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Kentish plover

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is a small shorebird in the plover family Charadriidae, typically measuring 15–17.5 cm in length, with a wingspan of 42–45 cm and body mass of 32–56 g.^[1] It exhibits pale greyish-brown upperparts, white underparts, dark legs and bill, and a characteristic white hindneck collar; breeding males develop a black breast band and lores, while females show duller versions of these markings.^[1] This species forages on invertebrates along shorelines by running and pecking at prey in the sand or mud.^[2] Kentish plovers primarily inhabit open coastal environments including sandy or pebbly beaches, muddy shores, estuaries, salt pans, and dunes, with some populations utilizing inland alkaline lakes and wetlands at elevations up to 3,000 m.^[2] Their breeding range spans temperate and subtropical zones across Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia, with non-breeding distributions extending to sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia; vagrants appear in Australia and the Americas.^[2] Many populations are partially migratory, with northern birds moving southward in winter.^[2] Breeding occurs from March to October in shallow ground scrapes lined with pebbles or shell fragments, often in loose semi-colonial groups of 0.5–20 pairs per hectare, where both parents incubate the clutch of 2–3 eggs for about 22–27 days.^[2] Chicks are precocial and mobile upon hatching, with biparental care typical but instances of polygamy and brood desertion by females reported in some populations, reflecting trade-offs between remating opportunities and parental investment.^[3] The global population comprises an estimated 216,000–314,000 mature individuals and is undergoing a decreasing trend due to threats including habitat loss from land reclamation, coastal development, pollution, and disturbance from tourism and recreation.^[2] Despite these pressures, the species' extremely large extent of occurrence exceeding 70 million km² qualifies it as Least Concern under IUCN criteria.

Taxonomy

Classification and etymology

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is a species within the order Charadriiformes, which encompasses shorebirds, gulls, and alcids, and the family Charadriidae, comprising plovers and lapwings.^[4]^[2] It belongs to the genus Charadrius, a group of small to medium-sized wading birds characterized by rounded heads, short bills, and cryptic plumage adapted for open habitats.^[5] The full taxonomic classification is as follows:

Taxonomic rank	Classification
Kingdom	Animalia
Phylum	Chordata
Class	Aves
Order	Charadriiformes
Family	Charadriidae
Genus	Charadrius
Species	C. alexandrinus

The binomial name Charadrius alexandrinus was established by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published on October 1, 1758, making Linnaeus the scientific authority for the species.^[5]^[6] The genus name Charadrius originates from the Late Latin term for a yellowish bird referenced in the Vulgate Bible, derived from Ancient Greek kharadrios, denoting a riverbank-dwelling waterbird.^[7] The specific epithet alexandrinus refers to Alexandria, Egypt, the origin of the specimen described by Linnaeus based on earlier accounts from the region.^[8] The English common name "Kentish plover" was coined by ornithologist John Latham in 1801, honoring the county of Kent in southeastern England, where the bird formerly bred regularly before its extirpation as a breeder in the early 20th century.^[9]^[8] "Plover" derives from Old French plovier, itself from Latin pluvialis meaning "rain bird," reflecting historical associations of these birds with wet environments and folklore linking their calls to impending rain.^[8]

Subspecies and taxonomic debates

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is currently treated as encompassing a limited number of subspecies following recent taxonomic revisions, primarily the nominate C. a. alexandrinus across coastal Eurasia from Europe to the Middle East and Indian subcontinent, C. a. seebohmi in southeastern Asia, and C. a. nihonensis in northeastern Asia including Japan.^[10] These distinctions are based on subtle variations in plumage tone, size, and geographic isolation, though comprehensive genetic data for intra-Eurasian differentiation remains limited compared to intercontinental comparisons. Inland populations in Central Asia, formerly classified under C. a. dealbatus, are now often recognized as a separate species (C. dealbatus) by authorities like BirdLife International due to paler dorsal coloration adapted to steppe habitats and limited gene flow with coastal forms.^[2] A major taxonomic debate historically centered on the relationship between Eurasian Kentish plovers and American populations, long treated as the subspecies C. a. nivosus (Snowy plover). Phenotypic analyses revealed consistent differences, with Snowy plovers exhibiting significantly shorter tarsi (mean 32.5 mm vs. 36.2 mm in Kentish) and wings (mean 109 mm vs. 116 mm), alongside distinct chick down patterns and contact calls.^[11] Mitochondrial DNA sequencing demonstrated reciprocal monophyly between the groups, with no shared haplotypes and divergence times estimated at 1-2 million years, supporting full species status for C. nivosus as adopted by the South American Classification Committee in 2015 and other bodies.^[12] This split reflects causal isolation by geography and ecology, rather than clinal variation, challenging earlier lumping based on superficial plumage similarities. Additional debates involve Southeast Asian forms, such as the Javan plover (C. javanicus), previously a subspecies of C. alexandrinus but elevated to species in recent decades due to diagnostic rufous-cinnamon plumage on the hindneck and breast sides, heavier bills, and restriction to Indonesian mudflats with minimal hybridization evidence.^[13] Ongoing research questions the monophyly of remaining C. alexandrinus subspecies, with calls for nuclear DNA studies to assess potential further fragmentation amid varying migratory behaviors and habitat pressures.^[14]

