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Medium spiny neuron

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs), also known as spiny projection neurons, are the principal GABAergic neurons of the striatum, comprising approximately 90–95% of its neuronal population and serving as the primary interface between cortical inputs, thalamic signals, and dopaminergic modulation in the basal ganglia.^[1] These neurons are defined by their medium-sized ovoid cell bodies (14–20 μm in diameter) and extensive dendritic trees featuring numerous spines that receive excitatory glutamatergic and inhibitory GABAergic synapses.^[2] With a hyperpolarized resting membrane potential of around −80 mV and no spontaneous action potential firing in acute brain slices, MSNs integrate diverse inputs to regulate motor control, reward processing, and decision-making.^[3] MSNs exhibit significant anatomical and molecular diversity, particularly along the dorsal-ventral axis of the striatum, which includes the dorsal striatum (caudate-putamen) and ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle).^[1] Single-nucleus RNA sequencing has revealed at least nine transcriptional subtypes, including distinct D1 receptor-expressing (D1-MSNs) and D2 receptor-expressing (D2-MSNs) populations, as well as hybrid and region-specific variants marked by genes like PP1R1B and BCL11B.^[1] D1-MSNs form the direct pathway, projecting to the internal globus pallidus (GPi) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) while co-expressing substance P and facilitating thalamo-cortical output for movement initiation.^[2] In contrast, D2-MSNs constitute the indirect pathway, targeting the external globus pallidus (GPe) and expressing enkephalin to inhibit unwanted movements and refine motor selection.^[3] Functionally, MSNs receive convergent inputs from the cortex and thalamus on their spines, modulated by dopamine from the substantia nigra pars compacta, which differentially affects D1 and D2 subtypes to balance excitation and inhibition.^[4] Their output connections include strong GABAergic projections to other MSNs (63% connectivity) and tonically active cholinergic interneurons in the striatum, as well as to pallidal and nigral targets, with presynaptic modulation by dopamine receptors influencing synaptic strength.^[4] This circuitry underlies habit formation, motivated behavior, and emotional responses, with disruptions implicated in disorders such as Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and addiction.^[5]

Anatomy and Morphology

Location in the Brain

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) are the predominant neuronal population within the striatum, comprising 90-95% of all neurons in this structure, which serves as the largest nucleus of the basal ganglia.^[6]^[7] The striatum is anatomically divided into the dorsal striatum, encompassing the caudate nucleus and putamen, and the ventral striatum, primarily the nucleus accumbens.01369-5) These regions position MSNs at the interface of cortical, thalamic, and subcortical inputs, enabling their role in integrating sensory, motor, and reward-related signals within basal ganglia circuits.^[8] MSNs in the dorsal striatum, located in the caudate and putamen, are primarily involved in motor control and habit formation, receiving targeted projections that support action selection and execution.^[9] In contrast, MSNs in the ventral striatum, such as those in the nucleus accumbens, contribute to limbic functions, including motivation, reward processing, and emotional regulation, reflecting their integration with limbic forebrain structures.^[10] This dorsoventral organization underscores the functional specialization of MSNs across striatal subregions, with dorsal populations emphasizing procedural learning and ventral ones focusing on goal-directed behaviors.^[5] As the principal output neurons of the striatum, MSNs project GABAergic inhibitory axons to key basal ganglia targets, including the globus pallidus interna (GPi), substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), and globus pallidus externa (GPe).^[11]^[8] These projections form the core of the direct and indirect pathways, modulating basal ganglia output to influence motor and cognitive functions. In terms of afferents, MSNs receive convergent glutamatergic inputs from the cerebral cortex and thalamus, which provide excitatory drive for synaptic integration, alongside dopaminergic modulation from the substantia nigra pars compacta that fine-tunes plasticity and reinforcement signaling.^[6]^[12]^[5] This rich connectivity positions MSNs as central hubs for coordinating basal ganglia activity across diverse brain networks.

Cellular Structure and Dendritic Features

Medium spiny neurons possess a medium-sized soma, typically measuring 12-20 μm in diameter, with a smooth, aspiny surface devoid of protrusions.^[6] These neurons feature a highly branched dendritic tree that extends up to 200 μm from the soma, forming an intricate arbor densely studded with spines. Each medium spiny neuron bears approximately 10,000-20,000 dendritic spines, which accommodate about 90% of the excitatory synaptic inputs onto the cell.^[6] The spines display morphological diversity, including thin spines with elongated necks and small heads, stubby spines that are short and wide, and mushroom-shaped spines characterized by large bulbous heads; these structures undergo dynamic remodeling in response to neuronal activity.^[13]^[14] Axonal arborization in medium spiny neurons includes extensive local collaterals that ramify within the striatum to form inhibitory connections with neighboring neurons, alongside long projections that exit the striatum to target regions such as the external segment of the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra pars reticulata.^[6]^[15] At the ultrastructural level, the dendrites exhibit a high density of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors distributed along their length, facilitating dopaminergic modulation. Components of the endocannabinoid system, including CB1 receptors, are also present on these dendrites and associated synaptic terminals.^[16]^[17]

Electrophysiology and Signaling

Membrane Properties and Firing Patterns

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) exhibit a characteristic biphasic membrane potential, alternating between depolarized up-states and hyperpolarized down-states. The up-state typically reaches potentials around -70 mV and lasts 100-500 ms, while the down-state stabilizes near -80 to -85 mV.^[18]^[19] This bistability arises from intrinsic membrane dynamics and is a hallmark of MSN electrophysiology in vivo.^[20] MSNs display low intrinsic excitability, with a resting membrane potential around -85 mV in the down-state, rendering them largely silent without external drive. They require strong depolarizing inputs to overcome this hyperpolarization and initiate firing, reflecting their role as integrators rather than pacemakers.^[18]^[21] In vivo, the down-state predominates, occupying most of the neuron's activity cycle, with transitions to up-states triggered by convergent excitatory inputs from cortical and thalamic sources.^[20]^[22] Firing patterns in MSNs are sparse, with spontaneous action potentials occurring at low rates of 0.1-1 Hz due to their high threshold for activation. During up-states, brief bursts or single spikes may occur, often supported by plateau potentials generated via activation of L-type Ca²⁺ channels, which sustain depolarization and enable temporal summation of inputs.^[23]^[24] These plateaus contribute to the neuron’s ability to process prolonged excitatory barrages without rapid fatigue.^[25] The bistable behavior is shaped by key ion channels, including inward-rectifying K⁺ channels (Kir2), which maintain the hyperpolarized down-state by stabilizing the membrane near the K⁺ equilibrium potential. T-type Ca²⁺ channels and persistent Na⁺ currents further influence excitability, promoting rebound depolarization and sustaining up-states by counteracting repolarizing forces.^[26] Together, these conductances ensure the pronounced state-dependent fluctuations that define MSN signaling.^[27]

