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Visual rhetoric

Visual rhetoric is the study of how human-created visual artifacts, including images, objects, and performances, exert communicative and persuasive influence through culturally embedded symbolism. Emerging as a distinct subfield of rhetoric in the late 20th century, it extends classical principles of persuasion—originally focused on speech and text—to non-verbal forms, recognizing visuals' capacity to construct arguments and shape interpretations via viewer engagement. Key elements include the deployment of images to advance claims, the deliberate arrangement of page or spatial components for effect, typographic selections to guide perception, and critical analysis of extant visuals' rhetorical intent.^[1] This framework applies across domains such as political iconography, advertising layouts, and digital interfaces, where visuals often bypass explicit discourse to evoke pathos or reinforce ethos implicitly.^[1] Unlike verbal rhetoric, visual variants highlight embodied and performative dimensions, challenging linear causality in meaning-making by emphasizing interpretive co-creation between artifact and audience. Defining characteristics encompass both creation and critique, underscoring visuals' potential for subtle ideological embedding, as seen in everyday symbols like traffic signals that enforce behavioral norms without words.^[1]^[2]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition and Scope

Visual rhetoric denotes the intentional deployment of visual elements—including images, symbols, colors, spatial arrangements, and typographic choices—to communicate messages, construct arguments, and exert persuasive influence on audiences.^[3] This practice extends classical rhetorical principles, traditionally centered on spoken or written language, to non-verbal media where visuals serve as primary carriers of meaning and intent.^[1] Unlike mere aesthetics, visual rhetoric emphasizes functionality in shaping perceptions, evoking responses, and guiding interpretations through deliberate design choices that leverage human visual processing.^[4] The scope of visual rhetoric encompasses the creation, analysis, and critique of visual artifacts across diverse domains, such as advertising campaigns that employ imagery to drive consumer behavior, political posters utilizing symbolism to mobilize support, and public signage conveying directives without text, as in the universal stop sign that enforces compliance via color and form.^[2] It includes scientific visualizations that argue for data interpretations, architectural layouts that influence social interactions, and digital interfaces where user experience hinges on rhetorical visual strategies.^[5] Core to its purview is the examination of how visual composition—elements like contrast, alignment, and repetition—interacts with cultural contexts to produce effects akin to verbal persuasion, including appeals to ethos through authoritative imagery or pathos via emotive visuals.^[1] This field distinguishes itself by focusing on visuals' semiotic capacity to function independently or in tandem with text, probing not just content but the rhetorical mechanics of viewer engagement and potential for manipulation.^[6] Empirical studies underscore visuals' superior efficacy in memory retention and emotional impact compared to text alone, with research indicating that people process images 60,000 times faster than words, amplifying their rhetorical potency in information-saturated environments.^[3] Thus, visual rhetoric addresses both intentional persuasive designs and inadvertent communicative visuals, maintaining analytical rigor in discerning intent from effect.

Distinction from Verbal and Multimodal Rhetoric

Visual rhetoric diverges from verbal rhetoric, which traditionally relies on spoken or written language as arbitrary, abstract symbols to construct arguments and persuade audiences, by centering on concrete visual elements like images, layouts, and colors that function as iconic or indexical signs resembling their referents.^[4] Verbal rhetoric, rooted in Aristotelian principles emphasizing logos, ethos, and pathos through linguistic structures, processes meaning via sequential decoding and inference, whereas visual rhetoric engages viewers through immediate, holistic perception that often triggers affective responses prior to conscious analysis.^[3] This distinction arises because visual symbols evoke specificity and embodiment—depicting particular scenes or objects rather than general categories—potentially enhancing perceived authenticity and reducing interpretive ambiguity compared to verbal abstractions.^[4]^[7] Unlike verbal rhetoric's dependence on syntactic rules and narrative progression, visual rhetoric leverages principles of composition, such as balance, contrast, and hierarchy, to imply relationships and arguments non-verbally, often demanding higher cognitive processing for interpretation while appearing more intuitive.^[7] Scholars note that visuals can convey persuasive intent through mere presence or arrangement, bypassing the explicit claims typical of verbal discourse; for instance, a photograph's framing may imply endorsement without declarative statements.^[1] This perceptual immediacy contributes to visuals' advantage in credibility, as audiences frequently view images as less manipulable than words, though this perception risks overlooking rhetorical construction.^[8] Multimodal rhetoric extends beyond visual rhetoric by integrating multiple communicative modes—visual, verbal, auditory, gestural, and spatial—into synergistic wholes, where meaning emerges from their interaction rather than from isolated visual dominance.^[6] In contrast, visual rhetoric isolates the argumentative and persuasive capacities of visual artifacts alone, analyzing how elements like metaphor or allusion operate purely through form and content without textual or sonic supplementation.^[6] While multimodal approaches, prevalent in digital media, treat visuals as one layer amplifying or qualifying verbal components, visual rhetoric maintains focus on standalone efficacy, such as a diagram's implicit causation via arrow placement.^[9] This separation highlights visual rhetoric's emphasis on mode-specific invention, where persuasive patterns resemble verbal tropes but derive from perceptual rather than linguistic conventions.^[6]

Fundamental Visual Elements and Principles

![Canada Stop sign.svg.png][float-right] The core visual elements in visual rhetoric—line, shape, color, texture, space, and value—function as foundational components that convey persuasive intent through their inherent properties and interactions. Line, as a basic mark connecting two points, guides viewer attention, suggests direction or motion, and can evoke emotions such as stability (horizontal) or dynamism (diagonal). ^[10] ^[11] Shape emerges from enclosed lines, representing organic or geometric forms that symbolize concepts like enclosure or fragmentation, influencing interpretations of containment or openness in argumentative visuals. ^[5] ^[12] Color carries psychological associations, with hues like red signaling urgency or danger to prompt immediate response, as seen in traffic signals where red halts action through conditioned cultural cues. ^[3] ^[11] Texture adds perceived surface qualities, implying tactility or roughness to enhance realism or metaphorically suggest approachability or hostility in persuasive imagery. ^[12] Space encompasses positive (occupied) and negative (empty) areas, manipulating depth and focus to prioritize rhetorical emphases, such as isolating a figure for heroic portrayal. ^[5] Value, referring to lightness or darkness, creates contrast for hierarchy, with high contrast drawing eyes to key persuasive elements like calls to action. ^[11] These elements operate within organizing principles—balance, contrast, emphasis, movement, pattern, rhythm, and unity—that structure compositions to achieve rhetorical goals like persuasion or memorability. Balance distributes visual weight symmetrically or asymmetrically to convey stability or tension, fostering viewer trust or unease as needed for the argument. ^[12] Contrast heightens differences between elements, such as juxtaposing light and dark to underscore oppositions in ideological visuals, amplifying persuasive dichotomies. ^[12] Emphasis directs focus via scale, isolation, or color intensity, ensuring the audience engages with the core message, as in advertisements where product centrality overrides peripheral distractions. ^[13] Movement, implied through lines or gradients, simulates flow to guide sequential interpretation, mimicking narrative progression in static images. ^[12] Pattern and rhythm repeat motifs to build familiarity or momentum, reinforcing themes through repetition, while unity integrates disparate parts into a cohesive whole, lending credibility to the visual claim. ^[12] In practice, the Canadian stop sign exemplifies these: its red octagon (shape and color) against white space (contrast and emphasis) universally enforces compliance via simplicity and immediate recognizability. ^[5] Empirical studies confirm such elemental manipulations affect cognition, with viewers processing high-contrast visuals 20-30% faster for decision-making tasks. ^[14]

Historical Evolution

Ancient and Classical Origins

The origins of visual rhetoric in ancient Greece are rooted in oratorical practices that emphasized vivid mental imagery to enhance persuasion, predating formalized visual aids. Aristotle, in his Rhetoric composed around 350 BCE, stressed the importance of clear and metaphorical language to produce enargeia, or vividness, enabling audiences to "see" arguments as if present, thereby strengthening emotional and logical appeals.^[15] This technique, integral to rhetorical style, laid groundwork for visual persuasion by leveraging the audience's imagination to visualize scenes described in speeches. Ekphrasis, a rhetorical exercise involving detailed verbal depictions of visual subjects like artworks or events, further developed in Greek progymnasmata, training orators to evoke sensory presence for argumentative effect.^[16] In classical Roman rhetoric, these Greek foundations evolved into more explicit integration of visual elements. Cicero (106–43 BCE), in speeches such as the Catilinarian Orations delivered in 63 BCE, incorporated props and symbolic visuals, including statues of gods, to amplify pathos and reinforce moral arguments against adversaries.^[17] Rhetoricians like Quintilian (c. 35–100 CE), in his Institutio Oratoria, explicitly advocated enargeia as a method to "set the images of [events] before the eyes" of listeners, distinguishing it from mere narration to achieve demonstrative force in judicial and deliberative contexts.^[18] Actual visual aids, such as drawings, models, or physical evidence like weapons in trials, were employed sparingly but effectively, as noted in literary sources tracing their use from the 5th century BCE onward. Roman architectural and monumental works also embodied visual rhetoric, functioning as persuasive narratives of power and virtue. Vitruvius, in De Architectura (c. 30–15 BCE), conceptualized buildings as rhetorical compositions, where form, proportion, and decoration argued for civic ideals and imperial legitimacy, influencing public perception akin to oratory.^[19] These practices underscore early visual rhetoric's reliance on both verbal evocation and tangible visuals to construct arguments, bridging sensory experience with deliberative intent in Greco-Roman culture.^[20]

