early 2025, approximately 1,400 hydrogen refueling stations operate globally, concentrated primarily in Asia, Europe, and California, far fewer than the millions of electric vehicle chargers leveraging existing electrical grids.^[140] Constructing a single hydrogen station typically costs $1-3 million, including compression, storage, and dispensing equipment, compared to $50,000-$200,000 for a DC fast EV charger, highlighting the capital-intensive nature of hydrogen deployment versus electrification's utilization of ubiquitous power infrastructure.^[141]^[142] Hydrogen pipeline infrastructure faces similar hurdles, with blending into existing natural gas networks limited to 5-20% by volume due to material compatibility, embrittlement risks, and end-use equipment constraints, necessitating dedicated pipelines for higher volumes.^[143]^[144] New dedicated hydrogen pipelines cost around €2-3 million per kilometer onshore, as evidenced by the European Hydrogen Backbone project, which envisions 40,000 km of infrastructure at a total estimated €80-143 billion, contrasting sharply with the ability to expand electric grids incrementally without wholesale new transmission lines.^[145]^[146] This scarcity exacerbates a chicken-and-egg dilemma, where insufficient demand discourages infrastructure investment, perpetuating low utilization; the International Energy Agency notes a wave of over 200 low-emissions hydrogen project delays and cancellations by mid-2025, underscoring stalled progress amid high upfront costs and uncertain markets.^[147]^[148] In contrast, electric vehicles benefit from scalable grid access, enabling rapid charger proliferation without equivalent foundational barriers.^[2]

Environmental impacts

Lifecycle emissions analysis

Lifecycle emissions assessments of hydrogen technologies evaluate greenhouse gas (GHG) outputs from production through end-use, revealing that claims of zero tailpipe emissions overlook upstream burdens, which dominate the carbon footprint for most hydrogen pathways. Gray hydrogen, produced via steam methane reforming (SMR) of natural gas without carbon capture, generates approximately 10-12 kg CO₂e per kg of H₂, encompassing methane feedstock extraction, reforming process emissions, and downstream compression.^[149]^[150] This intensity arises primarily from CO₂ release during reforming and uncombusted methane, with full cradle-to-grave accounting including supply chain leaks that elevate effective warming potential. Green hydrogen, via water electrolysis using renewable electricity, achieves lifecycle emissions below 2 kg CO₂e/kg H₂ when powered by dedicated low-carbon sources, though real-world deployments often rely on grid electricity with residual fossil contributions.^[151] For instance, the EU's 2023 grid carbon intensity averaged 242 g CO₂/kWh, yielding roughly 12-13 kg CO₂e/kg H₂ for electrolysis requiring about 50-55 kWh/kg H₂, comparable to gray hydrogen and undermining "zero-emission" assertions.^[152] Fugitive emissions exacerbate this: hydrogen leaks, even at 1-3% rates across the supply chain, indirectly amplify warming by depleting atmospheric hydroxyl radicals and extending methane lifetimes, adding up to 15% or more to equivalent GHG intensity; SMR processes also release unmitigated methane slips, a potent short-lived climate pollutant.^[153]^[154] In transportation applications, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) exhibit higher lifecycle emissions than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) under typical conditions. A 2023 analysis by the International Council on Clean Transportation found FCEVs using fossil-derived hydrogen reduce GHG emissions by only 15-33% compared to diesel counterparts, while BEVs achieve 75-82% reductions using projected grid electricity, due to hydrogen's production inefficiencies and conversion losses.^[155]^[156] These disparities highlight that hydrogen's environmental viability hinges on verifiable low-emission production scales, which remain limited as of 2025.

Resource demands and land use

Green hydrogen production via water electrolysis demands substantial freshwater inputs, with stoichiometric requirements of approximately 9 liters per kilogram of hydrogen produced. In practice, consumption ranges from 12 to 15 liters per kilogram when accounting for inefficiencies, cooling, and purification processes, particularly for proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers, which average 17.5 liters per kilogram.^[157]^[158]^[159] These figures can escalate in operational settings, reaching 20-30 liters per kilogram cumulatively across the production cycle, comparable to or exceeding water use in some fossil-based hydrogen pathways.^[160] Deployment in water-stressed arid regions, often favored for abundant solar resources, amplifies risks to local hydrology, as desalination alternatives introduce additional energy penalties and infrastructure needs.^[161] Scaling electrolyzer capacity to meet ambitious targets, such as 80 million tons of annual green hydrogen production by 2030, requires dedicated renewable electricity generation, entailing significant land footprints for solar photovoltaic (PV) or wind installations. Land demands for solar-powered electrolysis in high-demand scenarios could span 0.09 to 0.6 million square kilometers by 2050, equivalent to 0.06-0.46% of global land area, with concentrated deployment potentially competing with agriculture or ecosystems in sunny, low-latitude zones.^[162] Wind-based systems demand less land per unit energy due to higher capacity factors but face intermittency challenges necessitating overbuild and storage, indirectly inflating spatial requirements.^[163] Material inputs for electrolyzers highlight dependencies on scarce minerals, especially for PEM technology, which dominates green hydrogen scaling due to its compatibility with variable renewables. Iridium, used as a catalyst to withstand acidic conditions, requires 300-400 kilograms per gigawatt of hydrogen production capacity, with global annual output limited to about 7 tonnes—potentially insufficient for terawatt-scale ambitions, demanding 2- to 10-fold increases over historical mine production.^[164]^[165] Rare earth elements like neodymium and yttrium support magnets and components in associated balance-of-plant systems, mirroring supply constraints in lithium-ion batteries' cobalt and lithium needs, though alkaline electrolyzers mitigate some risks by substituting nickel-based catalysts.^[166]^[167] Recycling and catalyst innovations could alleviate pressures, but current trajectories underscore vulnerabilities in global supply chains concentrated in few producers.^[168]