Synaptic Inputs and Plasticity

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the striatum receive convergent excitatory glutamatergic inputs primarily from layer V pyramidal cells in the cortex and relay neurons in the thalamus, forming synapses on dendritic spines that express AMPA and NMDA receptors.^[28] Corticostriatal inputs from ipsilateral primary somatosensory (S1) and motor (M1) cortices elicit strong excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in both direct-pathway D1-MSNs (approximately 4.5 mV from S1) and indirect-pathway D2-MSNs (approximately 3.2-4.6 mV), with thalamic inputs from the parafascicular nucleus producing somewhat smaller but reliable EPSPs (2.3 mV in D1-MSNs, 3.5 mV in D2-MSNs).^[28] These thalamic synapses exhibit a higher NMDA/AMPA receptor ratio compared to cortical inputs, which are predominantly AMPA-mediated, enabling distinct integration of sensory-motor signals.^[28] Differential innervation patterns ensure that direct- and indirect-pathway MSNs receive balanced yet specialized cortical projections, supporting pathway-specific processing.^[29] Inhibitory inputs to MSNs arise from local GABAergic sources, including collateral connections from other MSNs and direct synapses from fast-spiking parvalbumin-positive interneurons.^[30] MSN-to-MSN collaterals provide weak but widespread feedforward and feedback inhibition, with unitary IPSCs having peak amplitudes around 50 pA (range 10-90 pA), helping to synchronize striatal output and prevent excessive excitation.^[31] Fast-spiking interneurons deliver powerful perisomatic inhibition, where a single interneuron spike can generate IPSCs sufficient to delay or block action potentials in multiple MSNs (amplitudes around 270 pA, range ~50-500 pA), exerting precise control over MSN firing thresholds.^[31] These GABAergic inputs, often clustered near the soma, contrast with the distal excitatory synapses on spines, allowing interneurons to gate MSN excitability during behavioral states.^[30] Neuromodulatory inputs further refine MSN responses, with dopamine released from substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) neurons acting via volume transmission to influence synaptic efficacy without direct synaptic contacts onto MSNs.^[4] Acetylcholine from tonically active cholinergic interneurons provides diffuse modulation, projecting broadly to MSNs and altering excitability through muscarinic receptors that suppress excitatory transmission and promote pauses in MSN activity.^[32] These neuromodulators interact with glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses to contextualize inputs, such as dopamine enhancing LTP in direct-pathway MSNs during reward anticipation.^[4] Synaptic plasticity in MSNs follows spike-timing-dependent rules at corticostriatal synapses, embodying Hebbian principles where the relative timing of pre- and postsynaptic spikes determines strengthening or weakening.^[33] Long-term potentiation (LTP) is induced when presynaptic cortical spikes precede MSN postsynaptic spikes by 10-20 ms, requiring NMDA receptor activation and occurring in about 80% of MSNs with minimal pairings (e.g., 100 at 1 Hz), thereby amplifying relevant sensorimotor associations.^[33] Conversely, long-term depression (LTD) at these synapses, triggered by post-before-pre timing or moderate-frequency stimulation (10-20 Hz), depends on postsynaptic endocannabinoid release acting retrogradely on presynaptic CB1 receptors to suppress glutamate release.^[34] This eCB-mediated LTD is prominent in both direct- and indirect-pathway MSNs and correlates with structural remodeling, including dendritic spine shrinkage that reduces synaptic surface area and efficacy.^[34]

Neurotransmitter Systems

Dopamine Receptor Expression

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the striatum predominantly express dopamine receptors from the D1-like (D1 and D5) and D2-like (D2, D3, and D4) families, with D1 receptors primarily found in direct pathway MSNs and D2 receptors in indirect pathway MSNs.^[35] D1 receptors are Gs-coupled, stimulating adenylyl cyclase to increase cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, which enhances neuronal excitability.^[36] In contrast, D2 receptors are Gi-coupled, inhibiting adenylyl cyclase and thereby reducing cAMP production, which decreases MSN excitability.^[36] Approximately 50-55% of MSNs express primarily D1 receptors, 40-50% express primarily D2 receptors, and 2-15% co-express both, with co-expression being lower (~2%) in the dorsal striatum and higher in ventral regions; the extent of co-expression varies by striatal subregion and species.^[37] These expression patterns contribute to the functional segregation of MSNs into direct and indirect pathways within the basal ganglia circuitry. Upon activation, D1 receptors trigger protein kinase A (PKA) signaling, which phosphorylates DARPP-32 at threonine 34, thereby inhibiting protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and promoting phosphorylation of downstream targets that facilitate synaptic plasticity.^[38] D2 receptors counteract this by lowering cAMP levels, reducing PKA activity and leading to dephosphorylation of DARPP-32, which activates PP1 and dampens excitability.^[38] Recent studies from 2023 indicate that the D1/D2 balance in striatal MSNs shifts with aging, with aged mice exhibiting a more counterbalanced ratio of transcriptionally active D1- and D2-expressing MSNs compared to the D1-dominant state in young mice.^[39] This shift may underlie age-related declines in motor and cognitive flexibility. Tonic dopamine release maintains baseline modulation of MSN excitability through sustained receptor activation, while phasic dopamine transients, associated with reward prediction errors, elicit stronger, transient responses in D1 MSNs to promote action selection and in D2 MSNs to suppress competing actions.^[40]