Description

Morphology and plumage

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) measures 15–18 cm in length, with a wingspan of 43–45 cm and body mass of 40–60 g, making it one of the smaller plovers with proportionally long legs relative to its size.^[15]^[16]^[17] It possesses a slender black bill, large black eyes, and dark gray legs, contributing to its agile, darting structure adapted for shorebird foraging.^[16]^[18] In breeding plumage, males exhibit distinctive markings including a black forecrown band, black lores and eye-stripe, rufous or orange hind-neck forming a partial collar, black epaulettes on the shoulders, and black patches on the sides of the breast, set against pale sandy-brown upperparts, white underparts, a white forehead, broad white supercilium, and a complete white hind-collar.^[18]^[16] Females in breeding condition resemble non-breeding males, lacking bold black markings and instead showing duller brown tones in equivalent areas, with only a hint of rufous on the rear supercilium.^[18] Plumage overall is pale, with upperparts greyish-brown and underparts white, though geographic variation exists, such as paler tones in certain subspecies like the North American form sometimes treated separately.^[16] Non-breeding adults of both sexes display subdued plumage similar to breeding females, with grey-brown upperparts, white underparts, and faint or absent breast-side patches, along with paler legs in some individuals.^[18] Juveniles and first-winter birds mimic female non-breeding plumage but feature even less distinct breast patches and paler legs.^[18] In flight, the species shows narrow white wing stripes from the secondaries and white sides to the tail with a partial dark tail bar.^[16]^[18] The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) displays limited sexual dimorphism, primarily in breeding plumage and subtle morphological traits. Males exhibit more vibrant coloration, including a black breast band, black patches on the sides of the neck, and a rufous cap, while females possess duller equivalents with brown tones in the breast band and neck patches.^[19] Breast feathers are longer in males, particularly the central ones, contributing to a more pronounced ornamental appearance during the breeding season.^[19] Males also have slightly longer tarsi, averaging 30.0 mm compared to 29.3 mm in females.^[20] A small proportion (4.5%) of females may express a male-like black breast band, potentially indicating individual quality or age-related variation, though this trait is reversible across seasons.^[21] Age-related differences are evident in plumage development, with juveniles distinguishable from adults by duller and less defined markings. Juvenile upperparts and wing coverts are grey-brown with distinct pale edges, neck patches are pale brown and often indistinct, and the breast band appears olive-grey rather than sharply black or brown.^[22] Compared to fresh-plumaged adults, juveniles are paler brown above and washed with light yellow below.^[23] Sexual size dimorphism emerges post-juvenile in some populations, with males growing faster after hatching in certain locales, though hatchling sizes do not differ significantly by sex.^[24] Three age classes can be recognized based on these plumage traits: juveniles, first-winter, and adults.^[22]

Distribution and movements

Global range

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) occupies an extensive global range spanning Europe, Africa, Asia, and parts of Oceania, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 70,700,000 km².^[2] It is primarily associated with coastal shorelines, saline lakes, and inland wetlands, but its distribution is discontinuous due to habitat specificity.^[18] The species is absent from the Americas, where the morphologically similar snowy plover (C. nivosus) occupies analogous niches.^[2] Breeding occurs across a broad latitudinal band from approximately 55°N to 10°N, encompassing western Europe (including Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, and Spain), the Mediterranean Basin, North Africa, the Middle East (such as Israel and Turkey), Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Uzbekistan), and eastern Asia up to Japan and Indonesia.^[2] ^[18] Northern populations, particularly those above 40°N in Eurasia, are largely migratory, while subtropical and tropical groups in regions like southern Europe (Albania, Cyprus, Portugal), North Africa, and parts of the Indian subcontinent maintain resident or partially resident status.^[2] Subspecies distribution influences range patterns, with the nominate form (C. a. alexandrinus) predominant in the migratory western Palearctic and C. a. seebohmi resident in southern India and Sri Lanka.^[18] Non-breeding range for migratory populations extends southward into sub-Saharan Africa (as far as northern Liberia and South Sudan), southern Asia (northern India), and Southeast Asia (including Vietnam and Taiwan), with vagrant records in Micronesia and Guam.^[2] ^[18] Year-round presence is noted in coastal areas of the Mediterranean, Arabian Peninsula, and equatorial zones, reflecting adaptations to stable warm climates.^[18] The species' cosmopolitan yet patchy distribution underscores its reliance on open, sandy or gravelly substrates near water bodies, with local extirpations reported in areas like the Baltic Sea due to habitat loss.^[2]

Migration and dispersal patterns

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) displays a spectrum of migration strategies, ranging from long-distance movements in northern and inland populations to sedentary or short-distance behaviors in tropical and subtropical ones. Most northern coastal and inland breeders are full migrants, vacating breeding areas for distinct wintering grounds, whereas island and southern populations often remain year-round in mild climates with minimal displacement.^[2] Breeding territories are occupied chiefly from March to October across the species' range, with post-breeding dispersal initiating in late June shortly after fledglings become independent. Southward migration typically peaks in September, reflecting a response to declining resources and harsher conditions at higher latitudes.^[2] Dispersal patterns reveal sex-biased tendencies, with adult females undertaking the longest inter-seasonal movements compared to males and juveniles. This disparity correlates with the species' flexible polyandrous mating system, wherein females prospect widely for multiple mates and suitable habitats to maximize reproductive output, while males invest more in parental care at established sites. Natal dispersal distances vary but generally exceed those of philopatric adults in some populations, facilitating gene flow amid fragmented coastal habitats.^[25]^[26]

Habitats

Breeding and foraging sites

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) selects breeding sites featuring open, sparsely vegetated substrates such as sandy, pebbly, or muddy shores adjacent to water bodies, which facilitate nest camouflage and predator avoidance while maintaining proximity to foraging areas.^[2] These habitats commonly include coastal dunes, salt flats, alkali lake margins, and inland saline wetlands, with a documented preference for areas of low vegetation density to minimize exposure risks during the ground-nesting phase.^[2]^[27] In arid regions, such as the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains in northwest China, optimal nesting occurs in plain reservoirs and lake peripheries like Ebinur Lake, where multiple land-use types converge near shallow waters with scant vegetation.^[28] Coastal saltpans emerge as viable alternative breeding venues, particularly in anthropogenically modified landscapes, supporting higher reproductive success in mixed-species colonies influenced by umbrella species that signal habitat quality through visual or auditory cues.^[29] Such sites, including managed salinas and evaporation ponds, replicate natural saline flats and have sustained populations where traditional coastal beaches face disturbance.^[30] Foraging occurs predominantly in intertidal and supratidal zones overlapping or contiguous with breeding grounds, such as exposed beaches, mudflats, and lagoon shallows, where birds probe for invertebrates amid receding tides or low-water conditions.^[1] Adults, including incubating individuals, target patches of bare or sparsely covered sediment for efficiency, with males adjusting foraging range—up to 16 km from nests—based on tidal cycles to exploit ephemeral prey availability in both beach and lagoon environments.^[31] This spatial overlap between breeding and foraging sites underscores the species' reliance on dynamic coastal mosaics for energy demands during reproduction.^[1]