Comparisons to electrification alternatives

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) exhibit superior well-to-wheel energy efficiency compared to hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), with BEVs achieving 70-90% conversion of stored electricity to motion, while FCEVs typically range from 25-35% due to losses in electrolysis, compression, and fuel cell conversion.^[169]^[170] This disparity stems from the multi-step hydrogen pathway, which incurs thermodynamic inefficiencies not present in direct battery charging. For light-duty applications, such as passenger cars, BEVs also demonstrate lower total cost of ownership (TCO), driven by cheaper electricity fueling, reduced maintenance, and maturing battery costs, often undercutting FCEVs by factors influenced by hydrogen's higher production and distribution expenses.^[171]^[172] In heavy-duty and long-haul trucking, hydrogen offers advantages in refueling speed and operational range, with FCEVs enabling 3-5 minute fills for 400-600 km autonomy, compared to BEVs requiring 30-60 minutes or more for similar distances via megawatt-scale charging.^[173]^[169] However, BEVs maintain edges in energy efficiency and potential TCO parity by 2025-2026 for many routes, as battery densities improve and charging infrastructure expands, while hydrogen's benefits are constrained by sparse refueling networks and higher fuel costs.^[174]^[175] For stationary power applications, lithium-ion batteries excel in short-duration storage (hours to days) with round-trip efficiencies exceeding 85% and costs around $150-300/kWh, making them preferable for daily grid balancing.^[176] Hydrogen storage suits seasonal needs due to its high volumetric density in compressed or cavern forms, but incurs higher levelized costs (> $250/MWh discharged) and efficiencies of 30-40%, rendering it less competitive without scale in renewables curtailment scenarios.^[176]^[177] Causal analysis reveals batteries' direct electrochemical storage avoids hydrogen's conversion penalties, though infrastructure lock-in favors hydrogen where geological storage is abundant.^[178]

Policy, markets, and controversies

Subsidies and government interventions

The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 introduced a clean hydrogen production tax credit under Section 45V, offering up to $3 per kilogram for qualified low-emissions hydrogen production, with tiered values based on lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions intensity.^[179] This incentive, available for 10 years, aims to reduce production costs but carries substantial fiscal risks; analyses estimate that U.S. hydrogen subsidies could contribute to broader clean energy outlays exceeding $100 billion, potentially diverting resources from alternatives with higher empirical efficiency in many sectors.^[180] Policymakers justified the credit to spur domestic manufacturing and energy security, yet critics argue it overlooks hydrogen's persistent cost premiums over electrification pathways, fostering dependency on ongoing support rather than market-driven viability.^[181] In the European Union, the REPowerEU plan of 2022 targeted installation of 40 gigawatts of renewable hydrogen electrolyzers by 2030 to produce 10 million tonnes of domestic green hydrogen annually, backed by auctions and state aid exceeding €5 billion through mechanisms like the Innovation Fund.^[182] However, implementation has faltered amid high capital costs and grid constraints, with over 20% of announced projects—totaling around 29 gigawatts of capacity—canceled or frozen by late 2024, including major pullbacks by utilities like Iberdrola, which scaled ambitions by two-thirds due to financing shortfalls. These setbacks highlight how aggressive targets, often amplified in policy documents from institutions with incentives to promote green transitions, have outpaced realistic deployment, leading to reallocations toward imports or scaled-back timelines.^[183] Japan and South Korea have pursued hydrogen through national strategies with mandates and subsidies, including Japan's Basic Hydrogen Strategy aiming for 20 million tonnes of supply by 2050 via premiums for low-carbon imports and South Korea's Roadmap to Hydrogen Economy targeting 5 million tonnes of consumption by 2030 with vehicle quotas and power generation tenders.^[184] Despite these interventions, including tax exemptions and infrastructure investments totaling billions, hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles captured less than 0.1% of new vehicle sales in both countries as of mid-2025, with Japan registering under 2,000 units annually against millions in total sales and South Korea seeing just 965 domestic sales in the first four months amid a broader slump.^[185] Such low penetration, even with government procurement for fleets, underscores a disconnect between policy mandates—often framed optimistically in state reports—and consumer and industrial preferences for battery electrification, raising questions about the causal effectiveness of subsidies in overriding economic realities.^[186]

Hype versus empirical outcomes

Despite ambitious visions articulated in early reports, such as the U.S. Department of Energy's 2002 Hydrogen Fuel Initiative, which aimed to develop technologies for a hydrogen-based economy to reduce oil dependence and emissions, global hydrogen demand in 2024 remains dominated by conventional "gray" production for industrial uses like refining and chemicals, totaling nearly 100 million metric tons annually with low-emissions variants comprising less than 1%.^[187]^[188] These early projections, echoed in National Renewable Energy Laboratory analyses, anticipated rapid scaling of clean hydrogen infrastructure, yet two decades later, transportation applications account for negligible shares, underscoring a disconnect between forecasted ubiquity and persistent reliance on fossil-derived hydrogen.^[189] In passenger vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) adoption has faltered despite targeted incentives. In California, where most U.S. hydrogen infrastructure is concentrated, approximately 14,429 FCEVs were registered as of April 2024, with new sales dropping to just 99 units in Q2 2024—a 91% year-over-year decline—amid operational challenges at refueling stations, over half of which were non-functional in recent assessments.^[190]^[191] State proposals for up to $300 million in additional hydrogen refueling subsidies have drawn criticism as inefficient, given the sparse user base of fewer than 18,000 cumulative FCEVs since 2012 against millions of battery electric vehicles.^[192]^[193] Similar patterns emerge elsewhere, as in Norway, where public hydrogen refueling stations number around 9 as of mid-2024, supporting minimal FCEV uptake in a market where battery electrics claimed 89% of new car sales.^[194]^[195] This contrasts with optimistic narratives that downplayed hydrogen's thermodynamic inefficiencies—tank-to-wheel efficiency around 50% versus 80-90% for batteries—favoring the latter for consumer light-duty applications where range and refueling speed are not prohibitive.^[196] Empirical data thus reveal overreliance on promotional forecasts, with actual deployments hampered by high costs and infrastructure fragility rather than delivering promised mass-market viability.^[197]