Other Receptor Types and Modulation

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the striatum express group I metabotropic glutamate receptors, primarily mGluR1 and mGluR5, which are localized on dendritic spines and play key roles in modulating glutamatergic signaling. These receptors couple to Gq proteins, activating phospholipase C (PLC) to produce inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol, which in turn mobilize intracellular calcium and enhance NMDA receptor function. Specifically, mGluR5 activation potentiates NMDA-mediated currents in MSNs, facilitating synaptic plasticity through downstream PKC signaling. mGluR1 and mGluR5 exhibit cooperative interactions, where their heterodimerization amplifies responses to glutamate, as demonstrated in striatal neurons. While mGluR5 is more abundantly expressed in MSNs compared to mGluR1, both contribute to spine morphology regulation, with opposing effects on dendritic spine density upon selective activation. GABAergic modulation of MSNs occurs via both ionotropic GABAA and metabotropic GABAB receptors, primarily from inputs by local interneurons and collateral connections among MSNs. GABAA receptors, which are ligand-gated chloride channels, mediate fast inhibitory postsynaptic currents through Cl⁻ influx, contributing to phasic and tonic inhibition that shapes synaptic integration in MSNs. In contrast, GABAB receptors couple to Gi/o proteins, activating G protein-gated inward rectifier potassium (GIRK) channels to hyperpolarize the membrane and suppress neurotransmitter release presynaptically. These receptors are differentially distributed across D1- and D2-expressing MSNs, with GABAA α1 and α2 subunits prominent in the nucleus accumbens, influencing inhibitory synapse formation during development. Acetylcholine acts on MSNs predominantly through muscarinic M1 and M4 receptors, which are highly expressed in these projection neurons and mediate opposing effects on excitability. M1 receptors, coupled to Gq/PLC, increase MSN intrinsic excitability via IP3-mediated calcium release and enhancement of persistent sodium currents, promoting long-lasting depolarization. Conversely, M4 receptors, linked to Gi/o proteins, inhibit adenylyl cyclase and activate potassium conductances, reducing excitability and modulating GABA release from MSNs onto cholinergic interneurons. M4 receptors are notably colocalized with D1 dopamine receptors in a subset of MSNs, allowing acetylcholine to fine-tune direct pathway activity. Opioid and cannabinoid systems provide additional modulation of MSN circuits, with mu-opioid receptors (MORs) expressed on axonal collaterals of D2 MSNs to facilitate disinhibition. Activation of MORs inhibits GABA release from presynaptic terminals, thereby enhancing excitability of target MSNs and contributing to reward processing, as seen in divergent roles for cocaine versus morphine reinforcement. Similarly, CB1 cannabinoid receptors, localized presynaptically on glutamatergic and GABAergic terminals synapsing onto MSNs, mediate endocannabinoid retrograde signaling to suppress transmitter release. This depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) or excitation (DSE) refines synaptic balance in striatal circuits, with CB1 knockout impairing long-term depression at corticostriatal synapses. Adenosine A2A receptors are selectively co-expressed with D2 dopamine receptors in indirect pathway MSNs, where they enhance signaling through Gs-coupled adenylyl cyclase activation, opposing D2-mediated inhibition and promoting indirect pathway output. Recent research highlights A2A-D2 heteromerization in these neurons, which modulates NMDA excitation and contributes to effort-related behaviors in the nucleus accumbens core. In 2024 studies, A2A receptor interactions with D2 were shown to regulate central fatigue and cognitive functions, underscoring their role in striatal modulation.^[41]

Role in Basal Ganglia Pathways

Direct Pathway Contributions

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) expressing dopamine D1 receptors form the core of the direct pathway in the basal ganglia, originating primarily in the striatum and providing monosynaptic inhibitory projections to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr).^[42] These projections utilize gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as the primary neurotransmitter, along with co-release of substance P,^[43] to suppress the tonic inhibitory output of the GPi and SNr.^[42] This anatomical arrangement positions D1 MSNs as key facilitators within the striatonigral pathway, distinct from other striatal efferents. Functionally, activation of direct pathway MSNs promotes movement initiation by inhibiting the GPi/SNr, which in turn disinhibits thalamocortical projections from the ventral anterior and ventrolateral thalamic nuclei to the motor cortex, enhancing cortical output for "go" signals.^[44] This process requires convergent glutamatergic excitation from the cortex, which depolarizes the MSNs, coupled with dopamine-mediated enhancement via D1 receptors that amplify excitability and synaptic efficacy.^[44] Selective ablation or optogenetic inhibition of these MSNs impairs action selection, leading to deficits in motor vigor and the ability to initiate goal-directed behaviors.^[45] In the broader context of basal ganglia circuitry, direct pathway MSNs integrate with parallel pathways to enable balanced control of movement, where their activation contributes to net facilitation of desired actions through coordinated thalamic release.^[42]

Indirect Pathway Contributions

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) expressing dopamine D2 receptors constitute the primary output of the indirect pathway in the basal ganglia, projecting inhibitory GABAergic axons to the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe). These neurons also co-release enkephalins,^[46] which contribute to modulating pallidal activity. From the GPe, inhibitory projections target the subthalamic nucleus (STN), which in turn sends excitatory glutamatergic inputs to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr). The GPi and SNr then provide inhibitory GABAergic outputs to the ventral anterior and ventrolateral thalamic nuclei, ultimately influencing thalamocortical circuits.^[42]^[47] Functionally, the indirect pathway mediated by D2-expressing MSNs suppresses unwanted movements by enhancing basal ganglia output, leading to thalamic inhibition and reduced cortical motor activation. This pathway forms a critical loop with the STN, where GPe inhibition of the STN disinhibits GPi/SNr excitability, amplifying the suppression of thalamic activity to facilitate action selection and inhibit competing motor programs. Dopamine acting on D2 receptors inhibits these MSNs, thereby reducing indirect pathway activity and promoting a balance with the direct pathway to enable desired movements.^[42]^[47]^[8] Indirect pathway MSNs exhibit distinct intrinsic properties, including differences in dendritic integration compared to direct pathway neurons, which influence their responsiveness to synaptic inputs. Dysfunction in this pathway, such as selective degeneration of D2 MSNs, underlies hyperkinetic disorders like Huntington's disease, where impaired suppression leads to excessive involuntary movements.^[48]^[49]