Renaissance to 19th-Century Developments

The Renaissance marked a pivotal revival of classical rhetorical principles applied to visual forms, with Leon Battista Alberti's De pictura (1435) explicitly framing painting as a rhetorical art akin to oratory, emphasizing its capacity to invent (circumscriptio), arrange (compositio), and receive (receptio) audience responses through emotional persuasion and narrative structure.^[21] Alberti argued that painters, like orators, should aim to move viewers toward virtue by simulating three-dimensional space and human expression, elevating painting from mere craft to a liberal art capable of ethical instruction.^[22] This rhetorical lens influenced subsequent treatises, such as those integrating ut pictura poesis—the notion that painting equals poetry in persuasive power—fostering allegorical compositions in frescoes and panels that conveyed moral and political arguments.^[23] Emblem books emerged as a structured visual-rhetorical genre in the mid-16th century, pioneered by Andrea Alciato's Emblemata (1531), which paired symbolic images with mottos and epigrammatic explanations to encode proverbial wisdom and ethical persuasion, drawing on classical sources like Aesop's fables for didactic impact.^[24] These tripartite designs—image, word, and interpretation—functioned as mnemonic devices in education and courtly discourse, persuading elites through layered symbolism that required interpretive engagement, as seen in widespread adaptations across Europe by authors like Guillaume de La Perrière and Cesare Ripa.^[25] In portraiture, English Renaissance artists employed emblems, gestures, and inscriptions as rhetorical topoi to assert sitters' virtues, status, and lineage, blending visual argument with textual cues to influence viewers' perceptions of power and piety.^[26] The 17th-century Baroque era extended rhetorical dynamism into illusionistic techniques, where perspective and chiaroscuro served as persuasive tools to evoke emotional responses and affirm Counter-Reformation doctrines, as in Bernini's sculptural ensembles that integrated viewer movement into the argumentative flow.^[27] Art theorists like Giovanni Pietro Bellori adapted classical rhetoric to defend historia paintings as narratives that rivaled spoken eloquence in stirring passions, prioritizing compositional unity to guide the eye toward moral climaxes.^[28] This period's visual rhetoric emphasized affetti (affects) to incite action, evident in propagandistic frescoes that visually orchestrated loyalty to absolutist patrons through hyperbolic scale and dramatic lighting.^[29] Enlightenment developments in the 18th century shifted toward satirical and empirical persuasion, with printmakers like William Hogarth using sequential engravings—such as A Rake's Progress (1735)—to construct moral narratives that critiqued vice through exaggerated visual tropes, influencing public opinion on social reform.^[30] Caricatures and broadsheets deployed rhetorical devices like hyperbole and irony to dismantle authority, as in French revolutionary imagery that symbolized liberty via allegorical figures, fostering collective persuasion amid political upheaval.^[31] By the 19th century, industrialization amplified visual rhetoric through mass-produced media, with lithography enabling political cartoons by Honoré Daumier (from 1830s) that lampooned corruption via distorted physiognomy and symbolic juxtaposition, reaching wider audiences than elite paintings.^[32] Utopian architectural renderings, such as those by Étienne-Louis Boullée (circa 1780s, published posthumously), employed perspectival exaggeration to rhetorically envision enlightened ideals, persuading patrons of rational progress.^[33] Institutional contexts, like Boston's Athenaeum (founded 1807), integrated classical rhetoric into fine arts education, training viewers to decode historical paintings as argumentative constructs amid rising nationalism.^[34] The advent of photography in 1839 introduced indexical evidence as a new rhetorical mode, initially used in daguerreotypes to authenticate social critiques, though manipulated compositions soon revealed its persuasive malleability.^[3]

20th-Century Formalization

The formalization of visual rhetoric as a subfield within rhetorical and communication studies accelerated in the latter 20th century, prompted by the recognition that visual symbols warranted systematic rhetorical scrutiny beyond verbal discourse. An early milestone came in 1964 with Roland Barthes' essay "Rhetoric of the Image," which dissected the persuasive structure of advertisements through semiotic lenses, identifying layers of denotation (literal depiction) and connotation (cultural associations) that enable images to argue implicitly.^[35] This work bridged semiotics and rhetoric by demonstrating how visuals encode ideological messages, influencing later scholars to treat images as argumentative artifacts rather than mere illustrations.^[3] Within rhetoric proper, the first explicit call to integrate visual imagery into rhetorical analysis occurred in 1970, marking the onset of dedicated scholarship that viewed visuals as communicative products shaped by human intent.^[4] This impetus grew amid broader cultural shifts toward mass media and advertising, where visuals dominated persuasion. By the 1990s, frameworks emerged to operationalize evaluation; Sonja K. Foss's 1994 schema provided criteria assessing a visual's nature (e.g., form, content, context), function (e.g., awareness, understanding, acceptance it fosters), and evaluation (rhetorical power via transcendence or reform).^[36] Foss emphasized that effective visual rhetoric arises when symbols align creator intent with audience interpretation, prioritizing empirical scrutiny over subjective aesthetics.^[37] Concurrently, W.J.T. Mitchell's 1992 articulation of the "pictorial turn" underscored a disciplinary pivot in the humanities toward interrogating visual dominance, critiquing prior linguistic biases and advocating for images' autonomous rhetorical agency.^[38] These developments coalesced into methodologies distinguishing visual rhetoric from semiotics—focusing on persuasive intent and effect rather than pure signification—while adapting classical canons like invention and arrangement to compositional elements such as framing and juxtaposition.^[3] By century's end, this formalization enabled rigorous deconstruction of visuals in domains like political iconography, yielding tools for assessing efficacy through audience response and cultural resonance, though debates persisted on whether visuals inherently argue or merely evoke.^[4]

Digital and Contemporary Advances Since 2000

The proliferation of Web 2.0 platforms after 2000 enabled participatory visual rhetoric through user-generated content, particularly internet memes, which combine static images with concise text to convey satirical, persuasive, or subversive messages. Emerging from online communities like 4chan in the mid-2000s, memes adapted classical rhetorical strategies such as parody and amplification to digital circulation, allowing rapid dissemination and remixing across social networks.^[39]^[40] By 2010, platforms like Instagram and Tumblr prioritized visual feeds, shifting rhetorical emphasis toward image-text hybrids that exploit visual salience for emotional appeal and argument construction.^[41] Advances in multimodal rhetoric addressed these developments by integrating visual elements with digital interactivity, as seen in hypertext environments and web-based compositions that demand analysis of layered semiotics. Scholarly frameworks post-2000, such as those examining verbo-visual figures in digital ads, highlighted how metaphor and antithesis function across modes to enhance persuasion in online advertising.^[42]^[6] In science communication, short-format videos termed "SciCommercials" emerged around 2019, leveraging visual storytelling to engage audiences with rhetorical appeals to wonder and credibility.^[43] Generative AI and deepfakes introduced profound challenges and opportunities since the 2010s, enabling synthetic visuals that blur lines between authentic and fabricated rhetoric. Tools like DALL-E, released in 2021, democratized image generation from textual prompts, allowing creators to craft persuasive visuals tailored for ideological or commercial ends, though often critiqued for reifying stylistic biases from training data.^[44] Deepfakes, coined in 2017, exploit facial manipulation algorithms to produce convincing false videos, eroding trust in visual arguments and prompting rhetorical analyses of authenticity in legal and political discourse.^[45] These technologies necessitate updated methodologies, favoring non-representational visuals like diagrams to mitigate deception risks while preserving persuasive efficacy.^[46]