Geopolitical and supply chain realities

The majority of global hydrogen production, approximately 96 million tonnes in 2022, relies on fossil fuel feedstocks, primarily natural gas via steam methane reforming in regions such as the United States and the Middle East, and coal gasification in China and India.^[198] Over 70% of this output originates from China, the United States, the Middle East, India, and Russia, creating concentrated supply risks tied to natural gas availability and pricing in gas-dependent areas like the US and Middle East.^[198] These dependencies expose production to geopolitical disruptions, as evidenced by the 2022 Russia-Ukraine war, which reduced Russian pipeline gas exports to Europe by 80 billion cubic meters, triggering natural gas price surges that indirectly inflated hydrogen costs worldwide due to shared feedstock markets.^[199]^[200] Efforts to scale low-emission hydrogen, particularly green variants produced via electrolysis, are shifting production toward export-oriented hubs in regions with abundant renewables, such as Australia and Chile, to mitigate fossil dependencies. Australia's National Hydrogen Strategy emphasizes large-scale exports to lower costs through economies of scale in manufacturing and production.^[201] Chile aims to leverage its solar resources for green hydrogen exports valued at up to $30 billion annually by 2050, positioning itself as a low-cost supplier to energy-importing nations.^[202]^[203] However, this transition introduces new trade vulnerabilities, including long-distance shipping logistics and reliance on stable international demand. Supply chains for electrolysis equipment and catalysts further compound risks, with China controlling over 50% of global installed electrolyzer capacity by late 2023 and dominating manufacturing output.^[204] Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers, a key technology for green hydrogen, depend on platinum group metals, with over 70% of platinum supply sourced from South Africa and significant portions from Russia.^[168]^[165] Sanctions on Russia, as imposed following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine, threaten disruptions to these material flows, potentially constraining PEM deployment amid rising demand.^[205]^[199] China's near-monopoly on electrolyzer production raises concerns over technology access and pricing leverage in a geopolitically tense environment.^[43]

Recent developments and outlook

Key projects and investments 2020-2025

In October 2023, the U.S. Department of Energy announced $7 billion in funding for seven regional clean hydrogen hubs to develop production, storage, and end-use applications across diverse geographies and feedstocks.^[49] These hubs, selected from competitive applications, include the Appalachian Regional Clean Hydrogen Hub (ARCH2), which targets blue hydrogen from natural gas with carbon capture and sequestration to leverage regional fossil fuel infrastructure while aiming for low emissions.^[206] The initiative expects to spur over $40 billion in total private investment and produce up to three million metric tons of clean hydrogen annually once operational.^[49] Globally, the International Energy Agency's Global Hydrogen Review 2025 documents over 200 committed low-emissions hydrogen projects since 2021, positioning the sector for a fivefold production increase by 2030 despite headwinds.^[3] However, rising costs, policy uncertainty, and weak demand have led to a wave of cancellations, shrinking the project pipeline by approximately 25% from prior projections and delaying timelines for many initiatives.^[207] About 50 projects, mostly early-stage, were publicly cancelled in the 18 months prior to mid-2025, accounting for roughly 3% of the total pipeline but highlighting economic viability challenges.^[208] Notable industry investments include the NEOM Green Hydrogen project in Saudi Arabia, where partners Air Products, ACWA Power, and NEOM reached financial close in May 2023 on an $8.4 billion facility—the world's largest by capacity—to produce 600 metric tons of green hydrogen daily via electrolysis, converted to ammonia for export.^[209] Originally budgeted at $5 billion in 2020 agreements, costs escalated 70% due to construction and supply chain factors, yet the project advanced with secured 30-year offtake contracts.^[210] ^[211] In the U.S., industrial gas firms like Air Products pursued blue hydrogen complexes, such as the $4.5 billion Louisiana facility targeting 2026 startup with carbon capture, though subsequent reviews in 2025 flagged potential divestitures amid market shifts.^[212] These efforts underscore pilot-scale progress but reveal persistent delays, with many projects stalling post-commitment due to unsubsidized costs exceeding $3-5 per kilogram for green variants.^[147]

Projections for adoption and barriers

Low-emissions hydrogen production is projected to expand from less than 1 million tonnes in 2024 to up to 37 million tonnes per year by 2030 based on currently announced projects, according to the International Energy Agency's Global Hydrogen Review 2025, though this represents a nearly 25% downward revision from prior estimates of 49 million tonnes due to widespread project delays, cancellations, and financing hurdles.^[3] ^[207] Only projects that have reached final investment decision are expected to deliver 4.2 million tonnes annually by 2030, a fivefold increase from today but still marginal relative to total hydrogen demand of around 100 million tonnes.^[3] Achieving even these modest targets would require annual investments exceeding $20 billion globally through the decade, with uncertainties in policy support and off-taker contracts further tempering expectations.^[213] Persistent barriers constrain broader adoption, including production costs for green hydrogen that remain at $4-8 per kilogram—four to six times higher than unabated fossil-based alternatives—and are projected to decline to $1.5-3 per kilogram only under optimistic scaling of electrolyzers and renewable energy integration by 2030.^[214] ^[3] Efficiency limitations exacerbate this, as electrolysis yields 60-70% efficiency and fuel cell conversion adds further losses, resulting in end-to-end system efficiencies below 40% for many applications, compared to over 80% for direct electrification via batteries or heat pumps.^[97] Infrastructure lock-in favors electrification, with established electrical grids and declining battery costs enabling rapid deployment in passenger vehicles, residential heating, and light industry, while hydrogen requires entirely new pipelines, storage, and refueling networks estimated at trillions in global capex.^[213] ^[215] In niche sectors resistant to electrification, such as steelmaking, ammonia production, long-haul shipping, and aviation, low-emissions hydrogen could feasibly claim 10-20% market share by 2040 if costs reach $1.5 per kilogram, enabling economic viability against alternatives like carbon capture or biofuels, though regulatory uncertainty and competition from cheaper imports continue to deter investment.^[216] ^[217] These projections underscore hydrogen's role as a supplementary rather than transformative energy carrier, with empirical delays in projects highlighting over-optimism in earlier forecasts from industry advocates.^[218]