Regional Specializations

Dorsal Striatal MSNs

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the dorsal striatum, comprising the caudate nucleus and putamen, exhibit a high density that supports their central role in sensorimotor integration. These neurons constitute the vast majority of cells in the caudate-putamen complex, enabling efficient processing of sensory and motor signals essential for coordinated movement and behavioral adaptation.^[50]^[1] The balance between direct and indirect pathway MSNs in the dorsal striatum is finely tuned to facilitate habit formation and procedural learning. Direct pathway MSNs, expressing D1 dopamine receptors, promote action execution, while indirect pathway MSNs, expressing D2 receptors, inhibit competing actions, allowing a shift from goal-directed to habitual behaviors over repeated training. This antagonistic interplay is particularly pronounced in the dorsolateral striatum, where neuroplasticity in MSN circuits strengthens stimulus-response associations critical for skill acquisition.^[51]^[52]^[53] Dorsal striatal MSNs receive stronger excitatory inputs from cortical sensorimotor areas, such as the primary motor and somatosensory cortices, compared to limbic regions, which topographically organizes their role in motor control. These inputs converge on MSN spines, integrating sensory feedback with motor planning. In turn, dorsal MSNs project through the basal ganglia's direct and indirect pathways to modulate activity in the motor thalamus, disinhibiting thalamocortical loops to refine movement selection and execution.^[54]^[55]^[28] Functionally, dorsal striatal MSNs play a greater role in action selection by integrating dopaminergic signals to bias toward rewarded or habitual responses, suppressing irrelevant motor programs. During motor learning, these neurons undergo spine remodeling, including selective pruning of immature spines to stabilize persistent connections, which enhances circuit efficiency for automated behaviors.^[56]^[13]

Ventral Striatal MSNs

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the ventral striatum, primarily located within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and olfactory tubercle, constitute the predominant neuronal population and are subdivided into those in the core and shell subregions of the NAc. The NAc core occupies a more central position and shares structural similarities with the dorsal striatum, while the shell forms a more peripheral, ventromedial layer with distinct cytoarchitectonic features that facilitate its role in limbic processing. MSNs in the olfactory tubercle, integrated with olfactory bulb inputs, contribute to odor-reward associations and emotional processing. Unlike the dorsal striatum, where MSNs predominantly express either D1 or D2 dopamine receptors in a segregated manner, ventral striatal MSNs exhibit higher levels of D1-D2 co-expression, with densities of co-expressing neurons significantly elevated in the NAc compared to dorsal regions across species. This co-expression pattern, often manifesting as D1-D2 receptor heteromers, may enable more integrated dopaminergic signaling in reward-related contexts.^[37]^[57] Ventral striatal MSNs receive convergent inputs from limbic and cortical areas, including the prefrontal cortex, limbic structures, and amygdala, which convey emotional and motivational information to modulate striatal output. These afferents synapse onto MSN dendrites, allowing integration of valence-specific signals that influence behavioral selection. Outputs from ventral MSNs project primarily to the ventral pallidum (VP), forming part of the striatopallidal pathway that translates limbic inputs into motivated actions. In motivational processing, direct-pathway MSNs (D1-expressing) promote approach behaviors toward rewards by facilitating reinforcement and positive valence, whereas indirect-pathway MSNs (D2-expressing) contribute to aversion avoidance by suppressing responses to negative stimuli. This dichotomy supports the ventral striatum's role in balancing appetitive and defensive motivations. Functional adaptations in ventral striatal MSNs emphasize enhanced synaptic plasticity linked to reward prediction errors (RPEs), where dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area drive long-term potentiation or depression at corticostriatal synapses to refine value representations. Opioid modulation is particularly prominent here, with mu-opioid receptors on MSN terminals and interneurons gating excitatory inputs and amplifying hedonic responses through disinhibition. Recent studies indicate that MSNs in the medial NAc shell contribute to hedonic "liking" reactions during palatable reward consumption, with opioid modulation amplifying affective signals in hotspot regions.^[1]

Development and Plasticity

Embryonic Origins and Maturation

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) originate from progenitor cells in the lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE) of the embryonic telencephalon, a subpallial structure that gives rise to the striatum.^[58] These progenitors express the homeobox transcription factors Dlx1 and Dlx2, which are essential for specifying the GABAergic neuronal fate and regulating downstream genes like Meis2 to promote MSN differentiation.^[58] In rodents, such as mice, MSN neurogenesis primarily occurs between embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5) and E17.5, with the majority generated during E12-E15 from the LGE subventricular zone.^[59] Postmitotic MSN precursors migrate from the LGE to the developing striatum through a combination of tangential and radial migration pathways, beginning around E13 and largely completing by E18 in mice.^[60] Upon arrival in the striatal mantle zone, these neurons differentiate into the two major MSN subtypes: D1 receptor-expressing MSNs of the direct pathway and D2 receptor-expressing MSNs of the indirect pathway.^[7] Fate determination for D1 and D2 MSNs occurs postmitotically, with lineage commitment established between E18 and postnatal day 0 (P0), influenced by differential expression of transcription factors such as Sp8/9 for D2 bias and combinatorial signaling from progenitors.^[61] Dopaminergic afferents from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) arrive in the striatum in the late embryonic stage, around E14-E16 in mice, coinciding with early MSN clustering into patches and matrix compartments and refining nascent striatal circuits through trophic support and modulation of gene expression.^[62] Postnatal maturation of MSNs involves dendritic elaboration and synaptogenesis, with spine density on MSN dendrites increasing rapidly from low levels at birth to a peak around P21 in mice, after which it stabilizes into adulthood to support mature excitatory input integration.^[63] This process is regulated by key transcription factors, including Gsh2 (also known as Gsx2), which maintains LGE progenitor identity from E9.5 and upregulates Dlx1/2 and Ascl1 to drive early MSN production, particularly patch neurons; its loss leads to depleted DARPP-32-positive MSNs by E18.5.^[64] Ascl1, a basic helix-loop-helix factor, promotes neurogenesis in LGE progenitors and cooperates with Dlx1/2 for later differentiation stages, with double mutants showing severe LGE defects.^[64] Epigenetic modulation via MeCP2 further shapes maturation, as it binds methylated DNA to regulate activity-dependent transcription of genes like Bdnf, supporting dendritic growth and spine stabilization in striatal neurons during postnatal development.^[65] In humans, MSN generation parallels rodent timelines but occurs earlier in gestation, with peak production in the LGE during gestational weeks 8-12 post-conception, as evidenced by upregulated striatal markers like FoxP1 in fetal tissue from this period.^[66] This window corresponds to the expansion of the ganglionic eminence and initial striatal patterning, setting the foundation for basal ganglia circuitry.^[66]