Environmental adaptations

The Kentish plover possesses salt glands adapted for excreting excess sodium chloride, facilitating survival in saline coastal and wetland environments such as salt marshes and lagoon edges. Histochemical analysis reveals these glands feature simple tubular structures lined with cuboidal epithelium rich in carbonic anhydrase activity, enabling efficient osmoregulation in birds consuming brackish prey or water.^[32] This physiological trait supports habitation in hyper-saline habitats where freshwater is scarce, distinguishing it from less salt-tolerant inland species.^[32] In hot, arid breeding sites, the species employs behavioral thermoregulation, including belly-soaking where incubating adults immerse their ventral plumage in shallow water to enhance evaporative cooling and reduce core body temperature by up to 2-3°C during peak heat.^[33] This adaptation mitigates hyperthermia risks at exposed nests, with experimental data confirming wet feathers lower heat stress more effectively than dry conditions.^[34] Biparental incubation shifts are critical in environments exceeding 40°C, as solitary care leads to egg overheating and reduced hatching success, underscoring cooperative strategies shaped by thermal pressures.^[35] Nesting adaptations include diurnal adjustments to scrape lining, with increased addition of shell fragments or pebbles during midday to insulate eggs against solar radiation while maintaining camouflage on sandy substrates.^[36] Site selection favors open, low-vegetation areas offering high visibility for predator detection, though this trades off against human disturbance in coastal zones.^[37] Such choices reflect evolutionary trade-offs prioritizing crypsis and thermal stability over dense cover, enabling persistence in dynamic beach and alkali flat ecosystems.^[37]

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) forage primarily in coastal intertidal mudflats, beaches, salt pans, and adjacent supratidal habitats, using a visual run-stop-peck technique to capture surface-dwelling prey, with occasional aerial pursuits of flying insects.^[38]^[39] They exhibit both diurnal and nocturnal foraging, particularly during overwintering periods on intertidal flats, where nocturnal activity constitutes a major component of energy acquisition rather than mere compensation for daytime constraints.^[40] Their diet consists mainly of small aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, including polychaete worms (e.g., Nereis diversicolor, comprising over 80% of biomass intake in some estuarine populations and measuring approximately 10 cm in length), beetles (e.g., Ochthebius spp., 1–3 mm), mollusks (e.g., snails Hydrobia ulvae and cockles Cerastoderma edule), crustaceans, and insect larvae such as chironomids in salt pan environments.^[39]^[16] Seeds and small vertebrates are consumed opportunistically but form a minor portion. Prey selection favors abundant, accessible items, with peck rates on mudflats averaging 13–14 per minute in winter males, yielding biomass intake rates up to 0.34 mg/second during breeding.^[39]^[41] Foraging strategies show seasonal and sexual variation: winter use of mudflats reaches 88% of activity for higher biomass availability, shifting to 30% during breeding when supratidal saltworks are preferred; females target low-tide mudflat centers more selectively, while males forage more evenly, potentially linked to incubation duties and tidal constraints.^[39] Intake rates are substantially higher on mudflats than saltworks, reflecting greater prey density.^[39]

Vocalizations and communication

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) employs a repertoire of calls for various communicative functions, including contact maintenance, alarm signaling, and coordination during breeding activities, rather than complex songs typical of passerines. Frequently heard vocalizations include a short, soft "pit" or doubled "pid-up", which may incorporate brief trills, and a plaintive "peee-oo" used in flight or distress contexts.^[1] Alarm calls, often rendered as "kittup" or sharper variants, alert conspecifics to potential threats such as predators and are commonly emitted from the ground or in low flight, sometimes escalating into series when disturbance intensifies.^[42] ^[43] During incubation nest-relief exchanges, pairs synchronize vocal and behavioral signals to facilitate smooth transitions in parental duties. Observations of incubating Kentish plovers identified four distinct call types: type A ("tit"), a brief high-pitched note; type B ("pee"), a sharper peep; type B-long ("PEEjurrr"), an extended variant of type B with a trill; and type C ("rrooh"), a low, growling alarm call used sparingly in this context to avoid attracting predators.^[44] These calls are typically paired with visual cues like head-bobbing or wing displays, enabling the off-duty parent to approach the nest undetected while minimizing exposure time, which is critical in predator-prone habitats. Type C calls, while multifunctional as general alarms, are de-emphasized during relief to reduce risk, highlighting context-specific modulation in the species' vocal communication.^[44] Parent-offspring communication involves soft contact calls from adults to guide precocial chicks, often during foraging or evasion of threats, though detailed acoustic analyses remain limited. Territorial disputes and mate attraction incorporate repeated "pid-up" series or trilled variants, broadcast during displays to assert presence or court potential partners.^[1] Overall, the vocal repertoire supports the species' ground-nesting lifestyle by balancing information transfer with stealth, as excessive calling could elevate predation risk in open coastal environments.^[44] Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) maintain territories primarily during the breeding season, where mated pairs actively defend nesting areas against conspecific intruders through aggressive displays including posturing, chasing, and physical fights involving running or flying at adversaries.^[16] Males exhibit greater aggression in territorial defense compared to females, though both sexes participate in protecting the nest site.^[16] Territory sizes are typically small, often under 0.5 hectares in comparable coastal habitats, reflecting the species' adaptation to resource-limited shorelines.^[45] Social interactions outside of pair bonds are generally limited, with birds forming loose pre-breeding aggregations that influence mate selection and breeding strategies; individuals with more extensive social networks prior to nesting show higher pairing success in island populations.^[46] During breeding, pairs coordinate defense, including distraction behaviors such as feigned injury displays to divert predators or intruders from nests, with greater parental investment in these tactics correlating to prolonged nest survival rates of up to 20-30% higher in defended territories.^[47] In resource-scarce conditions, adults occasionally intrude on neighboring territories to peck or harm chicks, escalating inter-pair conflicts.^[16] Non-breeding sociality shifts toward solitary or small-group foraging, but territoriality persists in wintering grounds along linear coastal habitats, where individuals hold defended stretches averaging 50-100 meters to secure foraging patches.^[48] Such winter territories reduce interference competition, though overlaps occur during high-density periods, prompting brief chases without sustained aggression.^[48] Overall, these interactions underscore a flexible social system adaptive to variable environmental pressures, prioritizing biparental defense in breeding contexts while minimizing energy expenditure in off-season groupings.^[46]