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A perspective on three sustainable hydrogen production ... - NIH
Feb 22, 2024 · This review summarises and contrasts different sustainable hydrogen production technologies including for their development, potential for improvement, ...
[61]
Hydrogen as a sustainable transportation fuel - ScienceDirect.com
Hydrogen is stored as a compressed gas on vehicles at pressures of either 350 bar (35 MPa, 5000 psi) or 700 bar (70 MPa, 10,000 psi) [26]. The boiling point of ...
[62]
[PDF] Energy Requirements for Hydrogen Gas Compression and ...
Jul 7, 2009 · The theoretical energy to compress hydrogen isothermally from 20 bar to 350 bar (5,000 psi or ~35 MPa) is 1.05 kWh/kg H2 and only 1.36 kWh/kg H ...
[63]
Hydrogen liquefaction and storage: Recent progress and perspectives
This review focuses on the current state of technology development related to the liquid hydrogen supply chain.
[64]
Boil-Off Gas - Hydrogen - Parker Hannifin
Feb 14, 2025 · With liquid hydrogen storage commonly suffering boil-off loss ranging from 0.1% to 0.3% per day, reducing or eliminating the waste associated ...
[65]
Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid ...
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) offers the highest storage density among physical methods. · Minimizing or recovering boil-off hydrogen (BOH) is crucial to deploying LH2 ...
[66]
Thermodynamic and Economic Modeling of Boil-Off Losses in Liquid ...
... a lot of hydrogen at the station and you could create 10 to 60 kilograms of boil off per day. And then you need to find a way to use that hydrogen because ...
[67]
A review on metal hydride materials for hydrogen storage
Nov 20, 2023 · An in-depth review of production, handling and enhancement methods of six selected metal hydride materials is provided.
[68]
Tailoring Hydrogen Storage Materials Kinetics and Thermodynamics ...
Feb 23, 2025 · The inadequate performance of metal hydrides can be attributed to two main factors: kinetic and thermodynamic barriers. These limitations are ...<|separator|>
[69]
Ammonia as Effective Hydrogen Storage: A Review on Production ...
On the other hand, ammonia is highly valued as a potential hydrogen storage option. It has high hydrogen density (17.8 wt%), as well as high flexibility in its ...
[70]
The Latest Breakthrough in liquid organic hydrogen carriers
Apr 18, 2024 · The US DOE has designated criteria for developing LOHCs, such as a gravimetric storage density of 6.0 wt% H2, volumetric storage density of ...
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Development of Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers for ... - NIH
The volumetric density is 50 g L−1, while the gravimetric density is over 5 wt% for hydrogen stored using the LOHC storage techniques. The dehydrogenation ...
[72]
Hydrogen Properties & Leak Detection Considerations | H2tools
Hydrogen is colorless and odorless, so human senses can't detect it. Personnel should use caution when approaching an area where there is the potential for a ...
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Hydrogen (H2): Understanding Safety Concerns and Best Practices
Aug 16, 2024 · Hydrogen's safety concerns include its flammability, explosiveness, low ignition energy, invisible flame, and odorless, colorless, and hard to ...
[74]
[PDF] Hydrogen Safety
Hydrogen has a wide flammability range (4-. 74% in air) and the energy required to ignite hydrogen (0.02mJ) can. Figure 1: Fuel Comparisons. Hydrogen Gasoline ...Missing: early recognition
[75]
6 Differences between Hydrogen and Natural Gas
Feb 25, 2025 · For hydrogen, the lower and upper flammability limits are 4% and 75% respectively, as compared to natural gas at 5% and 15%.
[76]
[PDF] Comparison of the Safety-related Physical and Combustion ...
Thus, while hydrogen has a much wider flammability range than methane (making it more of a fire risk), from the perspective of building up flammable gas in an.<|separator|>
[77]
[PDF] Hydrogen's Global Warming Impacts | Clean Energy Group
More hydrogen in the atmosphere slows the rate that methane is removed from the atmosphere, extending its lifetime and subsequent global warming impact ...Missing: OH depletion
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New climate chemistry model finds “non-negligible” impacts of ...
Dec 16, 2024 · A new MIT model of chemical reactions in the atmosphere finds the climate impacts of hydrogen may not be as large as previously thought ...
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Assessment of Hydrogen's Climate Impact Is Affected by Model OH ...
Mar 4, 2025 · Current estimates of the global warming potential (GWP) of hydrogen use models that overestimate global OH concentrations and underestimate OH ...Missing: depletion | Show results with:depletion
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ISO 19880-1:2020 - Gaseous hydrogen — Fuelling stations — Part 1
CHF 221.00 2–5 day deliveryThis document defines the minimum design, installation, commissioning, operation, inspection and maintenance requirements, for the safety, and, where ...
[81]
Status and Q&A regarding the Kjørbo incident - Nel Hydrogen
Nel received a report of an incident involving a fire at the Kjørbo hydrogen station outside Oslo, Norway, at 17:40 CEST on June 10, 2019.
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[PDF] European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP)
Hydrogen fuelling station explodes in Norway The incident was attributed to an assembly error of a specific plug in a high-pressure hydrogen storage tank. It ...
[83]
Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies | Department of Energy
Each fuel cell technology has advantages and challenges. See how different types of fuel cells compare with one another.
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[85]
Recent developments in catalyst-related PEM fuel cell durability
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High-Temperature Fuel Cell - Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
SOFCs operate at 800-1000°C, use different hydrocarbon fuels, and have lower fuel processing costs due to higher temperatures and internal reforming.
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Battery Electric Vs Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Efficiency Comparison
Mar 28, 2020 · The hydrogen fuel cell requires 2-3 times more energy to drive the same distance, as the overall Well-to-Wheel efficiency is from 25-35%.
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A Critical Case Against Hydrogen Vehicles: a raw materials ...
Dec 17, 2021 · First and foremost, BEVS are more energy efficient than FCEVs. In BEVs, the well-to-wheel efficiency3 is 70%, while in FCEVs is only 25-30%.
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[PDF] A Literature Review Of Hydrogen and Natural Gas Turbines
Aug 12, 2022 · ... reduce the effects of instabilities created by hydrogen combustion, helping to reduce NOX. This technology is being developed in ...
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GE Vernova validates 100% hydrogen-fueled DLN combustor ...
Jan 15, 2025 · GE Vernova validates 100% hydrogen-fueled DLN combustor technology aiming to decarbonize its industrial B- and E-Class gas turbines · Eliminated ...Missing: HA- 2020s
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[PDF] emissions-performance-implications-hydrogen-fuel-heavy-duty-gas ...
Typically, permitted gas turbine combined cycle plants achieve NOx emissions below 9 ppm (at 15% oxygen) without post-combustion (i.e., SCR) treatment. Gas ...