Activity-Dependent Changes

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the striatum exhibit structural plasticity in response to experience and neural activity during adulthood, particularly through changes in dendritic spines and arborization. In the ventral striatum, repeated cocaine exposure induces proliferation of dendritic spines on MSNs, enhancing synaptic connectivity and contributing to addictive behaviors.^[67] This effect is observed in both D1- and D2-expressing MSNs within the nucleus accumbens, persisting for weeks after drug withdrawal and linked to altered glutamatergic inputs.^[68] Conversely, in the dorsal striatum, motor training such as response learning or intensive treadmill exercise promotes increased dendritic spine density and arborization in MSNs, supporting skill acquisition and motor refinement.^[69] These adaptations reflect region-specific responses to behavioral demands, with ventral changes tied to reward processing and dorsal modifications to habit formation.^[70] Molecular mechanisms underlying these structural changes involve key signaling pathways that regulate spine dynamics in adult MSNs. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling through its receptor TrkB drives spine growth and stabilization, particularly in response to cocaine or environmental stimuli, by promoting actin cytoskeleton remodeling and synaptic protein synthesis.^[71] In striatal MSNs, BDNF-TrkB activation enhances dendritic complexity and spine density, countering atrophy in dopamine-depleted states.^[72] Additionally, the immediate early gene Arc contributes to the consolidation of synaptic plasticity, including long-term depression (LTD), by localizing to dendritic spines in MSNs following activity and modulating AMPA receptor endocytosis to sustain circuit adaptations.^[73] At the circuit level, activity-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and LTD in corticostriatal synapses remodel the balance between direct and indirect pathways over days to weeks, influencing basal ganglia output. LTP preferentially strengthens direct pathway MSNs (D1-expressing), facilitating movement initiation, while LTD predominates in indirect pathway MSNs (D2-expressing), refining inhibitory control.^[74] Chronic manipulations, such as in Parkinson's models, shift this equilibrium, with aberrant LTP in direct MSNs and LTD in indirect ones altering motor circuit dynamics. Recent studies highlight how chronic stress induces hypertrophy and spine density increases specifically in D2 MSNs of the nucleus accumbens, exacerbating avoidance behaviors, an effect reversed by environmental enrichment that restores baseline morphology via GSK3 pathway modulation.^[75]^[76]^[77] In aging, MSNs undergo progressive spine loss, reducing synaptic efficacy and contributing to motor decline.^[78] These findings underscore the potential of activity-based interventions to preserve MSN function across the lifespan.^[79]

Pathophysiological Implications

Involvement in Movement Disorders

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) play a central role in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), a hypokinetic movement disorder characterized by bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor, primarily due to the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.^[80] The resulting dopamine depletion in the dorsal striatum disrupts the balance between the direct and indirect basal ganglia pathways, where MSNs predominate.^[81] Specifically, loss of dopamine leads to hypoactivity in the direct pathway, mediated by D1 receptor-expressing MSNs that project to the substantia nigra pars reticulata and entopeduncular nucleus, while causing overactivity in the indirect pathway, driven by D2 receptor-expressing MSNs that project to the globus pallidus externus.^[80] This imbalance results in excessive inhibition of thalamocortical motor circuits, contributing to the motor deficits observed in PD.^[81] Anatomical alterations in MSNs further exacerbate these functional disruptions. Dopamine denervation induces a significant loss of dendritic spines on dorsal striatal MSNs, with reductions of 30-50% reported in postmortem analyses of the caudate nucleus and putamen in advanced PD cases.^[82] These spine losses are closely tied to the extent of striatal dopamine depletion and occur early in the disease process, impairing synaptic integration from cortical and thalamic inputs.^[83] Additionally, alpha-synuclein aggregates, a hallmark of PD, accumulate in MSNs and disrupt D1 and D2 receptor signaling, further altering excitability and synaptic transmission in both pathway subtypes.^[84] In multiple system atrophy, a Parkinsonian disorder, patient-derived MSNs exhibit elevated alpha-synuclein release and hypoexcitability, mirroring these pathological changes.^[84] Therapeutic interventions targeting MSN dysfunction aim to restore pathway balance but can introduce complications. Levodopa (L-DOPA), the standard dopamine replacement therapy, partially ameliorates hypokinesia by enhancing direct pathway MSN activity and suppressing indirect pathway overdrive, yet chronic use often leads to L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia through aberrant corticostriatal plasticity in MSNs.^[85] This maladaptive plasticity manifests as exaggerated synaptic strengthening in direct pathway MSNs, promoting hyperkinetic side effects.^[86] Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the globus pallidus internus (GPi), a key downstream target of MSN outputs, modulates indirect pathway hyperactivity and has shown sustained efficacy in reducing motor symptoms in PD patients, with 2024 meta-analyses confirming long-term benefits comparable to subthalamic nucleus stimulation.^[87] Genetic models, such as Pitx3-deficient mice, recapitulate PD-like dopamine loss and MSN morphological changes, exhibiting bradykinesia and altered striatal excitability that respond to L-DOPA, providing insights into disease mechanisms.^[88] In contrast to the hypokinetic features of PD, Huntington's disease involves progressive MSN loss in the striatum leading to hyperkinetic chorea, highlighting divergent pathological impacts on MSN populations across movement disorders.^[89]