Theoretical Foundations

Semiotic and Sign-Based Theories

Semiotic theories in visual rhetoric examine how visual elements function as signs to convey meaning and exert persuasive influence, drawing from the broader field of semiotics, which studies the production and interpretation of signs in communication.^[47] Pioneered by Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between the signifier (the form of the sign) and the signified (its conceptual content), these approaches posit that visual signs are arbitrary and culturally constructed rather than inherently referential, enabling rhetorical manipulation through coded associations.^[6] Roland Barthes, in his 1964 essay "Rhetoric of the Image," applied semiotic principles to advertising photography, arguing that images possess a dual structure of denotation (the literal, uncoded message recognizable through perception) and connotation (secondary, coded layers of cultural ideology).^[48] Analyzing a Panzani advertisement featuring a half-open net bag of groceries, Barthes demonstrated how visual composition evokes connotations of Italian domesticity and freshness, functioning rhetorically to persuade consumers by naturalizing commercial myths as self-evident truths.^[49] This framework reveals visual rhetoric's persuasive power in masking ideological intent behind apparent naturalness, as connotation operates through linguistic and visual codes that require cultural knowledge for decoding.^[50] Charles Sanders Peirce's triadic sign theory further enriches visual rhetorical analysis by classifying signs into icons (based on resemblance to their object, such as a photograph mimicking reality), indices (linked by causal or physical contiguity, like smoke indicating fire), and symbols (arbitrary conventions, akin to words or flags).^[51] In visual contexts, this trichotomy explains persuasive efficacy: iconic images in propaganda foster emotional identification through mimetic similarity, while indexical elements like pointing gestures or shadows establish evidentiary claims, and symbolic visuals rely on learned conventions for ideological reinforcement.^[52] Peirce's emphasis on the interpretant—the effect a sign produces in the mind—highlights the dynamic, context-dependent nature of visual persuasion, where misalignments between intended and received meanings can undermine rhetorical intent.^[53] Building on these foundations, Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's social semiotic approach in Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (1996, revised 2006) treats visuals as a systematic "grammar" analogous to linguistic structures, comprising representational (depicting events and entities), interactive (viewer engagement via gaze and distance), and compositional (layout and salience) metafunctions.^[54] Applied to rhetorical analysis, this framework dissects how visual compositions realize social relations and power dynamics, such as left-right information value in Western layouts symbolizing known-to-new progression, thereby guiding viewer inference and persuasion in media like advertisements or political posters.^[55] Empirical studies validate this by correlating specific visual grammars with audience interpretations, underscoring semiotics' utility in deconstructing how signs construct ideological realities without direct verbal assertion.^[6]

Compositional and Structural Analyses

Compositional analyses in visual rhetoric dissect the deliberate arrangement of elements within an image or visual artifact to uncover persuasive mechanisms, focusing on how spatial organization, color contrasts, and scale direct viewer perception and interpretation.^[56] These analyses emphasize principles such as balance, which distributes visual weight to evoke stability or tension; emphasis, achieved via focal points like brighter hues or larger forms to prioritize rhetorical claims; and rhythm, created through repeating patterns that guide eye movement and reinforce narrative flow.^[57] For example, in persuasive visuals, asymmetrical balance can signal dynamism and urgency, as seen in recruitment posters where off-center figures draw attention to calls to action, thereby amplifying emotional appeals over logical ones.^[58] Structural analyses extend this by evaluating the overarching framework of visual compositions, including hierarchical layouts that imply authority through vertical alignment or modular grids that segment information for sequential processing.^[59] In visual rhetoric, structures often mirror verbal argumentation, with foreground-background relations establishing cause-effect dynamics or top-bottom placements conveying ideal-real distinctions, where upper elements represent aspirational ideals and lower ones grounded realities.^[60] This approach reveals how structural choices encode ideological positions; for instance, centered compositions in political imagery assert centrality and dominance, subordinating peripheral elements to the main subject's ethos.^[61] A systematic framework for these analyses emerges from Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's grammar of visual design, which posits a compositional metafunction governing how elements cohere into meaningful wholes through information value, salience, and framing.^[62] Information value assigns rhetorical roles based on placement—left-to-right as given-to-new in Western visuals, fostering a progression from familiar to novel arguments—while salience prioritizes elements via foregrounding or contrast to heighten persuasive impact.^[63] Framing, through vectors or disconnections, signals affiliation or separation, as connected elements imply unity in shared ideology, whereas gaps enforce rhetorical oppositions. This model, grounded in social semiotics, treats visuals as structured discourses rather than mere aesthetics, enabling replicable breakdowns that link form to communicative intent without assuming universal viewer responses.^[54] Empirical applications, such as in advertising studies, confirm that deviations from these norms—e.g., inverted hierarchies—can disrupt expectations and provoke critique, underscoring the causal role of structure in rhetorical efficacy.^[64]

Rhetorical Integration and Adaptation from Discourse

Visual rhetoric draws upon rhetorical theories developed for verbal discourse, adapting them to analyze how images function as persuasive symbols. Sonja Foss defines visual rhetoric as the study of visual images from a rhetorical perspective, where visuals serve as communicative artifacts that create meanings influencing audience perceptions and behaviors, extending methods traditionally reserved for speech and text.^[4] This integration counters earlier dismissals of imagery as inferior to discourse, positioning visuals as equally capable of rhetorical action through symbolic processes.^[4] Aristotle's persuasive appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—are adapted to visual forms by reinterpreting them through elements like composition, color, and spatial arrangement. Ethos emerges from an image's implied credibility, such as authoritative depictions; pathos from emotionally charged visuals evoking sympathy or fear; and logos from structural representations implying causal or logical connections, like infographics depicting data trends.^[65] These adaptations account for visuals' perceptual immediacy, which bypasses verbal syntax to directly engage cognition, differing from the sequential logic of discourse.^[65] The five canons of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery—undergo parallel modifications for visual analysis. Invention involves identifying visual topoi or motifs for argumentation; arrangement equates to compositional layout guiding viewer attention; style encompasses aesthetic choices enhancing persuasive impact; memory focuses on mnemonic imagery design; and delivery adapts to media channels affecting reception.^[66] Foss's schema for evaluating visual imagery integrates these by assessing symbolic nature, audience functions, and critical implications, emphasizing rhetorical responses over purely aesthetic ones while noting visuals' ambiguity and invitational qualities absent in linear verbal rhetoric.^[36]^[65]

Analytical Methodologies

Key Terminology and Concepts

Visual rhetoric in analytical contexts focuses on the persuasive and communicative functions of images, treating them as artifacts that encode arguments through symbolic and structural means. A core concept is the visual argument, wherein images assert claims, provide evidence, and invite interpretation without relying on verbal explication, as seen in political cartoons or advertisements where composition implies causality or value judgments.^[1] Arrangement, or the deliberate placement and hierarchy of visual elements, guides viewer perception and amplifies rhetorical effect by controlling focal points and narrative flow, such as centering a figure to evoke authority.^[1] Typography extends this by leveraging font choices, size, and spacing to signal tone, credibility, or urgency, functioning as a visual analogue to vocal inflection in oral rhetoric.^[1] Symbolic processes underpin much of visual rhetoric's meaning-making, where artifacts draw on cultural conventions to evoke associations, distinguishing between denotative (literal) and connotative (implied) layers of interpretation. Visual persuasion adapts classical appeals—ethos through authoritative imagery, pathos via emotive colors or gestures, and logos through diagrammatic representations—to influence cognition and behavior, often more subtly than text due to the immediacy of visual processing.^[2] Visual literacy denotes the critical skill of decoding these elements, enabling analysts to unpack how visuals construct reality or manipulate attention amid tensions between image immediacy and verbal precision.^[1] In practice, these terms facilitate deconstruction of artifacts like murals (two-dimensional rhetoric) or installations (three-dimensional), emphasizing context-dependent efficacy over universal decoding.

Frameworks for Deconstructing Visual Arguments

Sonja Foss developed a foundational framework for analyzing visual rhetoric by focusing on three interrelated dimensions: the nature of the visual imagery, its rhetorical function, and criteria for evaluation. The nature dimension dissects the image's formal elements (e.g., composition, color, texture) and substantive content (e.g., objects, actions depicted), revealing how these construct meaning independent of viewer interpretation.^[4] The function dimension assesses how the image influences audiences, such as by fostering identification with depicted values, clarifying abstract concepts through concrete representation, or refuting opposing views via symbolic contrast.^[4] Evaluation then applies rhetorical standards like appropriateness (alignment with cultural norms), transcendence (evoking higher ideals), and effectiveness (achieving persuasive impact without distortion), enabling critics to judge argumentative strength empirically by testing audience responses in controlled studies.^[4] This schema, outlined in Foss's 2005 work, emphasizes causal links between visual elements and persuasive outcomes, prioritizing observable effects over subjective intent.^[67] Complementing Foss's approach, Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's grammar of visual design provides a structural framework modeled on linguistic semiotics, decomposing images into three metafunctions to unpack argumentative logic. The representational metafunction deconstructs narrative or conceptual processes (e.g., vectors of action in a political cartoon implying causality between events), exposing how visuals encode claims akin to propositional statements.^[55] The interactive metafunction analyzes gaze, distance, and angle to reveal power dynamics and viewer engagement, such as a frontal gaze demanding ideological alignment in propaganda imagery.^[68] The compositional metafunction examines salience, framing, and information value (e.g., left-right placement signaling given-new knowledge), which organizes visual evidence to warrant conclusions.^[55] Applied in empirical analyses since the 1996 edition of their work (revised 2006), this framework facilitates verifiable dissection by mapping visual syntax to argumentative warrants, as demonstrated in studies of advertisements where compositional shifts alter perceived causality by up to 40% in viewer surveys.^[69] Visual arguments can also be deconstructed using adaptations of classical rhetorical appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos—extended to non-verbal forms. Ethos emerges from visual cues signaling credibility, such as authoritative symbols or realistic rendering that imply trustworthiness, as in corporate logos evoking institutional stability.^[67] Pathos leverages emotional triggers like color contrasts or facial expressions to evoke affective responses, with research showing red hues increasing urgency perceptions by 20-30% in warning signs.^[70] Logos operates through implied logical structures, such as sequential imagery diagramming cause-effect (e.g., before-after pollution photos arguing environmental policy needs), testable via audience reconstruction tasks where 70-85% accuracy indicates robust visual reasoning.^[71] These appeals integrate with perceptual principles like gestalt grouping, where proximity and similarity cluster elements into argumentative units, enhancing deconstruction by linking cognitive processing to persuasive validity.^[71] For complex visuals combining text and image, hybrid frameworks like extended Toulmin models map claims (visual assertions), data (depicted evidence), warrants (inferential bridges via conventions), and qualifiers/rebuttals (contextual hedges), applied in legal and advertising critiques to quantify argumentative gaps.^[72] Empirical validation involves pre/post-exposure tests, revealing how unbacked visual warrants fail to persuade 60% of skeptical audiences in randomized trials.^[72] These tools collectively enable rigorous, falsifiable analysis, countering biases in interpretive scholarship by grounding claims in replicable perceptual and rhetorical effects.

