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Keffiyeh

The keffiyeh, also known as kufiya or shemagh, is a traditional square made of fabric, typically featuring a checkered or striped pattern, worn folded as a headdress by men across the to shield against the harsh desert sun, wind, and sand. Originating from practical needs of nomadic tribes, it is secured atop the head with an cord and varies in color—such as red-and-white for Jordanian s or black-and-white for others—to denote regional or tribal affiliations. Its roots trace back to ancient Mesopotamian garments, evolving through centuries of use in the for both utility and among Arab communities. In the , the black-and-white keffiyeh gained prominence as a symbol of Palestinian resistance, particularly after British officer introduced the pattern to distinguish soldiers, later adopted and popularized by , who draped it to evoke the map of historic . This association intensified during the 1930s against British rule and persisted through Palestinian nationalist movements, transforming the garment from everyday attire into a potent emblem of defiance and solidarity. Beyond its regional origins, the keffiyeh has entered global fashion and political discourse, worn by Western activists in support of Palestinian causes, though its pan-Arab heritage underscores that it predates and transcends specific nationalistic connotations, reflecting broader and traditions rather than exclusive invention by any one group. Controversies arise from its politicization, with some viewing its adoption outside the as cultural appropriation or endorsement of militancy, while others defend it as a marker of universal advocacy.

History

Ancient and Pre-Modern Origins

The keffiyeh traces its functional roots to ancient around 3100 BCE, where head coverings similar to early scarves emerged among communities in the Tigris-Euphrates river system for protection against intense sunlight, blowing sand, and dust during herding and fishing activities. These precursors served nomadic and agrarian populations in and Babylonian societies, prioritizing utility over ornamentation in arid environments. A folk legend attributes the distinctive checkered pattern to fishermen who repurposed woven fishing nets as headwear to block harsh summer rays, a practical that influenced later designs across the . This evolution continued among tribes spanning the and , where the garment provided essential shielding for travelers, shepherds, and farmers navigating desert terrains, remaining a staple without symbolic or political associations. Etymologically, "keffiyeh" derives from Kūfīyah, referencing the 7th-century city of in , underscoring pre-Ottoman usage throughout the broader as a commonplace protective cloth rather than a regionally exclusive item. In these contexts, variations emphasized breathable weaves suited to daily labor, with dissemination via trade routes predating modern national identities.

Ottoman and Mandate Periods

During rule in the (1516–1918), the keffiyeh was primarily worn by rural peasants, known as fellahin, and nomads for its practical utility in shielding against intense sunlight, blowing dust, and sandstorms prevalent in the arid environment. Urban dwellers, particularly the upper classes, preferred the tarboosh (fez) as a symbol of sophistication and alignment with imperial fashion norms imposed under dress codes. This class-based distinction in headwear reflected broader social hierarchies, with the keffiyeh associated exclusively with agrarian and nomadic lifestyles rather than urban or elite circles. The British Mandate for Palestine, established in 1920 following the Ottoman Empire's dissolution after , initially preserved these traditional associations, but the keffiyeh's role transformed amid rising anti-colonial tensions. During the (1936–1939), a widespread uprising against British immigration policies and land sales favoring Jewish settlers, middle-class urban began adopting the keffiyeh in 1936, discarding the tarboosh to signal solidarity with rural rebels. This adoption bridged longstanding urban-rural and class divides, as rebel leaders mandated its use among all to foster unity and practically disguise fighters' identities from British forces during guerrilla operations. Historian Ted Swedenburg notes its emergence as a marker of collective defiance in oral histories from the period. The black-and-white checkered pattern, in particular, proliferated during the Revolt, becoming synonymous with resistance while retaining protective functions. This usage extended beyond Palestine to adjacent Mandate territories like Transjordan and French-controlled Syria, where analogous headscarves—often in red-and-white variants—embodied pan-Arab sentiments against European mandates, though without the singular nationalist connotations later attributed to the Palestinian variant. By the Revolt's suppression in 1939, the keffiyeh had solidified as a emblem of cross-class cohesion in anti-imperial struggles across the region.