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Retrofitting Gas Turbine Facilities for Hydrogen Blending - ICF
Nov 2, 2022 · The NOx emissions can be mitigated by SCR modifications and combustion tuning for optimal operability. Gas turbine manufacturers are ...
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Hydrogen Engines | Zero Carbon Technology by Cummins, Inc.
The 15L Hydrogen ICE Engine will offer ratings up to 500 horsepower and 1,850 ft-Ib of torque for a purpose-built and fully integrated natural gas powertrain ...
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Cummins and partners celebrate successful hydrogen engine project
Mar 6, 2025 · Cummins is already developing a 15-litre hydrogen internal combustion engine for heavy-duty vehicles. ... 2024. Read More Read Less. Media ...
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Experimental Study on the Impact of Hydrogen Injection Strategy on ...
Oct 11, 2023 · The results demonstrate that appropriately delaying hydrogen injection timing can improve the thermal efficiency by up to 2.6% and reduce NOx emissions of ...
[96]
Hydrogen internal combustion engines and hydrogen fuel cells
Jan 27, 2022 · Hydrogen engines and hydrogen fuel cells offer complementary use cases. Internal combustion engines tend to be most efficient under high load— ...
[97]
Why Aren't Hydrogen Cars More Popular?: Top 6 Barriers Explained
Aug 29, 2025 · Lack of refueling infrastructure. · High cost of hydrogen production. · Limited vehicle market with high costs. · Energy efficiency concerns.
[98]
2025 Toyota Mirai | Toyota.com
While hydrogen fuel costs continually fluctuate, every Mirai comes with $15,000 or 6 years, whichever comes first, of complimentary fuel for purchases and ...2025 MiraiFull Specs · Build · Photos & 360° Views · Compare
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Global hydrogen car sales down 27% in first half of 2025
Aug 14, 2025 · Toyota posted the steepest decline among major OEMs, with sales of the Mirai and Crown FCEV models down 46.1% to 698 units. In the US, that ...
[100]
Executive summary – Global EV Outlook 2025 – Analysis - IEA
Electric car sales in 2025 are expected to exceed 20 million worldwide to represent more than one-quarter of cars sold worldwide. Sales were up 35% year-on-year ...Missing: comparison | Show results with:comparison
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XCIENT Fuel Cell Truck | Hydrogen Truck | Hyundai Motor Company
The XCIENT Fuel Cell provides a driving range of approximately 400 km per refueling, with the potential for even longer distances depending on the load and ...
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XCIENT Fuel Cell Truck: Surpassing 10 Million Kilometers in ...
Sep 26, 2024 · With a hydrogen capacity of 31kg, it can travel over 400 kilometers on a single charge. Xcient FCEV specification chart. Switzerland has strict ...
[103]
[PDF] Hyundai Motor Upgrades Design and Performance of XCIENT Fuel ...
May 25, 2021 · Refueling a full tank of hydrogen takes about 8 to 20 minutes, depending on the ambient temperature. 2021 XCIENT Fuel Cell is now available in a ...
[104]
Airbus showcases hydrogen aircraft technologies during its 2025 ...
Mar 25, 2025 · A mock-up image created in March 2025 to show what Airbus' fully electric, hydrogen-powered ZEROe aircraft will look like. It features four ...
[105]
The Hindenburg Disaster | Airships.net
The simple truth is that Hindenburg was destroyed in 32 seconds because it was inflated with hydrogen. The Last Flight of the Hindenburg. Hindenburg began its ...Passenger List · Myths about the Hindenburg... · Hindenburg Accident Report
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Hydrogen in transport: a review of opportunities, challenges, and ...
Jul 10, 2025 · Due to its low density, hydrogen needs high-pressure transport and occupies more space, increasing expenses. Leakage risks also raise explosion ...
[107]
Hydrogen demand – Global Hydrogen Review 2024 – Analysis - IEA
Global hydrogen demand reached more than 97 Mt in 2023 and could reach almost 100 Mt in 2024. · Hydrogen demand remains concentrated in refining and industry ...
[108]
Hydrogen for Decarbonization: A Realistic Assessment
Nov 21, 2023 · Today, global hydrogen consumption totals around 95 MT/y – almost all for use as a feedstock (not a as a fuel) in refining6 (41 MT/y), ammonia ...Introduction · Hydrogen Basics · Prioritizing End Uses For...<|separator|>
[109]
Petroleum Refining Hydrogen Market Size to Hit USD 459.13 Billion ...
Oct 3, 2025 · The hydrocracking segment dominated the petroleum refining hydrogen market with a 35% share in 2024. This is because hydrocracking is an ...
[110]
HYBRIT: Six years of research paves way for industrial-scale fossil ...
Aug 29, 2024 · To date, more than 5,000 tonnes of hydrogen-reduced iron have been produced at HYBRIT's pilot plant in Luleå.<|separator|>
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HYBRIT: Milestone reached – pilot facility for hydrogen storage up ...
Sep 23, 2022 · The pilot facility for the production of fossil-free sponge iron in Luleå was commissioned on 31 August 2020. On 24 March 2021, Gällivare was ...
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[PDF] Hydrogen (H2)-based ironmaking - World Steel Association
Examples of blue hydrogen production include Shell's Quest project2 and Air Products' Port Arthur facility.3 The largest electrolyser in the world is ...
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The AI Revolution: How Fuel Cells Are Solving the Data Center ...
A recognized pioneer in fuel cells for over two decades, Bloom Energy is already supplying over 400 MW of power generation to data centers worldwide.
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Bloom Energy signs $5bn partnership with Brookfield to deploy fuel ...
Oct 13, 2025 · Bloom claimed that, at present, SOFCs have capex on par with natural gas turbines, with 15-20 percent lower fuel consumption and easier ...
[115]
Hydrogen and batteries power 'first-of-its-kind' California microgrid
Oct 7, 2025 · A first-of-its-kind hydrogen- and battery-powered microgrid project is up and running in the remote California town of Calistoga, according to a ...
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This hydrogen microgrid is the first of its kind. Is it a good idea?
Aug 11, 2025 · Energy Vault, Plug Power, and PG&E partnered on a project that replaces diesel generators with fuel cells to provide backup power for a small ...
[117]
RS-25 Engine | L3Harris® Fast. Forward.
The RS-25 is a staged-combustion engine cycle powered by liquid hydrogen and ... Specific Impulse (109% Power Level), Vacuum: 452 sec. Sea Level: 366 ...
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Deep Dive: Why We Use Hydrolox Fuel - CosmoQuest
May 27, 2021 · Hydrolox is considered the most efficient rocket propellant combination ever, with an average specific impulse of around 450 seconds.
[119]
Blue Origin switches engines for New Glenn second stage
Mar 29, 2018 · Mowry said the liquid hydrogen-fueled BE-3 has a higher specific impulse, making it more efficient than the BE-4, which runs on methane and ...
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BE-3 | Blue Origin
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Why Do Rockets Use Hydrogen Fuel? - WestAir Gases
Jul 10, 2025 · Upper stages operate primarily in the vacuum of space, where hydrogen's high specific impulse provides maximum benefit for: Orbital insertions ...