Role in Addiction and Reward Processing

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the ventral striatum, particularly within the nucleus accumbens (NAc), play a pivotal role in the neural mechanisms underlying addiction by integrating reward signals and facilitating compulsive behaviors. Chronic exposure to drugs of abuse induces the accumulation of ΔFosB, a transcription factor, predominantly in D1 receptor-expressing MSNs (D1-MSNs), which promotes structural and functional adaptations that enhance sensitivity to drug-related cues and drive compulsive drug seeking.^[90] This ΔFosB-mediated transcriptional reprogramming in D1-MSNs alters gene expression to favor reward pathway activation, contributing to the persistence of addiction even after prolonged abstinence.^[91] Concurrently, hyperactivity in the ventral direct pathway, comprising D1-MSN projections from the NAc to downstream targets like the ventral pallidum, amplifies reward processing and motivational drive, shifting normal hedonic responses toward pathological reinforcement.^[92] Structural plasticity in NAc MSNs further underlies addiction vulnerability, with drugs such as cocaine inducing spinogenesis—the formation of new dendritic spines—on both D1- and D2-MSNs, thereby increasing synaptic connectivity and strengthening reward-associated circuits.^[93] These spines serve as primary sites for excitatory inputs, enhancing the efficacy of glutamatergic synapses that encode drug cues. However, during withdrawal, alterations in spine morphology occur, particularly in the NAc core, such as reduced spine head diameter without changes in density, that sustain craving and relapse propensity by destabilizing normal reward homeostasis.^[94] This biphasic plasticity reflects the transition from acute reinforcement to chronic dependence, with protracted withdrawal exacerbating negative affective states that motivate drug-seeking.^[95] Circuit-level dynamics in MSN networks are driven by phasic dopamine surges from the ventral tegmental area, which selectively induce long-term potentiation (LTP) at reward-predictive corticostriatal synapses onto D1-MSNs, reinforcing associative learning and habit formation.^[96] These transient dopamine bursts, timed to unexpected rewards or cues, amplify MSN excitability and synaptic strength, embedding maladaptive memories central to addiction. Recent rodent studies using optogenetics have demonstrated that activating D2-MSNs in the NAc suppresses cocaine reward and seeking, counteracting excessive direct pathway activity to mitigate compulsive behavior.^[97] In humans, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveals heightened NAc activity, attributable to MSN ensembles, correlating with subjective craving intensity during cue exposure, underscoring translational relevance.^[98] Beyond substance use, MSNs contribute to non-drug addictions like obesity and gambling through analogous reward encoding mechanisms in the ventral striatum, where dysregulated D1-MSN signaling promotes overconsumption or risk-taking by amplifying incentive salience for high-calorie foods or uncertain gains.^[99] This shared circuitry explains comorbid vulnerabilities, with MSN plasticity similarly driving persistent motivational biases across reward domains.