Post-1948 Developments

Following the establishment of in 1948, the keffiyeh's role evolved variably across the . In Palestinian contexts, its prominence surged in the 1960s through adoption by , leader of the , who wore the black-and-white variant folded as a neck scarf during international speeches and diplomatic engagements, elevating it as a marker of . This usage contrasted with its prior rural associations, tying it to organized political resistance amid ongoing conflicts. In , the red-and-white keffiyeh persisted as a symbol of post-1948, distinguishing Jordanian Bedouins and civilians from through its coloration and everyday military wear, unaffected by shifts in Palestinian symbolism. embroidery signified bravery and tribal heritage, maintaining its role in Jordanian uniforms and civilian attire into the late . Gulf states saw uninterrupted practical use of the keffiyeh, typically in white or red-and-white forms, for protection against desert conditions, with no linkage to Palestinian events; men in , , and the continued wearing it as standard headgear alongside the ghutra. After the 1967 , keffiyeh manufacturing industrialized in , , where factories like Hirbawi—established in 1961—sustained production under occupation, peaking at 150,000 units annually by the 1990s before declining due to imports, while exporting to regional and international markets. This shift supported local economies but faced competition from cheaper foreign textiles.

Design and Construction

Materials, Patterns, and Symbolism

The keffiyeh is traditionally made from fabric, selected for its breathability and ability to protect against , , and sunburn in arid environments. Variations may incorporate blends for enhanced warmth during cooler nights, though pure remains predominant for everyday use. The scarf measures approximately 120 cm by 120 cm, forming a square that facilitates versatile folding and coverage. Woven patterns typically feature bold checkered or latticed motifs, achieved through interlocking threads during production. In the , black-and-white designs prevail, reflecting local traditions adapted to rural and nomadic lifestyles. Red-and-white patterns are more common in and Gulf regions, with color choices tied to regional availability of dyes and historical trade influences rather than predefined symbolic codes. These motifs provide practical in agricultural or terrains, blending with groves, fields, or sandy landscapes. Fringes or tassels at the edges arise naturally from the weaving process, with lengths varying by craftsmanship but without verified empirical links to across cultures. The fabric's durability stems from its loose weave, which traps air for and allows retention of moisture when dampened, enabling evaporative cooling in extreme heat—a functional trait honed by use in conditions. This water-holding capacity, combined with the material's resistance to , underscores the keffiyeh's evolution as a utilitarian garment over .

Wearing Styles and Accessories

The keffiyeh is traditionally folded diagonally into a triangle and draped over the head, with the two ends hanging down the back and sides for protection against sun and dust. This style is secured by an agal, a black cord or rope accessory that holds the fabric in place, commonly used by men in Arab cultures. The agal, often doubled and twisted, adds both functionality and a distinctive formal appearance to the headdress. Women and children in some regions wear the keffiyeh more loosely, either draped over the shoulders or wrapped around the without an , adapting it for lighter coverage or mobility. In traditions, the keffiyeh is frequently wrapped snugly around the head and face for enhanced protection, whereas in Gulf areas, similar scarves like the ghutra are draped more loosely atop a . Military adaptations include tying the keffiyeh as a scarf or to against environmental hazards such as and wind during operations. Originally valued for its in shielding farmers from harsh conditions, the keffiyeh has evolved into attire suitable for formal occasions and ceremonies in certain cultural contexts, where precise folding and placement denote or .