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[PDF] M3Or1C-04 Dual Hydrogen-Jet Fuel Aircraft - A path to low carbon ...
Jul 12, 2023 · Hydrogen: Low Energy per Unit Volume. • 100% LH2 powered aircraft requires. 4X more fuel volume compared to conventional. – Heat Combustion ...
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[PDF] Hydrogen-Fueled Aircraft Safety and Certification Roadmap
Dec 3, 2024 · Unfortunately, the volumetric specific energy of hydrogen is much lower than that of Jet fuel, at least 4x lower (even for liquid hydrogen - LH2) ...
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[PDF] NASA Liquid Hydrogen Aircraft Opportunities and Technologies
Consideration of liquid hydrogen as a propulsion fuel dates to at least 1945. • Originally rejected as a fuel for rocket propulsion, it has been utilized ...
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Technical Targets for Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis
Technical Targets for Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis ; Electrical Efficiency · kWh/kg H · (% LHV), 51 (65%), 48 (69%), 43 (77%) ; Average Degradation Rate ...
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Hydrogen technology faces efficiency disadvantage in power ...
Jun 24, 2021 · The technology to convert power to hydrogen and back to power has a round-trip efficiency of 18%-46%, according to data that Flora presented ...
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Assessment of power-to-power renewable energy storage based on ...
The maximum achievable round-trip efficiency is of 29% when considering solid oxide electrolysis along with metal hydride storage. This number goes sharply down ...
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[PDF] Analysis of hydrogen fuel cell and battery efficiency
Passenger cars driven by electric motors (EVs) have higher well-to-wheel efficiency than cars with an internal combustion engine (ICE) powered by fossil fuels.
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[PDF] Well-to-Wheels Analyses for Solar and Wind Hydrogen Production
Dec 21, 2005 · For all cases, electrolyzer efficiency equals 44.5 kWh/kg hydrogen. For dispensing at fueling stations, hydrogen is compressed to 6,000 psi ...
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How to Move Forward with Green Hydrogen
Aug 28, 2025 · A recent techno-economic analysis puts the cost of green hydrogen at $4.50-6 per kilogramme. By contrast, grey hydrogen costs only $1.50-2 per ...Missing: gray | Show results with:gray
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Global hydrogen industry surpasses USD 110 billion in committed ...
Sep 8, 2025 · Europe ranks third in committed investment (USD 19 billion), while accounting for nearly two thirds of expected 2030 global demand. The ...
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High costs and demand uncertainty mean that the clean hydrogen ...
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[PDF] Fuel Cell Cost and Performance Analysis - Hydrogen Program
May 7, 2024 · SA projected cost for 2025 system is $55/kW compared to $40/kW DOE target). ... – Preliminary adjustment to MEA material pricing increased cost by ...
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Fuel cell technology review: Types, economy, applications, and ...
The costs of the five types of fuel cell vary from US$1784 to US$4500 per kW capacity. The findings are beneficial for researchers and industry professionals ...
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Platinum Demand Scenarios Show Hydrogen's Fatal Constraint
Aug 20, 2025 · Hydrogen vehicles face a platinum wall. Even 10% adoption would consume nearly all global supply, driving costs and mining to unsustainable ...Missing: issues | Show results with:issues
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[PDF] Sustainable supply chain and industrialisation of hydrogen ...
Within the alkaline electrolyser supply chain, no critical dependence on third countries has been detected, other than certain concerns regarding nickel.
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[PDF] Hydrogen-Insights-2024.pdf
Between 2020 and 2024, clean hydrogen supply capacity planned through 2030 has grown from about 7 Mt p.a. in 2020 to 48 Mt p.a. today, in line with growth in ...Missing: learning | Show results with:learning
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1,400 Hydrogen Fueling Stations Deployed Globally, Says ... - CBS 42
Jan 30, 2025 · According to the database, the hydrogen stations are deployed in over 50 countries. In the Asia-Pacific region, over a dozen countries have ...
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Oct 29, 2017 · fully loaded, a Fuel Cell car is currently running $100K and the Fueling stations are running close to $3 Million. EVs are running 30-40K, and a ...Gas stations vs EV stations : r/electricvehicles - RedditWhy are they pushing electric vehicles over hydrogen vehicles?More results from www.reddit.com
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Hydrogen Fuel Cells for EV Charging - Exponent
While hydrogen fuel cells are efficient, the initial setup and ongoing operational costs can be higher than ...Authors · Hydrogen Fuel Cells For Ev... · Hydrogen Safety...<|separator|>
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Opportunities for Hydrogen Blending in Natural Gas Pipelines
Blend limits depend on the design and condition of current pipeline materials, of pipeline infrastructure equipment, and of applications that utilize natural ...
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A review of technical and regulatory limits for hydrogen blending in ...
Feb 15, 2023 · This review paper focuses on analyzing the current understanding of how much hydrogen can be integrated into the gas grid from an operational perspective
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[PDF] ehb-report-220428-17h00-interactive-1.pdf
Based on the cost figures shown in Table 1, the total investment costs of the envisaged 2040 European Hydrogen Backbone are expected to range from €80 to €143 ...
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Europe's 'hydrogen backbone' of cross-border pipelines will cost ...
Nov 24, 2023 · Similarly, the average per-kilometre costs of onshore hydrogen pipelines have increased by €300,000 for 20-inch-diameter pipes, €1m for 36-inch- ...
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Sep 12, 2025 · Amid steady rise in world hydrogen demand, global pipeline for low-emissions projects has shrunk, but robust expansion to 2030 still expected.
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[PDF] The Future of Hydrogen - NET
part by the “chicken and egg” problem of needing to develop infrastructure and vehicles in tandem. By 2010, expectations for hydrogen dipped with the retreat of ...
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Towards hydrogen definitions based on their emissions intensity - IEA
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[PDF] The Rainbow of Hydrogen Technologies and Policies | MIT CEEPR
Jan 27, 2025 · Gray hydrogen, which currently accounts for the majority of global hydrogen produc- tion, emits between 10 and 13 kgCO2-eq per kg of hydrogen.
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Hydrogen Production: Overview and Issues for Congress
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EU Electricity Trends - European Electricity Review 2024 | Ember