Reproduction

Mating system

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) displays a flexible mating system characterized by social monogamy in some populations and sequential polygamy—including polyandry and polygyny—in others, influenced by local environmental conditions such as predation risk and resource availability.^[49] In monogamous populations, such as those on Maio (Cape Verde) and Farasan Island (Saudi Arabia), pairs typically exhibit biparental care throughout incubation and chick-rearing, with low rates of mate desertion.^[49] ^[50] Conversely, sequential polyandry predominates in many continental populations (e.g., Europe, China, and Doñana, Spain), where females often desert males after clutch completion or hatching to form new pairs and lay subsequent clutches, leaving males to incubate and care for offspring alone.^[50] ^[51] This female-biased desertion reflects sexual conflict over parental investment, with females prioritizing remating opportunities when chick survival depends less on dual care due to precocial development.^[51] Mate fidelity is conditional: pairs frequently renest together following clutch failure, but successful hatching predicts divorce, particularly by females, across 14 studied populations with 205 recorded female divorces.^[50] Polygamy frequencies vary, reaching 32% (range 0–64%) in sites like Doñana, where uniparental male care is common post-desertion.^[49] Sequential polygyny occurs less frequently but is documented, as in cases where males desert broods 13 days post-hatching to court new females 8–9 days later, sometimes 10 km distant, resulting in new clutches of 3 eggs.^[51] Geographic and seasonal factors, including higher rainfall correlating with altered ornamentation patterns that may signal mate quality, further modulate these systems, with darker, smaller male breast patches in polygamous versus monogamous sites.^[49] Overall, this variability underscores adaptive responses to ecological pressures rather than fixed genetic predispositions.^[49]

Nesting and incubation

The Kentish plover constructs simple ground scrapes for nests, typically in exposed sandy or gravelly substrates near water edges, such as beaches, salt marshes, or lake shores, to facilitate early predator detection by incubating adults.^[52] These sites often feature sparse vegetation and proximity to heterospecific nests, enhancing camouflage or vigilance.^[53] Clutch size averages 2.7 to 3 eggs, with most nests containing three eggs laid at intervals of approximately one to two days; replacement clutches may occur following failure.^[53] ^[54] Egg dimensions measure about 32 mm by 23 mm, and laying typically commences in spring, varying by latitude from March in temperate zones to year-round in tropical regions. Incubation is biparental, with both sexes sharing duties essential for egg survival, particularly in hot environments where uniparental care risks overheating; females primarily incubate during daylight hours, while males handle nocturnal shifts.^[35] ^[55] The incubation period lasts 25 to 27 days, during which parents exhibit behaviors like nest attendance adjusted to ambient temperature and embryonic development stage to maintain optimal egg temperatures around 33–34°C.^[53] ^[56] Hatching is synchronous, with chicks emerging precocial and capable of immediate mobility; hatching success rates reach approximately 70% in monitored populations, though predation and environmental factors contribute to variability.^[53] Biparental incubation elevates offspring survival compared to solo efforts, as modeled in populations where shared care mitigates risks from thermal extremes and disturbances.^[57]

Parental care and chick survival

Kentish plover chicks are precocial, leaving the nest within hours of hatching and relying on parents to lead them to foraging areas via vocalizations and visual cues.^[58] Both parents initially share duties, with one brooding the chicks for thermoregulation in the first few days while the other forages; brooding frequency decreases as chicks develop feathers around 5–10 days.^[58]^[59] Biparental care commonly shifts to uniparental after 5–15 days, often with females deserting the brood to seek additional mating opportunities, particularly early in the season when renesting success is higher; males then provide sole care, including protection from predators.^[58]^[3] This flexibility reflects a trade-off between current brood investment and future reproductive gains, though uniparental broods experience lower chick survival compared to biparental ones.^[3]^[60] In arid environments exceeding 50°C, parents alternate brooding shifts to shade chicks and prevent overheating, enhancing viability through increased attendance during peak heat.^[59] Chicks fledge at 28–35 days and achieve independence by 40–50 days, but survival to fledging declines seasonally and is threatened by predation, extreme weather, and disturbance; apparent juvenile return rates are low, around 4–8% in monitored populations.^[58]^[60]^[61]^[62]

Population dynamics

Historical and current estimates

The global population of the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is estimated at 324,000–468,000 individuals, corresponding to 216,000–312,000 mature individuals, based on data compiled by Wetlands International in 2023.^[2] This figure reflects assessments across its wide breeding range in coastal and saline habitats from Europe to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The species' overall population trend is suspected to be decreasing, inferred from regional monitoring and habitat loss indicators reported through the Waterbird Population Estimates.^[2] Historical global estimates prior to the 21st century are limited due to inconsistent survey methods and the species' dispersed distribution, but regional data indicate declines in several key areas. For instance, a 1991 breeding census in the Canary Islands documented a minimum of 626 individuals, while subsequent estimates for Lanzarote alone suggest 23–136 breeding pairs as of the mid-2000s, reflecting localized contractions amid coastal development.^[63]^[62] In Sicily, breeding pairs decreased by 18–28% between 2009–2010 (estimated at 250–400 pairs) and surveys around 2021, attributed to habitat degradation and disturbance.^[64] Similarly, in northwestern Spain, the population declined steadily until 2004 before showing a moderate recovery, influenced by events like the 2002 Prestige oil spill.^[65] In Europe, which hosts approximately 15% of the global population, estimates range from 21,500–34,800 breeding pairs, with trends showing declines of less than 25% over 15.4 years in some assessments, though data variability limits precise historical comparisons.^[2] Broader genomic analyses suggest that Kentish plover effective population sizes expanded following the Last Glacial Maximum (circa 20,000 years ago), contrasting with declines in related taxa, but modern decreases are linked to anthropogenic pressures rather than climatic cycles alone.^[66] These patterns underscore a shift from relative stability in pre-industrial eras to contemporary reductions, though the species remains classified as Least Concern globally due to its large overall numbers.^[2]