Regional Uses and Cultural Significance

In the

In the Levant, encompassing Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine, the keffiyeh functions primarily as practical headwear for men, offering protection from intense sunlight, dust, and harsh weather conditions. Traditionally adopted by farmers, villagers, Bedouins, and tradespeople, it shields the head and neck during outdoor labor in arid rural environments. This everyday use persists among rural and urban men across these countries, serving as a marker of cultural continuity rather than solely a political emblem. In and , the checkered scarf remains common for sun protection in agricultural and daily activities, reflecting its origins in Ottoman-era communities. In , the red-and-white patterned keffiyeh holds distinct national resonance, traditionally worn by groups and later integrated into military attire by the in the 1920s to differentiate local troops. It symbolizes Jordanian identity and is routinely incorporated into uniforms of the . The variant gained further prominence through its adoption by figures like King Hussein, who wore it publicly, reinforcing its role in national heritage. Beyond fieldwork and military contexts, the keffiyeh integrates into contemporary Jordanian social life, such as Bedouin weddings where grooms don it as part of traditional attire, underscoring its enduring place in cultural rituals and personal expression.

In the Arabian Peninsula and Gulf States

In the Arabian Peninsula and Gulf states, including Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain, the keffiyeh—locally termed ghutra or shemagh—functions as an everyday male head covering integral to national dress. The ghutra consists of a plain white cotton square, while the shemagh displays a distinctive red-and-white checkered pattern, both draped over the head and secured with an agal, a doubled black cord derived from Bedouin camel-hobbling ropes. Worn universally by men across socioeconomic classes alongside the thobe (a long tunic), it offers practical shielding from intense sunlight, blowing sand, and temperature extremes in arid climates. This attire embodies symbols of masculinity, dignity, and regional pride, rooted in traditions predating modern state formations. In , for instance, the shemagh conveys a sense of traditional manhood and is adapted for contexts ranging from formal occasions to labor-intensive roles in the oil sector, where its breathable fabric mitigates dust inhalation and UV exposure during outdoor operations. Gulf men maintain its use in cultural rituals, such as the ardah in , which dates to pre-Islamic tribal gatherings and reinforces communal bonds through synchronized displays. The ghutra and shemagh persist as markers of social continuity in Gulf societies, independent of political developments, with production centered in local markets like Riyadh's souks or Dubai's hubs, where craftsmen weave them from local for durability and airflow. Their ubiquity—from royal ceremonies, where princes favor the red-checkered variant to affirm , to expatriate workers in fields—highlights a pragmatic cultural staple unlinked to militancy or beyond regional .

In Other Arab Regions

In Iraq, the term keffiyeh (or kufiyah) derives from the historic city of , denoting a headscarf originating "from Kufa," where it emerged as a practical garment for rural peasants, Bedouins, and marshland dwellers as early as the 7th century. Worn primarily by men engaged in and , it offered protection from intense sunlight, dust, and wind, with local variants featuring simpler weaves suited to the Tigris-Euphrates region's humid and arid conditions. These Iraqi forms, often secured without elaborate accessories, emphasized functionality over ornamentation and were adopted across ethnic and religious groups, including , , and , reflecting a pre-modern cultural continuum. Further east and south, adaptations appeared in , where laborers and nomads employed keffiyeh-like scarves with bold red-and-white patterns as everyday gear against desert extremes, differing from Gulf styles by incorporating looser draping for mobility during travel and work. In , simpler versions served rural workers and fellahin in the , providing shade and sweat absorption during field labor, though urban adoption waned post-20th century in favor of Western hats. Across , including and , the keffiyeh found use among tribes and military units; for instance, the integrated it into uniforms by the 1940s for sandstorm protection, while Libyan Arab Forces adopted similar checkered scarves during the same era for practical desert campaigning. These peripheral applications highlight a unified Arab utilitarian heritage, where the garment's core design—breathable squares—adapted to local climates and livelihoods without rigid national boundaries, underscoring its role as a shared emblem of endurance in non-Levantine contexts.