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Feb 28, 2025 · The inclusion of the indirect warming impacts of hydrogen increases equivalent greenhouse gas emissions intensity by less than 15% in most cases ...Missing: OH depletion
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The Role of Fugitive Hydrogen Emissions in Selecting Hydrogen ...
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A comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of ...
Feb 6, 2023 · Fuel cell electric trucks and buses run on hydrogen produced from fossil fuels reduce GHG emissions by 15% to 33% compared to their diesel ...Missing: BEV | Show results with:BEV
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[PDF] A COMPARISON OF THE LIFE-CYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS ...
Feb 1, 2023 · For vehicles entering service in 2030, the GHG emission benefit over diesel ICE HDVs ranges from 75% to 82% when powered by grid electricity, ...
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Sizing up hydrogen's hydrological footprint - Nature
Dec 14, 2023 · The water requirements for producing hydrogen by electrolysis begin with a simple calculation: every kilogram of H2 molecules requires 9 litres ...
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Powering renewable hydrogen production with alternative water ...
Stoichiometrically, 9 L of water are required to produce 1 kg of hydrogen. However, water consumption typically ranges between 12 and 15 L per kg of ...
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[PDF] Water for hydrogen production - IRENA
It is found that on average, proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis has the lowest water consumption intensity at about 17.5 litres per kilogramme of ...<|separator|>
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Hydrogen Reality Check: Distilling Green Hydrogen's Water ... - RMI
Aug 2, 2023 · Green hydrogen's cumulative 20-30 L/kg of water consumption is on par with or even less than the 20 to 40 L/kg of water required for fossil- ...
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A first look at water demand for green hydrogen and concerns and ...
Feb 2, 2024 · Technically speaking, the expected requirement for producing 1 kg of hydrogen is about 9 to 11 litres of fresh water. However, the figure is ...
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Global land and water limits to electrolytic hydrogen production ...
Sep 8, 2023 · Depending on the scenario of hydrogen demand, land requirements for 2050 hydrogen demand vary between 0.09 and 0.6 million km2 for solar panels ...
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[PDF] hydrogen economy and the role of coal - NET
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Aug 19, 2024 · On average, PEM Electrolysers today need around 300 kg to 400kg of Iridium per 1 GW Hydrogen production capacity. Following a study of German ...
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Are There Enough Critical Minerals for Hydrogen Electrolyzers?
Feb 27, 2024 · Our analysis finds that the majority of supply-constrained precious minerals for electrolyzers are due to market and economic barriers that limit production ...
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Critical mineral demands may limit scaling of green hydrogen ...
Jan 15, 2024 · Specifically, larger quantities of lanthanum, yttrium, or iridium will be needed to increase electrolyzer capacity and even more neodymium, ...
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[PDF] Critical Minerals for the Hydrogen Economy Executive Summary
Our analysis finds that iridium is the biggest bottleneck to the multi-GW installation of water electrolysis plants, whereas other crucial platinum-group metals ...
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The load of demand for critical materials may vary, and some models forecast 80% reduction in iridium load for PEM electrolyzers. Academic literature has ...
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Development and comparative analysis between battery electric ...
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Energy efficiency of hydrogen for vehicle propulsion: On- or off ...
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[PDF] Why BEVs outperform PHEVs and Range-Extended EVs for light ...
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Dec 16, 2024 · Hydrogen trucks have a clear advantage here, with fast refueling times like those of diesel trucks (15 to 20 minutes). In contrast, recharging ...
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[PDF] A total cost of ownership comparison of truck decarbonization ...
Nov 1, 2023 · For heavy-duty long-haul trucks, battery electric powertrains will reach TCO parity with diesel between 2025 and 2026. Even for the very ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Zero-Emission Commercial Vehicles - Accelerating the Transition
Sep 18, 2025 · Two main contributors to the total cost of ownership (TCO) are vehicle and fuel costs, which vary widely across manufacturers and regions.
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Comparative Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment of ...
Hydrogen systems remain costly (>250 EUR/MWh) and less efficient (30–40%), yet they demonstrate clear advantages for long-term and seasonal storage, ...
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Evaluating the feasibility and economics of hydrogen storage in ...
Sep 1, 2024 · Our comprehensive analysis provides detailed system-level cost calculations under various configurations of renewable capacities and storage ...
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Batteries or hydrogen or both for grid electricity storage upon full ...
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Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit (45V) Resources
The Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit creates a new 10-year incentive for clean hydrogen of up to $3.00/kilogram. For qualifying clean hydrogen, the credit ...
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Hydrogen Subsidies Skyrocket to $280 Billion With US in the Lead
Aug 23, 2023 · BNEF currently estimates the cost of clean hydrogen production at $2.3 to $4.8 per kilogram. ... The US subsidies through the IRA are ...
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EU Hydrogen Strategy under the EU Green Deal
Jun 20, 2025 · The target is 40 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolysers by 2030 (i.e. production of 10 million tonnes of renewable hydrogen). · Hydrogen would ...
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Nov 5, 2021 · South Korea has robust targets for hydrogen usage that it seeks to achieve by 2040. For consumption, South Korea aims to expand its annual ...
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Sales of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles continued to fall around the ...
Aug 8, 2025 · Hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle sales declined in every market over the first half of 2025, according to analysis by South Korean firm SNE ...
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Korea's hydrogen vehicle sales slump in first four months of 2025
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[PDF] Hydrogen Infrastructure Transition Analysis: Milestone Report