Empirical Methods for Evaluating Effectiveness

Empirical evaluation of visual rhetoric's effectiveness typically employs controlled experiments to assess persuasion outcomes, such as changes in attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors following exposure to visual stimuli. Researchers often use pre- and post-exposure surveys to quantify shifts in participant responses, comparing conditions with visual arguments against textual or control baselines; for instance, studies on advertisements measure recall accuracy and purchase intent after viewing rhetorical figures like metaphors or juxtapositions.^[73] These designs control for variables like viewer demographics and prior knowledge to isolate causal effects, drawing on randomized assignment to ensure internal validity.^[74] Psychophysiological methods provide objective data on subconscious processing, with eye-tracking being prominent for mapping visual attention and cognitive engagement. In print advertisement studies, eye-tracking reveals how rhetorical elements—such as visual metaphors—prolong fixation durations and increase saccade patterns toward persuasive features, correlating with higher reported elaboration and favorable attitudes; one experiment found rhetorical figures extended dwell time by up to 20% compared to literal visuals.^[75] Similarly, verbal anchoring interacts with visual structure (e.g., juxtaposition vs. fusion) to influence interpretation, as tracked by gaze paths showing distinct processing routes for ambiguous ads.^[76] These metrics link attention allocation to rhetorical potency, though they require integration with self-reports to infer persuasive intent. Neuroimaging techniques, including functional MRI (fMRI), examine neural correlates of visual persuasion by activating regions tied to emotion and decision-making. Exposure to persuasive visuals elicits differential responses in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex, with meta-analyses indicating that emotionally charged images enhance memory consolidation and attitude persistence more than text alone, as evidenced by heightened BOLD signals in reward pathways.^[77] A 2024 study on naturalistic visual messages demonstrated sustained persuasion via ventral striatum activation, predicting long-term behavioral compliance with 65-70% accuracy across participants.^[78] Such methods reveal causal mechanisms but face challenges in ecological validity due to lab constraints and individual variability in neural responses. Hybrid approaches combining these with behavioral metrics, like A/B testing in digital contexts, offer robust triangulation for claims of effectiveness.^[79]

Applications in Persuasion

Advertising and Commercial Contexts

Visual rhetoric in advertising leverages compositional elements, such as color, framing, and symbolic imagery, to construct implicit arguments that persuade consumers toward product preference or purchase intent. These visuals often operate through semiotic mechanisms, where images evoke associations beyond literal depiction, fostering emotional or cognitive responses that textual claims alone may not achieve. For instance, advertisers employ visual metaphors—juxtaposing unrelated elements to imply product benefits—to enhance memorability and attitude formation, as evidenced in analyses of print campaigns where such devices correlate with higher consumer engagement.^[80] Empirical studies confirm that stylistic properties in ad visuals, like contrast and harmony, systematically influence viewer interpretations and persuasion outcomes, with experiments showing preferences for harmonious compositions leading to more favorable brand evaluations.^[81] In commercial contexts, visual rhetoric's efficacy stems from its ability to bypass verbal skepticism, directly imprinting associations via perceptual processing. A meta-analysis of persuasion experiments indicates that integrating images with textual arguments amplifies overall persuasive impact, with effect sizes averaging moderate gains in attitude change and behavioral intent across diverse ad formats.^[77] Motion depictions, whether in static images suggesting dynamism or video commercials, further boost persuasiveness by activating viewer inferences of vitality and efficacy; a 2024 study across 12 experiments found that animate-motion visuals increased ad effectiveness by 15-20% compared to static counterparts, attributing this to heightened arousal and relevance perception.^[82] Product salience—achieved through focal lighting or centrality—mitigates reactance to overt advertising cues, preserving positive evaluations in influencer-endorsed content.^[83] Notable campaigns illustrate these principles: the 1959 Volkswagen "Think Small" print series utilized sparse white space, diminutive car imagery against vast backgrounds, and ironic typography to argue counter-culturally against ostentatious American autos, achieving a 23% U.S. market share rise for VW by 1960 through rational appeal amid post-war minimalism. Similarly, Apple's "1984" Super Bowl commercial drew on dystopian visuals inspired by Orwell to position the Macintosh as a liberating force, generating $3.5 million in immediate sales from a $900,000 investment via archetypal rebellion rhetoric. Such applications underscore visual rhetoric's commercial potency, though outcomes depend on cultural resonance and execution precision, with failures often traced to mismatched symbolic cues.^[84]

Political Propaganda and Campaign Imagery

Visual rhetoric in political propaganda and campaign imagery leverages symbolic, compositional, and emotive elements to shape perceptions of leaders, policies, and threats, often simplifying complex ideologies into immediate, visceral appeals. Posters, banners, and digital graphics employ techniques such as stark contrasts, archetypal figures, and directional lines to direct viewer attention and imply causality between visual cues and desired actions, like enlistment or voting. For example, color choices—red for urgency and aggression, blue for stability—reinforce partisan identities, while focal points on authoritative poses establish ethos without verbal elaboration.^[85]^[86]^[87] Historical instances demonstrate these methods' deployment for mass mobilization. In World War I, British and American posters, such as those by the U.S. Committee on Public Information, used anthropomorphic symbols like Uncle Sam in James Montgomery Flagg's 1917 "I Want You" design—depicting a stern figure pointing directly at the viewer—to personalize duty and boost recruitment, with over 4 million posters distributed by 1918.^[88] Similarly, Nazi propaganda from 1933 onward, including posters by artists like Hans Schweitzer, portrayed Adolf Hitler as a messianic leader amid heroic masses, employing upward angles and radiant lighting to evoke infallibility and unity, which correlated with rising party support from 2.6% in 1928 to 37.3% in 1932 elections.^[89] These visuals reduced multifaceted geopolitical tensions to binary us-versus-them narratives, prioritizing emotional resonance over factual nuance.^[90] In election campaigns, visual rhetoric extends to candidate imagery and attack ads, where facial traits signal inferred traits like competence. A 2008 neuroimaging study of U.S. congressional races from 2000–2006 found that voters' rapid judgments of candidates' faces from photos predicted 71.6% of winners, linked to amygdala activation for trustworthiness assessments, independent of policy details.^[91] Experimental analyses of 2019 European Parliament posters revealed multimodal strategies, such as foregrounding leaders with national symbols (e.g., flags or landmarks), to catalyze ideological alignment and turnout, with semiotic choices like eye contact enhancing perceived relatability.^[92] However, effectiveness varies; while WWII-era U.S. posters increased war bond sales by 85% in targeted drives, modern digital campaigns show weaker causal links due to audience fragmentation, though visuals still amplify priming effects in low-information voters.^[93]^[94]^[95] Critiques highlight manipulative potential, as visuals bypass rational scrutiny; propaganda posters often distort scale (e.g., exaggerating enemy threats) to induce fear, with empirical tests confirming heightened emotional responses over cognitive processing.^[96] In contemporary contexts, social media iterations, like 2020 U.S. election memes, replicate these tactics but face counter-rhetoric, underscoring that while visuals excel at agenda-setting, their persuasive impact hinges on cultural resonance rather than inherent truth value.^[97]