Production and Economic Aspects

Traditional Craftsmanship

The keffiyeh was traditionally hand-woven by women in tribal communities of the using simple ground constructed from sturdy sticks and stones. These looms enabled the production of square scarves from locally sourced materials, primarily sheep wool or , which provided durability and breathability suited to arid nomadic lifestyles. Weaving occurred in horizontal styles, with women creating tight, warp-faced plain weaves during periods of seasonal stability, integrating the craft into daily tribal routines. Yarns were hand-spun and dyed using natural pigments derived from , , or minerals before , yielding the characteristic black-and-white checkered patterns emblematic of the garment. Post-weaving, the edges underwent artisanal tassel-knotting, known as hadab, where women meticulously tied threads into fringes, a skill transmitted across generations within families and tribes to ensure structural integrity and cultural continuity. In pre-20th century nomadic economies, this craftsmanship fostered self-sufficiency, as groups produced keffiyehs alongside other textiles like tent cloths and bags from available animal fibers and occasional traded , minimizing reliance on external markets amid mobile herding practices. Such methods persisted through the Ottoman era, embodying empirical adaptations to environmental demands without mechanization.

Modern Manufacturing and Trade

The modern production of keffiyehs in is dominated by the Hirbawi Textile in , , established in 1961 as the last remaining facility dedicated to their manufacture. Utilizing mechanical looms imported from , the shifted from earlier handloom traditions to semi-mechanized processes, producing patterned scarves through a combination of automated and manual finishing. At its peak in the 1990s, it employed 25 workers operating 15 machines to output approximately 150,000 units annually. Current operations employ around 20 workers, including family members, with production ramped up to about 6,000 scarves per month amid recent global demand surges. Exports constitute the majority of output, targeting markets in , the , and elsewhere, though total Palestinian keffiyeh volumes remain modest compared to global supply. The broader Palestinian sector, which once supported thousands in apparel , has contracted sharply, with falling from 40,000 to under 2,000 by due to regional economic pressures and import competition. Intense competition from low-cost imitations manufactured in and has eroded local market share, with most keffiyehs sold worldwide now produced outside . Authentic Palestinian variants differentiate through branding that highlights origin, higher-quality , and traditional patterns to command premium prices in niche and cultural markets. Efforts to combat counterfeits emphasize verifiable , as synthetic or poorly woven fakes undermine the product's and symbolic value. The industry has demonstrated limited resilience amid conflicts, including the Second Intifada (2000–2005), when cheap imports flooded the market post-closures and economic disruptions, contributing to factory closures beyond . Production at Hirbawi declined from peak levels, reflecting broader Palestinian export contractions. However, spikes in international orders—such as a 75% rise in U.S. keffiyeh sales on platforms like following the October 2023 Israel-Hamas war—have boosted operations, enabling full utilization of looms despite ongoing restrictions.

Political Symbolism

Adoption in Palestinian Nationalism

During the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt in , the keffiyeh gained widespread adoption among Palestinian Arabs as a marker of nationalist resistance against British rule, unifying rural fellahin (peasants) and urban effendis (elites) who traditionally wore fezzes. Worn around the neck as a makeshift uniform, it symbolized solidarity across class lines and served practically to conceal identities from authorities, contributing to the revolt's mobilization of diverse social groups in sustained uprisings for autonomy. After Israel's victory in the 1967 and the ensuing occupation of the and , the keffiyeh reemerged as a potent emblem of Palestinian allegiance, especially among youth and women, amid a ban on the that prompted its use as an alternative signifier of identity. , leader of the , amplified its global recognition from the late 1960s onward by draping it triangularly to evoke the shape of historic , as seen on a 1968 TIME magazine cover and during his 1974 address. The garment's prominence persisted through the (1987–1993) and (2000–2005), periods of widespread unrest, where it unified protesters in expressions of collective defiance. In refugee camps and diaspora communities, the keffiyeh represents —steadfast perseverance amid displacement—embodying cultural continuity and resilience that media coverage post-1967 and Arafat's international platform helped disseminate worldwide, linking its to cycles of nationalist mobilization and confrontation.