During 2002, President George W. Bush launched the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative, which envisions a future hydrogen economy for the United States. A hydrogen economy ...Missing: unmet | Show results with:unmet
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Executive summary – Global Hydrogen Review 2024 – Analysis - IEA
Oct 10, 2024 · Global hydrogen demand reached 97 Mt in 2023, an increase of 2.5% compared to 2022. Demand remains concentrated in refining and the chemical sector.
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[PDF] Analysis of the Hydrogen Infrastructure Needed to Enable ...
Mar 29, 2005 · In 2002, President George W. Bush launched the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative, which envisions a future hydrogen economy for the United States. A ...
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California government agency slashes 2030 forecast for hydrogen ...
Jan 3, 2025 · CARB tracks that 14,429 fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) had been actively registered in California by April 2024, including 1,436 new ...
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U.S. Hydrogen Car Sales Are Collapsing - InsideEVs
Jul 10, 2024 · Only 99 new hydrogen fuel cell cars were sold in the U.S. (California) in Q2. It's a 91% year-over-year decline and the lowest level since ...
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Californian legislators mull $300m hydrogen refuelling subsidy ...
despite admitting that it is a 'waste of money' ... Toyota Mirai refuelling in California.Photo: ...
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California hydrogen vehicle owners can't find fuel - Sacramento Bee
Mar 13, 2025 · All told, just under 18,000 hydrogen cars have been sold statewide since 2012, according to the California Energy Commission, representing all ...
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Jan 2, 2025 · In the year as a whole, there were 114,409 new electric cars, an increase of 9.4 per cent. As the OFV registered a total of 128,691 new ...
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Building From the Ashes: Lessons From the Hydrogen Fiasco | ITIF
May 15, 2025 · Hydrogen mobility infrastructure has failed as well. In 2023, more than half of all hydrogen refueling stations in California were not operable, ...
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Analysis of Equipment Failures as a Contributor to Hydrogen ... - MDPI
The analysis reveals that storage tank failures accounted for 40% of total reported incidents, hydrogen dispenser failures accounted for 33%, compressors ...
[198]
[PDF] Global Hydrogen Review 2023 - NET
Global hydrogen use is increasing, but demand remains so far concentrated in traditional uses in refining and the chemical industry and mostly met by hydrogen.
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Russia's War on Ukraine – Topics - IEA
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[200]
Energy commodity prices in 2022 showed effects of Russia's ... - EIA
Jan 3, 2023 · Crude oil prices rose substantially following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine and subsequent sanctions placed on Russia.
[201]
[PDF] National Hydrogen Strategy 2024 - DCCEEW
Focusing on large-scale export and manufacturing industries will help bring down the cost of producing renewable hydrogen in Australia. It will also support our ...
[202]
Green hydrogen development threatens wildlife in Chile - Mongabay
Aug 18, 2025 · With green hydrogen development, Chile projects $30 billion in exports by 2050, decarbonizing its economy once and for all. But to turn this ...
[203]
Chile's ambitious renewable energy and green hydrogen plans
Apr 16, 2025 · The government's goal is to have only clean energy by 2050 and to become one of the world's top green hydrogen exporters by 2040.
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Executive summary – Global Hydrogen Review 2023 – Analysis - IEA
Low-emission hydrogen is being taken up very slowly in existing applications, accounting for just 0.7% of total hydrogen demand, implying that hydrogen ...
[205]
The Platinum Market and Platinum Price | SFA (Oxford)
Platinum supply is geographically concentrated, with South Africa by far the dominant producer, accounting for over 70 percent of global primary output. Russia ...Missing: electrolyzers | Show results with:electrolyzers<|control11|><|separator|>
[206]
Biden-Harris Administration Announces Regional Clean Hydrogen ...
Oct 13, 2023 · The seven selected regional clean hydrogen hubs will catalyze more than $40 billion in private investment and create tens of thousands of good-paying jobs.
[207]
IEA cuts 2030 low-emissions hydrogen production outlook by nearly ...
Sep 12, 2025 · A wave of cancellations, cost pressures and policy uncertainty have thinned the low-emissions hydrogen project pipeline and cut 2030 ...
[208]
Clean hydrogen production still growing, but slower than before - IOM3
Sep 16, 2025 · The IEA's analysis of announced projects finds that low-emissions hydrogen production has the potential to reach up to 37mtpa by 2030, down ...
[209]
NEOM Green Hydrogen Company completes financial close at a ...
May 22, 2023 · It has now achieved financial close on the world's largest green hydrogen production facility at a total investment value of USD 8.4 billion.
[210]
Air Products, ACWA Power and NEOM Sign Agreement for $5 Billion ...
Jul 7, 2020 · Air Products, in conjunction with ACWA Power and NEOM, announced the signing of an agreement for a $5 billion world-scale green hydrogen-based ammonia ...
[211]
NEOM project reaches financial close, 30 year offtake secured
May 30, 2023 · The renewable hydrogen & ammonia production project NEOM has reached financial close, with a total investment of $8.4 billion.
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Landmark U.S. $4.5 Billion Louisiana Clean Energy Complex
Expected onstream in 2026, Air Products' blue hydrogen energy complex will make Louisiana a leader in the U.S.' clean energy transition.Missing: groundbreaking 2024
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Global Hydrogen Review 2025 – Analysis - IEA
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Hydrogen Power Economics: Costs, LCOE & Market Viability
Green hydrogen production costs continue declining from current levels of $4-8 per kilogram toward projected costs of $1.5-3.0 per kilogram by 2030, driven by ...
[215]
Hydrogen Energy in 2025: Breaking Down Technical Barriers and ...
Jun 23, 2025 · Hydrogen in Power Generation and Seasonal Storage The Hyflexpower project showed successful 100% renewable hydrogen use in a 12 MW gas turbine ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
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Estimating long-term global supply costs for low-carbon hydrogen
Nov 15, 2021 · Until 2050, minimum production costs for hydrogen from renewable energy sources could fall to $1.5/kg under central assumptions and to below $1/ ...
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Texas: A green hydrogen hub to decarbonize the United States and ...
Dec 2, 2024 · The analysis indicates that by 2030, Texas could have over 50 million tons of green hydrogen available at $1.5/kg. Even with the incrementality, ...
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Hydrogen hype: Why the IEA's projections are unlikely to be met
Sep 13, 2025 · The 2025 report revises this downwards to 37 mt, due to “cancellations and delays”. The numbers only confirm the trend with news reports of ...Missing: committed | Show results with:committed