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3D cultured human medium spiny neurons functionally integrate and ...
Oct 15, 2025 · Dysfunction of striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) is implicated in several neurological disorders, including Huntington's disease (HD).
[6]
Medium Spiny Neuron - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
MSNs serve as the main efferent cells of the striatum, projecting to key basal ganglia output structures such as the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. 1 3 6Introduction to Medium Spiny... · Functional Role of Medium...
[7]
Ctip2 Controls the Differentiation of Medium Spiny Neurons and the ...
Jan 16, 2008 · Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSN) are critically involved in motor control, and their degeneration is a principal component of ...Striatal Ctip2 Expression Is... · Absence Of Ctip2 Impairs The... · Failure Of Striatal Patch...
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Basal ganglia for beginners: the basic concepts you need to know ...
Aug 2, 2023 · The striatum is the main region for inputs to the basal ganglia, receiving several projections from the cortex, thalamus, and brainstem.
[9]
Dorsal Striatum - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Within the actor–critic model of reinforcement learning, the dorsal striatum functions as the actor, implementing action selection policies, whereas the ventral ...Introduction to the Dorsal... · Neuroanatomy and... · Functional Roles and...
[10]
Frontiers | Dopamine Signaling in Dorsal Versus Ventral Striatum
The striatum is a large subcortical nucleus involved in motor co-ordination and cognition, as well as disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome ...
[11]
Projections to the Basal Ganglia - Neuroscience - NCBI Bookshelf
The axons arising in turn from the medium spiny neurons converge on neurons in the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra pars reticulata. The globus pallidus ...
[12]
Medium spiny neurons activity reveals the discrete segregation of ...
Feb 18, 2021 · The striatum is the main input structure of the basal ganglia, receiving glutamatergic transmission from the cortex and the thalamus (Alloway ...
[13]
Attenuation of synaptic potentials in dendritic spines - PMC - NIH
Dendritic spines mediate over 90% of excitatory connections in the mammalian brain (Peters and Kaiserman-Abramof, 1970; Ramon y Cajal, 1899) and have a ...
[14]
Mushroom spine dynamics in medium spiny neurons of dorsal ...
Oct 3, 2016 · Dendritic spine types in DLS: thin (A), mushroom (B), stubby (C), branched (D), and multihead (E). The T-0, T-1, and T-3 groups were trained ...
[15]
An embryonic culture system for the investigation of striatal medium ...
Medium spiny neurons are so named due to the high density of spines that stud their dendritic arbors. To assess the density of dendritic spines, EGFP filled, ...
[16]
Medium Spiny Neuron - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
As their name implies, medium spiny projection neurons provide an axon collateral which projects out of the striatum to the external segment of the globus ...
[17]
Dopaminergic Signaling in Dendritic Spines - PMC - PubMed Central
Dopamine receptors are present throughout the soma and dendrites of the neuron, but accumulating ultrastructural and biochemical evidence indicates that they ...
[18]
An introduction to the endogenous cannabinoid system - PMC
Apr 1, 2017 · CB1 receptors are highly abundant in medium spiny neurons in both the dorsal and ventral striatum (16–18). Expression is particularly high on ...
[19]
Direct and Indirect Actions of Dopamine on the Membrane Potential ...
The transition from down to up state is triggered by excitatory synaptic inputs. A similar transition could be produced by the intracellular injection of ...
[20]
Up and Down States in Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons ... - NIH
In vivo intracellular spontaneous activity in striatal medium spiny (MS) projection neurons is characterized by “up” and “down” states.
[21]
The origins of two-state spontaneous membrane potential ...
Apr 1, 1996 · The more depolarized level, called the Up state, varied among neurons form -71 to -40 mV. For any one neuron, the membrane potential in the Up ...
[22]
Up and Down States in Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons ...
Jan 1, 1998 · In vivo intracellular spontaneous activity in striatal medium spiny (MS) projection neurons is characterized by “up” and “down” states.
[23]
Up and down states - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Up and down states refer to the observation that neurons have two preferred subthreshold membrane potentials, both subthreshold for action potential generation.Up And Down States · Striatal Spiny Neurons · Cortical Pyramidal Cells
[24]
Distinct Patterns of Striatal Medium Spiny Neuron Activity during the ...
Nov 29, 2006 · Striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) integrate and convey information from the cerebral cortex to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia.<|separator|>
[25]
L-type calcium channels modulate glutamate-driven bursting activity ...
Under in vivo conditions, medium spiny neurons frequently enter the Up state for long durations in the voltage range where L-type Ca2+ channels activate.
[26]
Spontaneous voltage oscillations in striatal projection neurons in a ...
L-type Ca2+ channels promote plateau potential generation ... 3 channels are primary determinants of L-type calcium currents in striatal medium spiny neurons.
[27]
Muscarinic enhancement of persistent sodium current synchronizes ...
Muscarinic enhancement of persistent sodium current synchronizes striatal medium spiny neurons ... bistable behavior in striatal neurons and contributes to ...
[28]
Muscarinic Enhancement of Persistent Sodium Current ...
Cholinergic interneurons modulate the function of medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) through the activation of muscarinic receptors controlling voltage- ...
[29]
The Functional Organization of Cortical and Thalamic Inputs onto ...
Jan 28, 2020 · ... medium spiny neuron, IT tract/PT tract, NMDA to AMPA ratio. Graphical ... Besides cortex, thalamus constitutes a major source of excitatory input ...
[30]
https://www.nature.com/articles/nn0599_467
[31]
GABAergic Inputs from Direct and Indirect Striatal Projection ...
Differential excitability and modulation of striatal medium spiny neuron dendrites. ... Striatal interneurons expressing calretinin, parvalbumin or NADPH ...Gaba Inputs Onto... · Gabaergic Inputs Onto... · Synaptic Gabaergic...<|separator|>
[32]
Inhibitory control of neostriatal projection neurons by GABAergic interneurons - Nature Neuroscience
**Summary of Findings on Inhibitory GABAergic Inputs from Fast-Spiking Interneurons (Parvalbumin-Positive) to Medium Spiny Neurons**
[33]
Cholinergic modulation of synaptic integration and dendritic ... - NIH
The cholinergic interneurons in the striatum help regulate the duration, strength, and spatial pattern of striatal MSNs output. Each of these interneurons ...
[34]
Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity in the Striatum - PMC
Here, we reviewed the different forms of spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP) occurring at corticostriatal synapses. Most of the studies have focused on ...
[35]
Postsynaptic endocannabinoid release is critical to long-term ...
Mar 25, 2002 · The striatum functions critically in movement control and habit formation. The development and function of cortical input to the striatum ...Missing: Gerdeman | Show results with:Gerdeman
[36]
Evaluation of D1 and D2 Dopamine Receptor Segregation in the ...
MSNs from the direct pathway express high levels of D1 dopamine receptors, while MSNs from the indirect pathway express high levels of D2 dopamine receptors.
[37]
Segregation of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors in the striatal direct ...