Associations with Militancy

Palestinian fedayeen militants, operating from bases in , , and , frequently wore keffiyehs during cross-border raids into throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s, using the garment for camouflage and identity concealment in guerrilla actions that targeted civilian and military sites. These raids, peaking between 1949 and 1956, involved and killings, with —self-described as sacrificers—adopting the headdress as standard attire for operations. In the 1960s and 1970s, fighters affiliated with the (PLO) continued this practice, prominently displaying the black-and-white checkered keffiyeh during armed engagements and as a marker of resistance, most iconically through PLO chairman Yasser Arafat's near-constant wear from the late 1960s onward. This visibility extended to the PLO's involvement in cross-border attacks and the 1982 conflict, where militants used the keffiyeh in both combat and hostage operations, contributing to its association with fedayeen-style violence. From the 1980s onward, keffiyehs have been worn by militants of and in attacks, including stabbings, shootings, and incursions during the intifadas and subsequent Gaza conflicts, with the garment appearing on fighters in operational footage and serving to obscure facial features. During the October 7, 2023, -led assault on southern , which killed over 1,200 people, assailants were documented wearing keffiyehs or similar head coverings while perpetrating massacres, kidnappings, and at communities and a . The keffiyeh features recurrently in propaganda videos disseminated by these groups via platforms like Telegram, where masked militants in the headdress announce attacks, claim , or glorify martyrdom, empirically linking the garment to and tactical militancy in public perception.

Broader Arab and International Interpretations

In such as and the , as well as in , the keffiyeh—frequently in red-and-white checkered patterns known as shemagh—serves as a marker of heritage and practical protection against sun, sand, and cold, maintaining an apolitical role tied to rural and nomadic traditions rather than modern nationalist movements. Before the 1948 establishment of , the keffiyeh functioned as a widespread headcovering among in the Ottoman-era and , worn by villagers, peasants, and Bedouins across regions without linkage to a distinct Palestinian , reflecting shared practical and cultural norms rather than exclusive territorial symbolism. Efforts to frame the keffiyeh solely as a Palestinian emblem have drawn critique for retroactively appropriating a pan-Arab artifact, as its pre-1930s usage spanned diverse ethnic and communal groups, including non-Palestinian and even some Jewish villagers in the region, underscoring a broader predating politicized adoptions during the 1936–1939 . On the international stage, the garment has been adopted as a general anti-oppression symbol, exemplified by Nelson Mandela's wearing of a black-and-white keffiyeh during his 1990 visit to shortly after his release from prison, where it signified solidarity with global liberation struggles akin to ending , independent of specific Palestinian claims. Media representations vary by context, often depicting the keffiyeh as utilitarian Bedouin attire in neutral or heritage-focused coverage of Gulf or Jordanian life, while associating it with in reports on conflicts, reflecting selective framing influenced by geopolitical narratives rather than uniform cultural essence.

Global Adoption and Controversies

Western Fashion and Commercialization

In the late and , the keffiyeh gained traction in Western fashion circles as a stylistic element, often detached from its original cultural context and incorporated into and wardrobes for its draped versatility. Designers and consumers alike adopted it as an exotic , marking an early phase of commodification where aesthetic appeal drove demand over . By the early 2000s, mainstream retailers accelerated this trend; in 2007, marketed keffiyeh scarves as "anti-war" items, selling them alongside other accessories until complaints from Jewish advocacy groups prompted their withdrawal from stores after just weeks on shelves. This episode exemplified profit-oriented distribution, with the retailer stocking thousands of units to capitalize on fleeting popularity rather than sustaining long-term cultural ties. Western militaries further normalized the garment's practical utility, independent of fashion. During the and conflicts starting in and 2003, respectively, U.S. and British forces issued shemaghs—a plain-woven variant of the keffiyeh—for desert operations, valuing their role in , regulation, and rudimentary amid sandy terrains. units customized them with subdued colors, emphasizing functionality over symbolism and integrating them into standard kits by the mid-2000s. Mass commercialization has since proliferated inexpensive replicas through global supply chains, often machine-made in with synthetic fibers substituting traditional weaves from Palestinian or Jordanian producers. This shift prioritizes cost efficiency and , enabling brands to flood s and capture revenues—evident in surges like a 75% sales increase for keffiyeh-style scarves on from to 2023—while eroding incentives for authentic artisanal production. Such replicas, priced under $20, underscore economic incentives over fidelity to original patterns like the or motifs, fostering a where volume trumps heritage.