Demographic factors

Apparent adult survival rates for Kentish plovers, derived from mark-recapture studies, typically range from 0.63 to 0.76, varying by population and incorporating both mortality and potential emigration. In a southern Turkish population studied from 1996 to 2000, adult males exhibited apparent survival of 0.63 ± 0.01 in later intervals, while females showed 0.64 ± 0.01, with first-year adults experiencing lower rates around 0.58-0.60 before stabilizing. Similar estimates from the Mallorca archipelago indicate a mean of 0.756 ± 0.05, with no significant differences between breeding sites. In the Canary Islands (2013-2017), adult survival was 0.68 (95% CI: 0.54-0.78), reflecting regional declines influenced by local conditions. These rates suggest moderate longevity, with birds potentially surviving multiple breeding seasons, though apparent values may underestimate true survival due to unaccounted emigration. Juvenile survival is substantially lower, constraining recruitment into breeding populations. First-year apparent survival averages 0.12 ± 0.04 in the Canary Islands, with fledgling survival (post-29 days) estimated at 0.15 ± 0.01 in Turkey, highlighting high post-fledging mortality. Return rates of marked juveniles to natal sites are low (around 4%), though philopatry among survivors supports some local recruitment, with 69% of returning young breeding as yearlings in studied cohorts. Sex ratios at fledging appear unbiased in multiple populations, but behavioral differences, such as brood desertion by females, may indirectly affect juvenile outcomes through variable parental investment. Reproductive parameters further shape demographics, with mean clutch sizes of 2.8 ± 0.1 eggs and nest success rates around 58% (Mayfield estimate) in declining island populations. Hatching success often reaches 69-70%, but overall seasonal fledging output per female ranges from 0.31 to 0.79 young, limited by renesting propensity and environmental factors. These metrics contribute to population growth rates (λ) below replacement in monitored sites, such as 0.80 (95% CI: 0.66-0.94) in the Canaries, underscoring low fecundity relative to adult survival as a key demographic bottleneck. Variability across habitats reflects adaptive flexibility, yet consistently low juvenile recruitment drives observed declines in many regions.

Conservation

Status assessments

The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List, as its extremely large geographic range exceeding 70 million km² and substantial population size do not meet the criteria for higher threat categories despite evidence of decline.^[2] Global population estimates range from 324,000 to 468,000 individuals, corresponding to 216,000 to 314,000 mature individuals based on data from Wetlands International updated in 2023.^[2] The overall trend is decreasing, primarily attributed to habitat degradation and disturbance, though the rate does not currently trigger reevaluation to threatened status.^[2] In Europe, the species is afforded special protection under Annex I of the EU Birds Directive (2009/147/EC), which mandates conservation measures for habitats critical to its lifecycle, and Annex II of the Bern Convention.^[2] ^[4] European assessments indicate a declining trend, with breeding populations estimated at 13,600–28,900 pairs.^[67] Regionally, statuses vary markedly; for instance, it is rated Vulnerable in France and Critically Endangered in the Baltic Sea region under HELCOM criteria due to small, localized populations and habitat loss.^[68] ^[69]

Identified threats

The primary threats to Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) populations include habitat disturbance from human activities, such as tourism-related trampling of nests and disruption of roosting sites on beaches, which reduces breeding success by increasing exposure to predators and stress.^[2] Degradation and loss of coastal wetlands and sandy habitats due to development, erosion, and coastal armoring further limit suitable nesting areas, particularly in regions like southern Europe where populations have declined steeply since the early 2000s.^[2] ^[70] Predation pressure from introduced mammals and native species exacerbates declines, especially on islands and beaches where ground-nesting exposes eggs and chicks, with studies in Iberian populations showing elevated nest failure rates linked to fox and avian predators.^[71] Climate-driven changes, including sea-level rise and altered coastline dynamics, are projected to reduce suitable nesting habitats by over 22% in parts of the Mediterranean by 2040, compounding habitat squeeze in low-elevation coastal zones.^[72] Pollution poses an additional risk, with mercury accumulation in feathers exceeding adverse-effect thresholds in some populations, impairing chick survival and reproductive output, as documented in southern European breeding grounds.^[73] Localized events like the 2002 Prestige oil spill in northwest Iberia temporarily disrupted breeding performance by contaminating foraging areas and increasing chick mortality.^[74] While the species remains globally Least Concern, these synergistic threats drive regional endangerment, such as critically endangered status in the Baltic Sea region.^[69]

Management and recovery efforts

Management efforts for the Kentish plover emphasize habitat protection, disturbance minimization, and breeding success enhancement, given its Least Concern status globally but localized declines due to coastal development and recreation.^[2] In Europe, the species benefits from protections under Annex I of the EU Birds Directive and Annex II of the Bern Convention, which mandate special conservation measures in breeding sites.^[2] Common actions include seasonal beach fencing, signage to deter human access, and predator exclusion using wire mesh enclosures around nests to prevent losses from mammals like foxes and corvids.^[70] Regional recovery initiatives target vulnerable populations, such as in northwestern Spain where the Galician Recovery Plan (Decree 9/2014) was implemented post-Prestige oil spill in 2002, incorporating post-spill habitat restoration, monitoring, and management that stabilized breeding pairs from 1988–2010 trends.^[65] ^[75] The ANABAM project in southern Spain, ongoing since at least 2018, applies clutch protection via artificial incubation support and habitat enhancements like vegetation control, yielding measurable increases in fledging rates on monitored beaches.^[76] Transboundary collaborations, such as the IBERALEX initiative between Spain and Portugal launched around 2023, coordinate monitoring and threat mitigation across the Iberian border to bolster metapopulation resilience through shared data and joint habitat safeguards.^[77] In Croatia and Italy, projects funded under EU LIFE programs since 2025 include nesting site surveillance, public awareness campaigns, and restoration of guardian species like little terns to indirectly reduce predation pressure on plover nests.^[78] ^[79] Citizen-science programs, involving volunteers in nest monitoring and disturbance reporting, have demonstrated efficacy in cost-effective protection, with studies showing higher productivity on actively managed sites compared to unmanaged ones.^[70] For the Western Snowy Plover subspecies (C. a. nivosus) along the Pacific coast, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's 2007 Recovery Plan prescribes predator management, brood rearing assistance, and habitat acquisition, contributing to population growth from 1,500 breeding adults in 1993 to over 2,000 by 2020 in managed units.^[80] ^[81] Overall, while no species-wide recovery plan exists, these localized interventions, supported by ongoing surveys like the International Waterbird Census, prioritize empirical monitoring to adapt strategies amid ongoing threats like climate-driven habitat shifts.^[2]