Artistic and Cultural Expressions

Artistic expressions utilize visual rhetoric to transcend mere aesthetics, employing images as communicative artifacts that persuade viewers toward specific emotional, philosophical, or cultural interpretations. In fine arts, painters and sculptors leverage elements like composition, color, and symbolism to direct attention and evoke responses, akin to rhetorical strategies in discourse. For example, the strategic arrangement of forms in a canvas can guide the eye's path, persuading the audience to prioritize certain narratives or emotional tones over others.^[98] This persuasive function is evident in how visual metaphors and allegories, common in visual arts, encode layered meanings that influence cultural understandings of reality.^[99] In cultural contexts, visual rhetoric manifests through artifacts that symbolize collective identities and values, fostering shared beliefs via symbolic imagery. Sonja Foss defines such rhetoric as the images generated by creators using visual symbols to communicate intent, often shaping societal norms or historical recollections.^[4] Indigenous art traditions, for instance, frequently incorporate recurring visual motifs like quaternity patterns to persuade through metaphorical representations rooted in oral cultural logics, reinforcing cosmological views.^[100] Street art, as a modern cultural expression, employs bold icons and spatial interventions to challenge or affirm urban narratives, with graffiti symbols persuading passersby of subversive or communal messages embedded in public spaces.^[101] Sculptural works further exemplify this by using three-dimensional form to assert persuasive claims about power or memory, such as monumental figures that visually argue for heroic legacies through exaggerated scale and posture. Empirical analyses of such artifacts reveal how formal elements disclose creators' intents, enabling rhetoric that generates cultural belief systems beyond surface appeal.^[102] These expressions, while artistically driven, demonstrate visual rhetoric's capacity to embed persuasive arguments within cultural fabrics, influencing interpretation without explicit verbalization. Digital memes exemplify visual rhetoric by combining evocative images with overlaid text to distill complex arguments into succinct, shareable forms that persuade through humor, exaggeration, or juxtaposition. These artifacts often employ irony or satire to critique social, political, or cultural phenomena, subverting mainstream narratives to foster alternative interpretations among audiences.^[103] Unlike traditional visual arguments, memes' rhetorical force derives from their multimodal nature, where visual cues amplify textual claims, enabling rapid ideological conveyance in digital spaces.^[40] Propagation on social media occurs via viral mechanisms, modeled empirically as diffusion processes influenced by network topology, user engagement, and platform algorithms that prioritize emotionally resonant content. Studies demonstrate that memes spread person-to-person akin to cultural replicators, with adoption patterns shaped by factors like timeliness to current events and structural variations in online communities.^[104] ^[105] For instance, competing memes co-diffuse across platforms, where initial momentum from high-engagement seeds accelerates reach, though saturation leads to decline, as quantified in agent-based simulations of Twitter-like networks.^[106] In persuasive applications, memes function rhetorically by presenting visual "evidence" of perceived injustices or hypocrisies, as observed in analyses of extremist groups' content from 2015–2018, where image-text pairings aimed to legitimize narratives through apparent factual juxtaposition.^[107] Empirical assessments reveal mixed effects on attitudes, with viewers perceiving political memes as humorous yet potentially shifting opinions via affective responses, though causal impacts remain context-dependent and require further longitudinal data.^[108] Cross-cultural diffusion studies, using regression on Instagram data, identify intrinsic visual attributes—like color vibrancy and symbolic clarity—as predictors of sustained propagation beyond origin communities.^[109] Frameworks for meme analysis emphasize circulation modes, adapting classical rhetorical modes to digital flows, where remixing and recirculation enhance argumentative adaptability.^[40] This propagation dynamic underscores memes' role in grassroots persuasion, enabling decentralized rhetorical campaigns that evade institutional gatekeeping, though their brevity limits depth, often prioritizing emotional appeal over substantive reasoning.^[110]

Ethical Dimensions and Criticisms

Visual Literacy as a Skill and Its Limitations

Visual literacy constitutes a cluster of competencies enabling individuals to interpret, evaluate, and produce visual communications, including the discernment of persuasive intent in images and graphics.^[111] Core skills encompass decoding symbolic elements, assessing contextual influences on meaning, and identifying manipulative techniques such as selective framing or color manipulation in visual arguments.^[112] These abilities are cultivated through educational frameworks, such as the Association of College and Research Libraries' standards, which emphasize critical analysis to mitigate uncritical acceptance of visual media in academic and professional settings.^[111] Proponents argue that proficiency in visual literacy enhances overall media discernment, particularly in environments saturated with imagery from advertising and social platforms.^[113] Training programs aimed at developing visual literacy have demonstrated variable efficacy in empirical evaluations. For instance, interventions incorporating visual analysis exercises have improved reading comprehension and critical thinking in specific domains, such as interpreting connotative images in educational texts.^[114] Similarly, visual-based health literacy programs, often using videos, have boosted comprehension of complex information among diverse populations.^[115] However, these gains are context-dependent, with studies indicating stronger outcomes in structured academic settings than in informal or high-speed digital consumption scenarios.^[116] Educational initiatives, including those for future teachers, show that targeted workshops can elevate self-reported competencies, yet transfer to real-world application remains inconsistent due to participants' varying prior exposure.^[117] Despite its conceptual appeal, visual literacy faces inherent limitations rooted in definitional ambiguity and empirical shortcomings. Scholarly critiques highlight the absence of a universally accepted definition, which hampers standardized measurement and research comparability, rendering the field prone to fragmented implementations.^[118] ^[119] Empirical studies reveal gaps in skill acquisition, as learners often encounter visually dense materials without sufficient prior training, leading to persistent misinterpretations influenced by cognitive biases or emotional priming.^[120] Furthermore, visuals' capacity for rapid, subconscious persuasion can overwhelm deliberate analytical skills, particularly under time constraints or in culturally divergent contexts where symbolic meanings differ, underscoring that literacy alone does not guarantee immunity to deception.^[121] These constraints suggest visual literacy functions as a probabilistic tool rather than a panacea, with effectiveness moderated by individual cognitive factors and environmental demands.^[122]

Ethical Issues in Visual Manipulation

Visual manipulation in rhetorical contexts, such as selective cropping, digital alterations, or synthetic generation, poses ethical challenges by potentially deceiving audiences and undermining the authenticity of persuasive messages. Ethical standards emphasize preserving visual integrity to avoid distorting reality or promoting false impressions, as manipulated visuals can exploit the human tendency to trust images as objective evidence, bypassing rational scrutiny.^[123]^[124] In photojournalism, organizations like the National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) mandate that editing maintain the integrity of images' content and context, prohibiting alterations beyond basic technical adjustments like exposure correction, as such changes risk misleading the public about events or subjects.^[125] Violations, such as adding or removing elements, have led to professional repercussions, including image retractions in scientific publications where manipulated visuals fabricated data, delaying research progress and eroding institutional trust.^[126] In advertising and commercial rhetoric, ethical issues arise when manipulations create unrealistic expectations, such as body alterations in product imagery that mislead consumers about outcomes. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) enforces truth-in-advertising laws requiring claims to be non-deceptive and substantiated, viewing material image alterations as unfair if they imply benefits not achievable in reality; for instance, digitally slimming models in apparel ads has prompted calls for disclosure to prevent consumer harm like distorted self-perception.^[127]^[128] Ethical photo editing limits enhancements to lighting or color balance while rejecting substantive changes that alter narrative intent, as unchecked practices contribute to broader societal pressures without advancing truthful persuasion.^[129] Advanced techniques like deepfakes amplify these concerns in visual persuasion, enabling hyper-realistic fabrications that violate consent, privacy, and epistemic trust by superimposing individuals' likenesses into false scenarios for political or personal gain. Ethical analyses highlight deepfakes' potential to sow uncertainty rather than direct deception, reducing faith in authentic media and complicating democratic discourse, as evidenced by experiments showing diminished trust in real videos after exposure to manipulated counterparts.^[130] Guidelines advocate mandatory labeling of synthetic content and legal prohibitions on non-consensual uses, such as in defamation or election interference, to mitigate harms like reputational damage or policy misrepresentation without stifling legitimate applications.^[131]^[132] Overall, these issues underscore the need for transparency and accountability in visual rhetoric to balance persuasive efficacy with moral responsibility.

Theoretical Criticisms and Empirical Challenges

Theoretical criticisms of visual rhetoric often center on its extension of traditional rhetorical frameworks, which were predominantly developed for verbal discourse, to nondiscursive visual forms. Critics contend that visuals lack the explicit syntactic and semantic structures of language, rendering them ill-suited for rigorous argumentative analysis akin to Aristotelian logos. For instance, rhetorical scholars have argued that applying verbal rhetorical criteria to images imposes artificial constraints, as visuals operate more through connotation and viewer inference than denotative precision, potentially conflating persuasion with mere aesthetic appeal.^[4] This approach risks overlooking the inherent ambiguity of visual symbols, where meaning emerges from cultural and contextual contingencies rather than inherent logical form.^[133] Further scrutiny highlights the limitations of prominent schemas, such as Sonja Foss's model, which emphasizes functions like awareness and clarity but has been challenged for underemphasizing the artifactual and material dimensions of visuals. Alternative frameworks propose integrating semiotic and structural analyses to address these gaps, arguing that Foss's method prioritizes interpretive subjectivity over systematic evaluation of visual elements' formal properties.^[134] Additionally, some theorists view visual rhetoric as "tainted" relative to discourse, positing that images exert disproportionate emotional influence on public communication without the deliberative checks of verbal argumentation, potentially undermining rational discourse.^[4] These critiques underscore a broader concern: rhetorical theory's discourse-centric origins leave it underequipped for visual symbolism, fostering analyses that privilege critic assumptions over image-inherent properties.^[135] Empirical challenges in visual rhetoric research stem primarily from the difficulty in isolating causal effects of visuals amid confounding variables like verbal anchors and viewer predispositions. Quantitative content analyses of visual rhetoric risk "empirical shorthands" that oversimplify complex multimodal interactions, as seen in comparisons between verbal and visual modes where standardized coding fails to capture interpretive variability.^[136] Experimental studies, such as those testing visual figures in advertising, reveal inconsistencies in predicting audience responses due to the absence of shared decoding mechanisms; unlike verbal rhetoric, visual metaphors often elicit divergent thoughts rather than convergent meanings.^[137]^[138] Methodological hurdles include barriers to replicating visuals in scholarly publications and the challenge of controlling for cultural contexts, which inflate subjectivity in effectiveness metrics. Peer-reviewed assessments indicate that while text-interpretive approaches yield hypotheses, empirical validation frequently falters on measurement reliability, as visual persuasion defies precise quantification without reducing it to proxy indicators like recall or attitude shifts.^[139] These issues are compounded by limitations in meaning comprehension, where decoding errors arise from unstandardized visual grammars, hindering causal attribution in real-world applications.^[140] Overall, the field's empirical base remains underdeveloped, with studies often confined to controlled settings that poorly generalize to dynamic rhetorical environments.