Activism and Solidarity Claims

The keffiyeh has been adopted by non-Arab activists in pro-Palestinian protests since the late , initially among Western anti-war demonstrators expressing solidarity with the Palestinian resistance movement led by figures like , who popularized the garment as a nationalist symbol during that era. This early usage aligned with broader left-leaning internationalist efforts, including linkages drawn between Palestinian struggles and other anti-imperialist causes, though direct evidence of widespread keffiyeh-wearing by groups like the Black Panthers remains symbolic rather than routine in historical records. In anti-colonial contexts, the keffiyeh has appeared in solidarity actions in regions like and , where protesters invoked parallels to their own histories of British rule and apartheid-era oppression, respectively. For instance, activists have draped keffiyehs over famine memorials to highlight perceived continuities in colonial resistance, while South African demonstrators have worn them during Gaza-related marches to equate Palestinian experiences with anti-apartheid fights. These adoptions frame the keffiyeh as a transnational of defiance against perceived settler-colonialism, though such analogies often overlook empirical differences in historical causal factors, such as the keffiyeh's origins in practical desert wear rather than inherent anti-colonial design. Adoption surged globally after the October 7, 2023, attacks on and the ensuing conflict, with keffiyehs becoming ubiquitous in Western protests demanding ceasefires and Palestinian rights; reported thousands wearing them in demonstrations by December 2023. Proponents claim this signals cultural solidarity and awareness of , yet critics, including some observers of protest dynamics, argue it frequently represents performative —superficial gestures lacking substantive engagement with the region's complex or the keffiyeh's associations beyond . This tension highlights a disconnect, as Western wearers may prioritize visual affiliation over verifiable comprehension of local contexts, potentially amplifying symbolic gestures without addressing underlying empirical realities like governance failures in .

Criticisms, Bans, and Security Concerns

In October 2023, Berlin education authorities issued a directive permitting schools to ban the wearing of keffiyeh scarves, classifying them as potential symbols that could disrupt "school peace" amid rising tensions following the October 7 Hamas attacks on Israel. This measure responded to empirical patterns where the scarf's display correlated with conflicts in educational settings, including verbal confrontations and segregation along ethnic lines reported in Berlin classrooms. Critics, including security analysts and Jewish advocacy groups, argue that the keffiyeh endorses terrorism due to its historical and ongoing use by Palestinian militant groups, such as during the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt and by leaders like Yasser Arafat, whose adoption tied it to armed resistance against Israel. In Turkey, the scarf has been viewed as a marker of solidarity with the PKK—a designated terrorist organization—prompting informal restrictions and police scrutiny, though no nationwide legal ban exists; wearing it in public has led to detentions or harassment in Kurdish-majority areas due to these associations. Following the , 2023, attacks, keffiyehs worn at pro-Palestinian protests in the and have been linked to heightened security risks, including spikes in antisemitic incidents: recorded 202 such events from –15, 2023, compared to 59 in the prior equivalent period, often amid demonstrations featuring the scarf as a unifying . In the , institutions like City's Noguchi Museum fired three employees in September 2024 for wearing keffiyehs during work, citing disruptions to public operations, while a Newark grounds crew member in May 2025 wearing one while directing planes prompted alarms among Jewish passengers over perceived signals. These cases reflect causal concerns that the scarf's visibility in sensitive public spaces elevates threats of confrontation or violence, as evidenced by forced removals at events and parliamentary galleries, such as New Zealand's in August 2024. Proponents of bans counter free expression claims by pointing to data on correlated risks, including a 327% rise in French antisemitic acts post-October 7, 2023, many tied to contexts where keffiyehs were prominent; restrictions thus prioritize empirical threat mitigation over symbolic display.

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