References

[1]
Kentish Plover Anarhynchus alexandrinus - Birds of the World
Oct 24, 2023 · 15–17.5 cm; 32–56 g; wingspan 42–45 cm. The Kentish Plover differs from most similar species by the white collar on its hindneck, ...Identification · Subspecies · Kentish Plover (kentish)...Missing: length weight
[2]
Kentish Plover Charadrius Alexandrinus Species Factsheet
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion.
[3]
Trade-off between mating opportunities and parental care: brood ...
Trade-off between mating opportunities and parental care: brood desertion by female Kentish plovers · Abstract · This Issue.Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[4]
Kentish Plover - Charadrius alexandrinus - Linnaeus, 1758 - EUNIS
Least Concern (IUCN) · Declining · EU Birds Directive and 5 other international agreements · 564 are designated for this species · A138 ...
[5]
Anarhynchus alexandrinus (Kentish Plover) - Avibase
The Kentish plover is a small cosmopolitan shorebird of the family Charadriidae that breeds on the shores of saline lakes, lagoons, and coasts.
[6]
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) in Madeira, Portugal
Total length: 15 - 17 cm (Beaman & Madge, 2011) Weight: 40 - 60 g (Hume, 2002). Other Bird Facts. Seasonality in Madeira: All year round though very localised ...Kentish Plover Charadrius... · Kentish Plover Field Id Keys · Charadrius Alexandrinus...Missing: plumage | Show results with:plumage
[7]
Rediscovery of a long-lost Charadrius plover from South-East Asia ...
The genus name Charadrius is believed to have its origin in the ancient Greek word kharadrios meaning 'a nocturnal waterbird', while dealbatus is derived from ...
[8]
[PDF] Kentish Plover; What's in a name? | Wader Quest
Jan 19, 2021 · He gave the birds the Scientific name Charadrius cantianus (Medieval Latin; Cantia = Kent). That scientific name would have stuck if it had not ...
[9]
Kentish Plover | BTO
Introduction. A former breeder in southern England, hence the name, the Kentish Plover is now a scarce but annual visitor from Europe.
[10]
Kentish Plover - Birds of Singapore
Charadrius alexandrinus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22727487A155485165.en. Accessed on ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
Kentish Versus Snowy Plover: Phenotypic and Genetic Analyses of ...
Oct 1, 2009 · Snowy Plovers differed morphologically from Kentish Plovers, having significantly shorter tarsi and wings. Chick plumage and calls also may ...
[12]
Treat Snowy Plover Charadrius nivosus as a separate species from ...
Keep scientific name Charadrius alexandrinus (Linnaeus 1758) for Kentish Plover ... The history of these taxa is well detailed. They were regarded as ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[13]
Javan Plover - Anarhynchus javanicus - Birds of the World
Oct 24, 2023 · The Javan Plover differs from similar species by its rufous-cinnamon coloration extending from the crown, down the hindneck, and onto the sides of the breast.
[14]
No more Javan Plover? – Further mixing the Kentish Plover complex
May 28, 2017 · The Kentish Plover have always have been the subject of taxonomical debates (e.g. Snowy Plover Charadrius nivosus split from C. alexandrinus) ...
[15]
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) | Via Pontica
Description Body length: 16-18 cm. Width of the wings: 43-45 cm. Weight: 40-60g. Longevity: 10 years. Both male and female birds have black bills and dark legs ...
[16]
Charadrius alexandrinus (Kentish plover) - Animal Diversity Web
Charadrius alexandrinus occidentalis are birds on the west coast of South America. C. a. tenuirostris breed on the Gulf Coast (east of Louisiana), Bahama ...
[17]
Kentish plover - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio
The Kentish plover is a small shorebird weighing around 40 g as an adult. Both male and female birds have black bills and dark legs, however adults have ...
[18]
Focus on: Kentish Plover - BirdGuides
Apr 30, 2020 · Distinctive plumage. In breeding condition, the male is separable from other small European plovers by its orange hind-neck, black epaulettes ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[19]
[PDF] SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC BREAST-FEATHERS IN THE KENTISH ...
We studied the length of breast-feathers in the Kentish Plover. We hypothes- ised that the length of breast-feathers are longer in males than in females, ...
[20]
Morphological and Genetic Differentiation Among Kentish Plover ...
Jun 1, 2016 · Male plovers had longer tarsi than females (males: 30.00 ± 1.3 mm [mean ± SD], females: 29.3 ± 1.4 mm) (F(1, 5) = 87.71, P < 0.001), although ...<|separator|>
[21]
(PDF) Does the expression of a male plumage trait in female Kentish ...
Aug 6, 2025 · A small percentage (4.5%) of females Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) observed breeding in southern Spain expressed a plumage trait ...
[22]
[PDF] 04770 Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus)
3 age groups can be recognized: Juvenile with upperparts and wing coverts grey- brown with distinct pale edge; neck patches pale brown, often indistinct; ...Missing: related | Show results with:related
[23]
The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is a small wader
Apr 1, 2016 · The Kentish plover's upperparts are greyish brown and the underparts white in all plumages. The breast markings are black in summer adults, ...The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is a small - FacebookKentish Plover (With Swan Mussel) - FacebookMore results from www.facebook.comMissing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[24]
Ontogenic differences in sexual size dimorphism across four plover ...
Mar 25, 2015 · Conversely, in Tuzla, male and female Kentish Plover hatchlings did not differ significantly in size but male chicks grew faster than female ...
[25]
(PDF) Dispersal in Kentish Plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus)
The dispersal of the Kentish Plover is likely linked to its breeding behavior: polyandrous females exhibit extensive mate searching and habitat prospecting.
[26]
Dispersal in Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) - bioRxiv
Apr 27, 2023 · Dispersal is an important behavioural process that plays a significant role in, among others, speciation, population viability, and ...
[27]
Landscape and climatic predictors of Kentish Plover (Charadrius ...
Apr 23, 2022 · Kentish Plovers typically breed on sandy shores surrounding inland water bodies and coastal shores (Lessells 1984, Kosztolányi et al. 2009, ...
[28]