Controversies and Debates

Disputes Over Persuasive Efficacy

Scholars debate the extent to which visual rhetoric reliably persuades audiences beyond verbal arguments alone, with proponents emphasizing its emotional immediacy and memorability while skeptics highlight empirical inconsistencies.^[141] A 2020 meta-analysis of 20 studies found that adding images to textual messages yielded no significant overall persuasive advantage (r = 0.055, p = 0.161), suggesting visuals do not universally enhance attitude change or behavioral intent compared to text-only formats.^[77] However, subgroup analyses revealed conditional efficacy: photographs outperformed illustrations, positive images surpassed negative ones, and health-related visuals proved more persuasive, indicating context-specific mechanisms like concreteness and emotional resonance may drive limited gains.^[142] Critics of broad claims for visual superiority argue that apparent effects often stem from confounding factors such as verbal anchoring rather than imagery itself; for instance, a 2022 experiment showed that complete verbal explanations paired with complex visuals increased persuasion via perceived cognitive efficiency, but unanchored or moderately anchored images reduced it due to interpretive ambiguity.^[143] Conversely, a meta-analysis on vividness—encompassing visual elements like imagery—reported small-to-medium effects on attitudes (d = 0.31) and intentions (d = 0.39), supporting arguments that dynamic visuals can amplify elaboration when aligned with message goals.^[144] These findings underscore causal contingencies: visuals may facilitate emotional processing but falter without supportive verbal cues or in low-involvement scenarios, challenging assumptions of inherent rhetorical potency.^[145] Empirical disputes also arise over measurement and generalizability, as many studies focus on short-term attitude shifts rather than durable behavior, with visuals excelling in memory recall (e.g., aiding retention in presentations by 43% per one analysis) but rarely demonstrating causal dominance in real-world persuasion like policy adoption or consumer choice.^[146] Proponents, drawing from rhetorical theory, posit visuals' "stand-alone" capacity for complex persuasion, yet fewer than half of visual analyses target explicitly persuasive designs, limiting evidence for systematic efficacy over verbal modes.^[133] This tension reflects broader methodological challenges, including small sample sizes in early research and under-examination of visual-verbal synergies, urging caution against overattributing persuasive power to images absent rigorous, context-bound testing.^[147]

Ideological Bias and Manipulative Potential

Visual rhetoric enables the subtle infusion of ideological biases via symbolic choices and framing that align with partisan agendas, often evading explicit scrutiny. In news coverage, outlets across the ideological spectrum curate images to reinforce audience predispositions; for instance, Republican-leaning visuals in articles on policy issues like police funding elicit more conservative responses, with experimental participants favoring an additional $4.5 billion in budgets when exposed to such imagery versus Democrat-aligned alternatives.^[148] This occurs amid broader patterns where liberal sources emphasize diversity-oriented motifs and conservative ones highlight traditional authority figures, amplifying polarization as viewers react more extremely to confirmatory visuals.^[148] Such practices exploit perceptual shortcuts, fostering echo chambers without altering textual content.^[148] The manipulative potential of visual rhetoric derives from its primacy in human cognition, prioritizing emotional arousal over deliberative reasoning and facilitating deception through selective representation. Political election posters exemplify this, employing techniques like demand gazes, saturated colors, and national symbols to construct candidate credibility (ethos) and evoke loyalty (pathos); in the 2021 Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary elections, close-up portraits with crossed arms or flag backdrops projected optimism and authority, legitimizing ideologies by associating leaders with cultural pride.^[149] These elements manipulate perceptions subtly, as viewers process visuals intuitively, often accepting them as unmediated reality—a phenomenon linked to naïve realism bias, where images appear objectively true despite curation.^[8]^[149] Empirical scrutiny reveals that while visual persuasion enhances engagement, its ideological distortions can mislead, particularly in partisan media where image selection favors allies—contrary to narratives of uniform liberal dominance, as visual portrayals have historically advantaged conservative figures in U.S. presidential coverage.^[150] Techniques like cropping or contextual pairing further enable misrepresentation, as in quantified graphics during the 2016 U.S. elections, where design choices implied false narratives without overt falsification.^[151] This underscores the ethical peril of unexamined visuals, which prioritize affective impact over factual fidelity, potentially eroding public discourse.^[133]

Cross-Cultural Applicability Versus Relativism

Visual rhetoric exhibits both cross-cultural applicability and elements of relativism, with empirical studies indicating that while certain perceptual and emotional responses to visuals possess a biological foundation applicable across societies, interpretive meanings and persuasive efficacy often hinge on cultural contexts. Basic visual principles, such as Gestalt laws of proximity and similarity, facilitate pattern recognition universally, enabling persuasive compositions like symmetry to evoke balance and trustworthiness regardless of origin, as supported by cross-cultural perceptual research showing consistent cognitive processing of spatial arrangements.^[152] Similarly, adding congruent images to persuasive texts enhances attitude change in meta-analyses spanning diverse samples, suggesting a broad human susceptibility to visual augmentation of arguments.^[77] However, these universals are modulated by socialization, where emotional priming via visuals influences decision-making comparably across groups only when culturally neutral.^[153] Cultural relativism manifests prominently in symbolic interpretations, where visuals' rhetorical force derives from shared cultural knowledge rather than innate properties. For instance, color symbolism varies significantly: red evokes danger and excitement biologically but signifies good fortune in China while denoting mourning in South Africa, altering its persuasive role in rhetoric from warning to celebration or sorrow.^[154] ^[155] Hand gestures and icons, intended as universal in global design, provoke divergent reactions—thumbs-up conveys approval in Western contexts but offense in parts of the Middle East—undermining cross-border rhetorical intent without adaptation.^[156] Studies on national imagery reveal rhetorical differences in visual form and symbolism between China and the U.S., where compositional elements like perspective and color palettes encode culturally specific ideologies, reducing efficacy when transposed.^[157] The tension between applicability and relativism informs practical rhetoric, particularly in digital and global arenas, where unadapted visuals risk mispersuasion due to overlooked expectations. Online visual rhetoric demands cultural sensitivity, as audiences from high-context cultures (e.g., Japan) infer meaning from implicit symbols, contrasting low-context (e.g., U.S.) preferences for explicit cues, per comparative analyses. Empirical cross-cultural symbol perception tests, such as those comparing Hong Kong and U.S. students, demonstrate partial universality in simple icons (e.g., higher comprehension of basic safety symbols) but highlight relativism in complex or abstract ones, advocating hybrid approaches blending core universals with localized adaptations for maximal persuasiveness.^[158] This balance underscores that while visual rhetoric's foundational mechanisms transcend cultures, its relativistic layers necessitate context-aware deployment to avoid unintended rhetorical failures.

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Aug 17, 2006 · Visual Rhetoric and Global Advertising Imagery. Sandy ... Consumer Myths: Frye's Taxonomy and the Structural Analysis of Consumption Text.
[65]
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### Summary of "Framing the Study of Visual Rhetoric" by Sonja K. Foss
[66]
2.3: Five Canons of Rhetoric - Social Sci LibreTexts
Aug 12, 2025 · The five canons of rhetoric are: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, and Delivery.
[67]
(PDF) Theory of visual rhetoric - ResearchGate
Foss (2005) postulated that visuals should be analyzed based on nature, function, and evaluation. The visual's nature incorporates its literal elements, ...
[68]
Kress and van Leeuwen in Discourse Analysis [Interactive Article]
Aug 16, 2024 · Kress and van Leeuwen developed the concept of visual grammar, a framework for analyzing how images and other visual elements create meaning.Key Concepts Introduced by... · Visual Grammar · Reading Images: The...
[69]
[PDF] BOOK REVIEW Reading images: The grammar of visual design
Dec 28, 2023 · Tools for visual analysis that help us decode and interpret or “read” the meanings of images may greatly contribute to develop this ability.
[70]
Common Rhetorical Strategies & Frameworks Used in Visual ...
The document outlines common rhetorical strategies and frameworks that can be used to analyze visual arguments. It lists appeals to ethos, pathos and logos ...
[71]
Visual Rhetoric: An Introduction for Students of Visual Communication
Jan 9, 2013 · This article explores the rhetorical use of visuals, visual arguments, and tools for visual analysis such as gestalt principles and visual cognates.
[72]
[PDF] A Moderate Defense for Visual Arguments: Dy - Informal Logic
To systematically and clearly examine the core controversies surrounding the legitimacy of visual arguments, this paper introduces a novel analytical framework ...<|separator|>
[73]
[PDF] Persuasion Strategies in Advertisements - AAAI Publications
Through this, they presented an initial work for the task of understanding visual rhetoric in ads. ... In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods ...
[74]
[PDF] Modeling Visual Rhetorics for Persuasive Media through Self ...
Jun 28, 2023 · Keywords: Visual Rhetoric, Persuasion Mode, Persuasive Atypicality, Symbolism, Per- ... In Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods ...
[75]
An Eye Tracking Study of Attention to Print Advertisements - MDPI
The use of rhetorical figures has become a widely–accepted method for capturing attention and positively increasing cognitive effort in print advertisements ...Theoretical Background · Attention And Information... · Discussion
[76]
Processing visual rhetoric in advertisements: Interpretations ...
This research investigated meaning operation in relation to verbal anchoring and visual structure of visual rhetoric in advertisements.
[77]
[PDF] Meta-Analysis on Visual Persuasion– Does Adding Images to Texts ...
Research utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging. (fMRI) found that emotion-arousing visual images activate neural responses in different brain regions ...Missing: neuroimaging | Show results with:neuroimaging
[78]
Deciphering the neural responses to a naturalistic persuasive ...
Oct 16, 2024 · Here, we employed functional MRI (fMRI) to delve deeper into the mechanisms that give rise to persuasion by a naturalistic persuasive message.
[79]
[PDF] Interpreting the Rhetoric of Visual Advertisements
understand visual rhetoric. While we have made impressive progress on ... Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), 2017. [19] J. Joo ...
[80]
Full article: Aspects of visual metaphor: an operational typology of ...
Metaphor is routinely expressed through pictures in contemporary advertising. Earlier work on visual rhetoric in advertising sought direct analogues for the ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[81]
Visual Rhetoric in Advertising: Text-Interpretive, Experimental, and ...
Abstract. Text Interpretations, two experiments, and a set of reader-response interviews examine the impact of stylistic elements in advertising that form.
[82]
Full article: Depicting Humans, Animals, and Objects in Motion
Sep 17, 2024 · We provide robust evidence that images depicting animate and inanimate motion increase the persuasiveness of an advertisement and that this effect occurs ...
[83]
Show me that you are advertising: Visual salience of products ...
Visual salience of products mitigates the negative effects of users' ad recognition on influencer and endorsement evaluations.
[84]
Images in Advertising: The Need for a Theory of Visual Rhetoric
A new theoretical framework for the study of images is advanced in which advertising images are a sophisticated form of visual rhetoric.
[85]
https://oxfordre.com/communication/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-1384
[86]
Visual Rhetoric in Election Posters: A Multimodal Critical Discourse ...
Nov 30, 2023 · It is principally couched in the theoretical frameworks of visual rhetoric and multimodal critical discourse analysis. ... political posters ...
[87]
Research on the Visual Imagery of Posters Based on the Culture ...
Jun 8, 2022 · The main purpose of political posters is to spread political ideology. ... On Image: “Image” in meaning and visual rhetoric analysis. J ...
[88]
History of American Propaganda Posters - Norwich University - Online
Propaganda became a common term around America during World War I when posters and films were leveraged against enemies to rally troop enlistment and garner ...
[89]
The Impact of Nazi Propaganda: Visual Essay - Facing History
Feb 5, 2024 · This visual essay includes a selection of Nazi propaganda images, both “positive” and “negative.” It focuses on posters that Germans would have seen in ...
[90]
Evoking Emotion :The Visual Rhetoric of World War II Propaganda
Visual rhetoric, the use of images to influence or persuade an audience, is used countless times each day but goes unnoticed by most people. One of the most ...
[91]
A neural basis for the effect of candidate appearance on election ...
Oct 28, 2008 · Election outcomes correlate with judgments based on a candidate's visual appearance, suggesting that the attributions viewers make based on ...
[92]
Visual Rhetoric in Election Posters: A Multimodal Critical Discourse ...
Nov 30, 2023 · This study upholds that the visual semiotic choices in election posters are bound to catalyze particular rhetorical repercussions.
[93]
Powers of Persuasion | National Archives
Jun 6, 2019 · Masculine strength was a common visual theme in patriotic posters. Pictures of powerful men and mighty machines illustrated America's ability to ...
[94]
Analyzing image-based political propaganda in referendum ...
Aug 11, 2023 · Due to the increasing prominence of social network services, political communication has experienced a paradigm shift.
[95]
(PDF) The Power of Visual Political Communication - ResearchGate
PDF | This chapter offers an overview of the communication psychology literature to demonstrate why visuals have the power to support attitudinal.
[96]
Visual Rhetoric and Violence: Propaganda | viz.
In exploring and emphasizing these questions, it may be especially useful to incorporate units on propaganda. ... Additionally, units organized to explore the use ...
[97]
"Visual Communication in Politics" by Katilin Foley
This research study explores visual communication elements in politics. For decades, campaign logos have been at the forefront of running a well-planned and ...
[98]
Painting Persuasive Phrases and the Role of Rhetoric in the Visual ...
Jan 15, 2021 · Rhetoric is used to direct you, your ideas, thoughts and vision, to what is going on with a painting. Since literary devices can serve as ...
[99]
Visual rhetoric: what it is and its application in the visual arts - Hartii
Among the most common forms of visual rhetoric applied in the visual arts are figures such as metaphor and allegory. However, there are several figures of ...
[100]
Visual Metaphor, Cultural Knowledge, and the New Rhetoric
Indigenous ways of thinking are based on oral culture that tends to use visual metaphors. This paper focuses on the Quaternity, a common recurring theme.
[101]
Visual rhetoric: the art of persuasion through images - the art traveller
Jul 5, 2019 · Visual rhetoric is when the arrangement of images and their content persuades the receiver, using colors, composition, and movement to build a ...
[102]
[PDF] Visual Rhetoric and the Special Eloquence of Visual Form
A main goal of my proposed research approach is to position the material of visual form front and center in its role as a visual rhetorical text. This critical ...
[103]
[PDF] Subversive Memes: Internet Memes as a Form of Visual Rhetoric
The study proposes that internet memes are a form of representational discourse that subverts dominant media messages to create new meaning.
[104]
Memes in a Digital World: Reconciling with a Conceptual ...
Apr 1, 2013 · This paper re-examines the concept of “meme” in the context of digital culture. Defined as cultural units that spread from person to person.<|separator|>
[105]
Temporal pattern classification of internet meme propagation
Building upon established research that modeled meme popularity through ordinary differential equations, this study presents a novel machine learning approach ...
[106]
Modeling the co-diffusion of competing memes in online social ...
This paper addresses this gap by proposing a unified model for the co-diffusion of competing memes simultaneously spreading across an online social network.
[107]
Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Rhetoric in Internet Memes of Two ...
May 18, 2020 · The analysis shows that the contents of the memes revolve around six themes: history, humor, mythology, symbols, news and mottos. By using ...<|separator|>
[108]
The affect and effect of Internet memes: assessing perceptions and ...
Although memes have been examined as visual rhetoric and discursive participation, such political memes' effects on viewers are unclear. This study responds to ...
[109]
Insights from cross-cultural memes: An empirical study on instagram ...
This research uncovered the effects of the intrinsic factors of visual memes on cross-cultural diffusion using regression and causal models for the first time.
[110]
Bridging gaps in image meme research: A multidisciplinary ...
May 16, 2024 · This paper outlines a multidisciplinary framework (Digital Rhetorical Ecosystem or DRE3) for scaling up qualitative analyses of image memes.
[111]
ACRL Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education
Visual literacy is a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media.
[112]