Nesting Habitat Suitability of the Kentish Plover in the Arid Lands of ...
The most suitable nesting habitats are mostly distributed in plain reservoirs in the middle part of the Northern Slope of the Tianshan Mountains, Ebinur Lake ...
[29]
Coastal saltpans are a good alternative breeding habitat for Kentish ...
Apr 13, 2016 · Our results showed that saltpans are an important alternative breeding habitat for the Kentish plover, especially for the maintenance of mixed species colonies.
[30]
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) and Little Tern (Sternula ...
Shorebird populations are declining worldwide, mainly due to human disturbances and loss of coastal wetlands. However, supratidal habitats as saltpans could ...Missing: range | Show results with:range
[31]
Male but not female Kentish plovers Charadrius alexandrinus ...
Both sexes foraged on the beach were they bred, but also in the lagoon, travelling up to 16 km far from the nest. In both habitats, individuals foraged in areas ...
[32]
Microanatomy and Histochemistry of the Salt Glands of the Kentish ...
The present study was performed to characterize the microanatomy and histochemistry of the salt glands of the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrines). ... Saline ...
[33]
(PDF) The functions of belly‐soaking in Kentish Plovers Charadrius ...
Aug 9, 2025 · We conclude that the primary function of belly-soaking in the Kentish Plover is to dissipate body heat in heat-stressed incubating adults, ...
[34]
[PDF] Belly-soaking: a behavioural solution to reduce excess body heat in ...
reducing excess body heat in Kentish plovers Charadrius alexandrinus. We captured incubating plovers on sunny days at their exposed nests, and placed them ...
[35]
The influence of a hot environment on parental cooperation of a ...
We suggest that once the eggs have hatched the risks associated with hot temperature are reduced: the chicks become mobile, and they gradually develop ...Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[36]
[PDF] Diurnal variation in nest material use by the Kentish Plover
Here we report that Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexan- drinus adjust the amount of nest material during the day. This adjustment is expected because Kentish ...
[37]
Nest Site Selection by Kentish Plover Suggests a Trade-Off between ...
Our results showed that plovers selected nest sites with higher visibility than control points randomly selected with regards to humans and dogs.
[38]
[PDF] Snowy Plover Diets in 1995 at a Coastal Southern California ...
Jan 1, 1999 · The Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) feeds by pecking at the ground for invertebrates and catching insects in the air while on the run.
[39]
[PDF] Sex-Related Seasonal Differences in the Foraging Strategy of the ...
Apr 10, 2009 · 3). At both seasons Kentish Plovers ingested predominantly polychaetes ~10 cm long (Fig. 4).
[40]
(PDF) Diurnal and nocturnal feeding rate in Kentish Plovers ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Results from this study indicate that nocturnal feeding in overwintering plovers is not a compensation but a major foraging activity to meet ...
[41]
[PDF] DIET AND PREY SELECTION OF SHOREBIRDS ON SALT PANS IN ...
This study examines the diet and prey-size selection of the most abundant wader species (dunlin Calidris alpina, kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus and ...
[42]
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) identification - Birda
Kentish Plovers have pale plumage with a white underside and grey/brown back. Males have dark breast bands and head markings, while females are paler. They ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[43]
Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) - Thai National Parks
The Kentish plover is a small shorebird weighing around 40g as an adult. Both male and female birds have black bills and dark legs, however adults have ...Missing: length weight
[44]
Nest‑relief behaviors and usage of call types in the Kentish plover ...
In this study, we examined the vocalizations and behaviors of incubating pairs of Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus). We categorized nest-relief calls ...
[45]
[PDF] Mating System and Reproductive Success of a Small Population of ...
Mar 1, 1986 · Territories. -Snowy Plovers posture, chase, and fight when defending territories. Territory sizes were always less than 0.5 ha at the salt pan,.
[46]
The impact of social structure on breeding strategies in an island bird
Aug 17, 2020 · Here we utilise information on pre-breeding sociality in the ground-nesting shorebird the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) in ...
[47]
linking distraction behavior with nest survival in a ground-nesting bird
Birds inform their mate or chicks of potential threats by emitting alarm calls or signals (Simmons 1955b). Under a more obvious potential threat, parents may ...
[48]
[PDF] Territoriality in Non-breeding Shorebirds - Digital Commons @ USF
Jan 1, 1979 · LENGTHS OF WINTERING SHOREBIRD TERRITORIES ALONG LINEAR HABITATS(METERS)~. Species. N. Charadrius alexandrinus. 2. Charadrius semipalmatus. 5.
[49]
Geographic variation in breeding system and environment predicts ...
The differences in both male and female ornamentation in Kentish plovers were associated with variation in mating system, so that populations with a more ...
[50]
Successful breeding predicts divorce in plovers | Scientific Reports
Sep 23, 2020 · For instance, Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus populations in Europe and China commonly display serial polygamy with mostly females ...
[51]
[PDF] Sequential Polygamy of Kentish Plover Charadrius Alexandrius
Jan 1, 1990 · The mating system of Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus is variable (Cramp & Simmons 1983). Typically the birds are reported as ...
[52]
Predation risk on incubating adults constrains the choice of ...
We tested the hypothesis that Kentish plovers nest mainly in exposed sites because this may allow the incubating birds to detect approaching predators early, ...
[53]
Breeding behaviour of the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus ...
Anthropogenic pressures, habitat loss as well as lack of management plans are major threats of this population. Previous article in issue; Next ...
[54]
Breeding ecology of Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus in an ...
This suggests that in the Al Wathba population, the mating opportunities are biased toward males early in the breeding season, perhaps due to a female‐biased ...Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[55]