Visual Literacy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Visual literacy is defined as “the ability to read, interpret, and understand information presented in pictorial or graphic images” (Wileman, 1993, p. 114).
[113]
https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-19
[114]
[PDF] effects of a visual literacy programme for the improvement of reading ...
The results indi- cated that visual literacy and, specifically, the reading and interpretation of connotative and symbolic images improve reading comprehension, ...
[115]
The effectiveness of visual-based interventions on health literacy in ...
Jun 11, 2024 · We conclude that visual-based interventions, particularly the ones using videos, are effective for improving HL and the comprehension of health-related ...
[116]
Visual Literacy in Practice: Use of Images in Students' Academic Work
Anne Morgan Spalter and Andries van Dam proposed a definition of digital visual literacy that encompasses abilities in evaluating and interpreting images as ...
[117]
Implementing visual literacy techniques among future educators in ...
Nov 28, 2024 · This research aims to evaluate the impact of a visual competence intervention on early childhood and primary school teachers (N = 224) ...
[118]
(PDF) Visual literacy: A failed opportunity - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Early critics of visual literacy suggest that it is not a sustainable concept as an area of study due to its lack of precise definitions, or ...
[119]
[PDF] 16. VISUAL LITERACY
There are two major impediments to research on visual literacy. The first is a lack of a widely accepted definition of the term visual literacy itself.
[120]
[PDF] Critical Analysis of Research on the Impact of Visual Literacy for ...
As a result, students have often not fully acquired visual literacy skills before being expected to independently make sense of visually-dense informational ...
[121]
[PDF] Visual Literacy vs. Visual Manipulation - University of Pennsylvania
Although the studies examined above provide a suggestive first view of the scope and some limitations of empirical research on visual literacy, the.
[122]
[PDF] Trends, Obstacles, and Opportunities for Visual Literacy
The findings from this study broaden current understandings of visual literacy and empower learners, educators, and practitioners to critically create, share, ...
[123]
Visual Integrity: Misleading Messages, Ethics, and Credibility
Visual integrity means visual media should not distort a message or promote a false impression, impacting the author's credibility.
[124]
"The Ethics of Visual Rhetoric & Photo Manipulation" - Xchanges
May 21, 2021 · With such power, visuals present the risk of, all too easily, swaying their audiences in an unethical fashion. The use and misuse of visual ...
[125]
Code of Ethics for Visual Journalists
Visual journalists must be accurate, comprehensive, provide context, avoid manipulation, respect subjects, and not alter images or events.
[126]
Toward an Ethical Rhetoric of the Digital Scientific Image: Learning ...
Jun 9, 2014 · Scientific research misconduct often involves visual components, and such misconduct can ruin scientific careers, delay the development of ...
[127]
Advertising and Marketing Basics | Federal Trade Commission
Under the law, claims in advertisements must be truthful, cannot be deceptive or unfair, and must be evidence-based.
[128]
Truth In Advertising - Federal Trade Commission
Federal law says that ad must be truthful, not misleading, and, when appropriate, backed by scientific evidence. The FTC enforces these truth-in-advertising ...Health Claims · Protecting Consumers · About FTC Warning Letters · Green Guides
[129]
The Ethics of Photo Editing: What You Need to Know in 2025 | Path
Dec 3, 2024 · Ethical photo editing involves respecting subjects, maintaining authenticity, adhering to copyright laws, and making truthful, respectful ...
[130]
Exploring the Impact of Synthetic Political Video on Deception ...
Feb 19, 2020 · We have shown that political deepfakes may not necessarily deceive individuals, but they may sow uncertainty which may, in turn, reduce trust in ...
[131]
Navigating the Mirage: Ethical, Transparency, and Regulatory ...
Mar 20, 2024 · Labeling Deepfakes: Disclosure should be required when content has been altered or generated using deepfake technology, especially in contexts ...
[132]
Ethical Considerations of Deepfakes - The Prindle Institute for Ethics
Dec 7, 2020 · ... deepfakes. Is deepfake technology ethical? If not, what makes it wrong? And who holds the responsibility to prevent the potential harms ...Missing: guidelines | Show results with:guidelines
[133]
[PDF] What's Visual about “Visual Rhetoric”? Paul Messaris Thomas ...
Jul 31, 2008 · Europe the main purpose of visual persuasion was to move viewers and incite them to virtuous action on the basis of emotional identification ...
[134]
[PDF] THE RHETORICAL CRITICISM OF VISUAL ELEMENTS
Sonja Foss has displayed the most consistent interest in and commitment to criti- cism and theories of visual rhetoric. Her critical studies of the Vietnam ...
[135]
[PDF] Framing the Study of Visual Rhetoric: Toward a Transformation of ...
Connections. New York: Lanham, 1991. Foss, Sonja K. 'k Rhetorical Schema for the Evaluation of Visual Imagery." Communication.
[136]
Comparing verbal and visual rhetoric – and the danger of “empirical ...
Aug 6, 2025 · This paper will evaluate the quantitative content analysis of visual rhetoric which has been put forward by George Rossolatos in the context ...
[137]
Interpretations determined by verbal anchoring and visual structure
One of the main challenges in visual rhetoric research is to determine the mechanism that elicits individual thoughts. Some visual metaphors may convey widely ...
[138]
Visual Rhetoric in Advertising: Text-Interpretive, Experimental, and ...
Text interpretations, two experiments, and a set of reader-response interviews examine the impact of stylistic elements in advertising that form visual ...
[139]
Barriers to Publishing Visual Rhetoric Research - Scholars' Mine
Jul 1, 2015 · This paper describes the challenges of reproducing artwork as part of the analytical, evaluative, and critical work of scholars of visual ...
[140]
[PDF] Visual Rhetoric in Visual Communication: Theory and Concepts in ...
Sep 11, 2021 · Visual rhetoric, related to semiotics, uses symbolic pictures and human intervention to create visual communication, and is explored in public ...
[141]
The Power of Visual Material: Persuasion, Emotion and Identification
Jan 1, 2024 · Visuals are used to persuade, change attitudes and behaviors, and create a more emotive media environment, highlighting emotion and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[142]
(PDF) Meta-Analysis on Visual Persuasion– Does Adding Images to ...
Aug 8, 2025 · The overall effects show that additional visual images to verbal texts had no significant effect on persuasion, r=0.055, p=0.161.
[143]
The persuasive effects of verbal anchoring and visual complexity
Mar 25, 2022 · Pairing visual imagery with complete verbal anchoring increases persuasion, and this occurs because readers appreciate the enhanced ...
[144]
Revealing the elusive effects of vividness: a meta-analysis of ...
Our results showed that vividness yielded significant small-to-medium effect on both attitude (d + = .31) and behavioral intention (d + = .39).
[145]
Meta-Analysis on Visual Persuasion– Does Adding Images to Texts ...
Jun 30, 2020 · Compared to verbal texts, the effects of visual images on persuasion have not been sufficiently researched. The current meta-analysis ...<|separator|>
[146]
Using Visual Language to Create the Case for Change | AMA
Mar 25, 2020 · Another study at the University of Minnesota found presenters with visual aids were 43% more effective at persuading their audiences to take a ...
[147]
Effects of rhetorical devices on audience responses with online videos
Mar 16, 2023 · Previous research has consistently demonstrated the persuasive effects of narratives. The underlying mechanism is that once individuals become ...
[148]
The power of pictures: Visual bias in the news - La Fonte
Nov 23, 2023 · People also tend to react more extremely to images that directly confirm or challenge their pre-existing opinions, shining new light on the risk ...
[149]
[PDF] Visual Rhetoric in Election Posters:
Nov 30, 2023 · KEY WORDS: Visual Rhetoric, Election Posters, Mutlimodal ... rhetoric plays in ideological manipulation and argues that rhetoric ...
[150]
Visual Bias | Image Bite Politics - Oxford Academic
Contrary to the liberal bias accusation against mainstream media, data shows that visual coverage has consistently favored Republican presidential candidates, ...The Storied History of the... · Liberating the Study of Media... · Visual Weight
[151]
[PDF] Fake or Visual Trickery? Understanding the Quantitative Visual ...
Word choices for numeric values are interesting design choices that create a visual rhetoric without visual manipulation. Media outlets might manipulate ...
[152]
Cross-cultural differences in visual perception
Jan 5, 2020 · According to recent cross-cultural studies there exist culturally based differences between visual perception and the related cognitive processes (attention, ...
[153]
Persuasion in Pixels and Prose: The Effects of Emotional Language ...
Apr 25, 2025 · Emotional priming using visual stimuli has been shown to significantly influence decision-making processes by altering the affective states of ...
[154]
How Color Is Perceived by Different Cultures | Eriksen Translations
Feb 3, 2020 · Color perceptions vary across cultures; a single color may have different meanings. For example, red is associated with purity in India, but ...
[155]
[PDF] A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Symbolic Meanings of Color
Colors can carry different symbolic meanings: yellow, in northern Europe connotes “deceit” and “cowardice,” while in China is the imperial color; in Buddhist.<|control11|><|separator|>
[156]
How do different cultures perceive symbols in icons? - Cieden
Jul 2, 2024 · Symbols carry different meanings and connotations in different cultures due to variations in history, religion, social norms, and visual language.
[157]
Full article: A study on the visual rhetorical differences in national ...
Oct 4, 2025 · Visual rhetoric analysis generally includes visual form (image structure), discourse (symbolic meaning), and visual culture (image generation ...Research Design · Results · Discussion
[158]
Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Perception of Symbols
Feb 29, 2016 · Abstract. This study intended to measure the level of visual understanding of symbols between students in Hong Kong and the United States.Missing: persuasion | Show results with:persuasion