[PDF] Practical guide for breeding ecology of Kentish plover
KPs are migratory in most parts of their range, although populations close to the equator are only partially migrant or resident. They breed on edges of saline ...
[56]
Nest attendance of the Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus in ...
Dec 18, 2023 · This study provides new information about the incubation behavior ... “Fanning” Behavior and Nesting Biology of the Least Grebe. February ...
[57]
Why do Both Parents Incubate in the Kentish Plover? - 2003 - Ethology
Aug 1, 2003 · Biparental incubation is expected if the survival prospects of offspring are greatly raised by shared care, relative to the costs incurred by ...
[58]
[PDF] Practical guide for breeding ecology of Kentish plover
The last thing you want is to put an extra burden on plover populations - they have a hard time anyway to cope with predators, floods and threats humans are ...
[59]
The influence of a hot environment on parental cooperation of a ...
Jan 11, 2010 · We investigated the latter hypothesis in a ground nesting shorebird, the Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus in an extremely hot environment, ...<|separator|>
[60]
Brood desertion in Kentish plover: the value of parental care
Kentish plover chicks fledge at about 28 days (Székely, 1996). Checking interval did not differ between male-only [2.6± 0.2 days (SE)], female-only (2.6 ± 0.5 ...
[61]
[PDF] the effects of age and sex on the apparent survival of kentish plovers ...
Third, sexual differences in the apparent sur- vival of juveniles and adults are of interest as a possible explanation for male-biased sex ratios among breeding ...
[62]
[PDF] Apparent survival, reproduction, and population growth estimation of ...
The observed return rate of chicks after their natal year was 7.8%, a value higher than the rate detected in a population in Turkey (Sandercock et al. 2005).<|separator|>
[63]
[PDF] breeding population of Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus in ...
A breeding census of Kentish Plover was carried out in the Canary Islands during 1991. The population has been estimated to comprise a minimum of 626 birds ...<|separator|>
[64]
Status, distribution and conservation of Kentish plover Charadrius ...
Breeding population showed a decrease of 18-28% in number of pairs in comparison to the last estimation of 250-400 pairs reported for the years 2009-2010. After ...
[65]
Long-term population trends of breeding Kentish Plovers Charadrius ...
Aug 6, 2012 · The Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus inhabits coasts and ... Adult pairs with territorial behaviour, a nest or with unfledged chicks were ...Missing: territoriality | Show results with:territoriality
[66]
Demographic Histories and Genome-Wide Patterns of Divergence in ...
Species in the Kentish plover complex (Charadrius alexandrinus; KP) are small shorebirds found breeding on saline lakes and coasts throughout Eurasia and North ...
[67]
[PDF] European Red List of Birds 2021 | BirdLife International
and habitats' assessments continue to show an 'unfavourable conservation status' or a status that is 'unknown'57. Similar critiques of progress can be found ...
[68]
Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) - iNaturalist
The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) is a small cosmopolitan shorebird (40-44 g) of the family Charadriidae that breeds on the shores of saline lakes, ...
[69]
[PDF] Charadrius alexandrinus - HELCOM Red List
Since the mid-1990s the only area with breeding Kentish plovers in Denmark is the. Wadden Sea. Page 3. SPECIES INFORMATION SHEET. Charadrius alexandrinus. © ...
[70]
Don't leave them alone! “Citizen managers” can make the difference ...
Oct 26, 2023 · The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) has been in steep decline in recent years in southern Europe (147/2007 “Birds” EU Directive; ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Evaluating the Kentish Plover stronghold - British Ornithologists' Union
May 16, 2022 · Figure 1 Species distribution range map for Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) showing the breeding (pink) and resident (blue) range ...
[72]
Anthropogenic and climate change-driven coastline dynamics will ...
Oct 7, 2024 · The study predicts an average decline of more than 22% in suitable nesting environments for the Kentish Plover within the next two decades.
[73]
Accumulation of trace elements in feathers of the Kentish plover ...
Sep 15, 2019 · Mercury emerged as a major threat to the conservation of the species, since average feather concentration was clearly above the adverse-effect ...
[74]
Did the Prestige oil spill compromise bird reproductive performance ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Our study revealed that exposure of the Kentish Plover to the Prestige oil spill adversely affected their reproductive performance by altering ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[75]
Lack of genetic structure in Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus ...
We found no genetic structure in Kentish Plovers on a coastal Iberian scale, and we emphasise the need for further studies on demographic connectivity through a ...Missing: threats | Show results with:threats
[76]
[PDF] Kentish Plover Project - ANABAM.
In this 2018 breeding season we started the third phase in the Kentish Plover Project with the Project's expansion to new beaches.
[77]
PROJECT - IBERALEX
IBERALEX is launching concerted actions between the two countries aimed at improving the conservation status of Kentish Plover populations in the transboundary ...Missing: plan | Show results with:plan
[78]
Concrete Actions to Improve Conservation Status of Kentish Plover
Jul 11, 2025 · Kentish plover is a ground-nesting bird, strictly protected in Europe (Annex I Birds Dir 2009/147/EEC) and also in Italy (Art. 2 Nat. L.157/92).
[79]
[PDF] Activity 1.1 Conservation plan on four natural areas in ... - Italy-Croatia
4.1 Identification of a Plan of integrated actions ... The conservation of the Kentish plover in the Municipality of Fano faces several threats and.
[80]
Species Profile for western snowy plover(Charadrius nivosus nivosus)
Plover, Southeastern snowy (Charadrius alexandrinus tenuirostris) and Piping-wintering pop (Charadrius melodus); List as Endangered with critical habitat, 05/09 ...Missing: IUCN | Show results with:IUCN
[81]
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2007/09/24/E7-18638/recovery-plan-for-the-pacific-coast-population-of-the-western-snowy-plover