The D1 dopamine receptor (Drd1) is coupled to stimulatory G proteins (Gs or Golf) while the D2 dopamine receptor (Drd2) is coupled to the inhibitory G protein ( ...
[38]
Striatal Neurons Expressing D1 and D2 Receptors are ... - Nature
Jan 27, 2017 · Roughly half of the MSNs express dopamine (DA) receptor of the D1 type and contain the neuropeptides substance P (SP) and dynorphin (DYN). They ...
[39]
Bidirectional Regulation of DARPP-32 Phosphorylation by Dopamine
Dopamine has been shown to stimulate phosphorylation of DARPP-32, a phosphoprotein highly enriched in medium-sized spiny neurons of the neostriatum.
[40]
Restoring the youthful state of striatal plasticity in aged mice re ...
May 22, 2023 · Research has started to clarify the role played by the two main neuronal components of the striatum—the D1- and D2-expressing spiny projection ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Phasic D1 and tonic D2 dopamine receptor signaling double ... - PNAS
The phasic and tonic activities of DA neurons are thought to mediate different aspects of goal-directed behavior; phasic activity facilitates cue-reward ...
[42]
Neuroanatomy, Basal Ganglia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The dorsal striatum has GABAergic projections from medium spiny neurons onto either the GPi (called the “Direct pathway”) or the GPe (called the “Indirect ...
[43]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6665341/
[44]
Multiple dynamic interactions from basal ganglia direct and indirect ...
Optogenetic inhibition, as well as selective ablation of direct pathway, impairs action selection, and optogenetic excitation of direct pathway enhances current ...
[45]
Milestones in Research on the Pathophysiology of Parkinson's ... - NIH
The indirect pathway is a polysynaptic connection that involves an inhibitory projection from MSNs that express dopamine D2-receptors and enkephalin to the ...
[46]
Membrane Properties of Striatal Direct and Indirect Pathway ...
... MSNs were less excitable than indirect pathway MSNs. We provide evidence ... dendritic) excitability were seen [9], [17]. We were interested in ...
[47]
Striatal Indirect Pathway Dysfunction Underlies Motor Deficits in a ...
Striatal Indirect Pathway Dysfunction Underlies Motor Deficits in a Mouse Model of ... In the classic hyperkinetic movement disorder, Huntington's disease ...
[48]
Electrophysiological Properties of Medium Spiny Neuron Subtypes ...
... medium spiny neurons. Property, Drd1a, Drd2, Statistics (F, p). Resting potential, mV, Male: −90.9 ± 1.2a. Female: −87.5 ± 0.7a ,b, Male: −85.0 ± 1.8b. Female ...
[49]
Regulation of habit formation in the dorsal striatum - PMC
Emerging evidence is indicating that striatal, especially DLS, MSN activity and neuroplasticity is associated with habit learning. Such long-lasting changes in ...
[50]
Regulation of habit formation in the dorsal striatum - ScienceDirect
The balance between the reflective, goal-directed, and reflexive, habit, systems promotes maximally adaptive and efficient behavior [5, 6], but when it is ...
[51]
Striatal circuits for reward learning and decision-making - PMC
Activation of the direct and indirect pathways also seems to oppositely modulate learning. Activation of D1R MSNs in the dorsal striatum reinforces the ...
[52]
Connectivity of the Corticostriatal and Thalamostriatal Systems in ...
In the dorsal striatum, these inputs arise from areas involved in the sensory and motor processing, but also from limbic areas such as the cingulate cortex and ...
[53]
Inputs to the Dorsal Striatum of the Mouse Reflect the Parallel Circuit ...
Dec 27, 2010 · We focus on the topographic organization of the dorsal striatum and its connectivity with both cortical and subcortical structures.
[54]
The role of dopamine in modulating the structure ... - PubMed Central
Dopamine (DA) is a key regulator of action selection and associative learning. The striatum has long been thought to be a major locus of DA action in this ...
[55]
Selective regulation of corticostriatal synapses by astrocytic ...
Here, the authors show that astrocytes selectively eliminate corticostriatal synapses, regulating striatal plasticity and motor learning.<|separator|>
[56]
Modulating inhibitory synaptic plasticity to restore basal ganglia ...
Of relevance, an optogenetic study showed in dopamine-depleted mice that periodic activations of D1 medium spiny neurons (D1-MSNs; direct pathway striatal ...
[57]
Dlx1/2-dependent expression of Meis2 promotes neuronal fate ...
... medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), which arise from a common lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE) progenitor. The molecular mechanisms of cell fate ...
[58]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8918808/
[59]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.07.015
[60]
SP8 and SP9 coordinately promote D2-type medium spiny neuron ...
Progenitors of these neurons arise in the lateral ganglionic eminence (LGE). ... These cells have increased Dlx1/2 TF expression (Fig. 4, Fig. S6), which ...
[61]
Early postnatal development of the cellular and circuit properties of ...
Sep 17, 2018 · Whereas we see a significant increase in the average spine density (per μm of dendrite) as the neurons mature (D1; P3-6: 0.13 ± 0.01, P9-12: ...Missing: rodents | Show results with:rodents
[62]
How to make striatal projection neurons - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
When expressed ectopically in the dorsal telencephalon, Gsx2 is able to up-regulate DLX1/2 and ASCL1 at the expense of cortical markers, further highlighting ...
[63]
The Many Faces of MeCP2 | Neuropsychopharmacology - Nature
Dec 13, 2011 · Brain-specific phosphorylation of MeCP2 regulates activity-dependent Bdnf transcription, dendritic growth, and spine maturation. Neuron 52: 255– ...
[64]
FoxP1 marks medium spiny neurons from precursors to maturity and ...
Human fetal tissue ranging in age from 8 to 12 weeks post conception (which corresponds to crown rump length of 22–54 mm) was collected according to Kelly et al ...
[65]
Subregional, Dendritic Compartment, and Spine Subtype Specificity ...
May 16, 2012 · Numerous studies have found that chronic cocaine increases dendritic spine density of medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens (NAc).
[66]
longevity of cocaine-induced changes in dendritic spine density in ...
Many reports show that repeated cocaine administration increases dendritic spine density in medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens.
[67]
Response learning stimulates dendritic spine growth on dorsal ...
We found a small but significant increase in dendritic spine density on medium spiny neurons of the dorsolateral striatum after short-term intensive training, ...
[68]
Treadmill exercise reverses dendritic spine loss in direct and indirect ...
30 days of intensive treadmill exercise led to increased dendritic spine density and arborization in MSNs of both pathways.
[69]
BDNF-TrkB controls cocaine-induced dendritic spines in ... - PNAS
Aug 14, 2017 · Dendritic spine formation is functionally linked to activity-dependent BDNF-TrkB signaling in hippocampal pyramidal neurons (9), but whether ...
[70]
BDNF signaling and survival of striatal neurons - PMC
We will review several studies that demonstrate important functions of BDNF-TrkB signaling in promoting somatic growth, dendritic complexity, and spine density ...
[71]
Activity-Regulated Cytoskeleton-Associated Protein Accumulates in ...
Cocaine induces the rapid induction of Arc and its nuclear accumulation in striatal neurons. Locally, it alters the nucleosomal response, and acts as a brake on ...
[72]
Dopamine-Mediated Learning and Switching in Cortico-Striatal ...
Mar 21, 2011 · These LTP and LTD processes in direct and indirect pathway MSNs seem to depend, directly or indirectly, on the level of DA in the BG. For ...
[73]
Stress and the dopaminergic reward system - Nature
Dec 1, 2020 · In this review, I will review and discuss current findings on the effects of stress, especially chronic stress, on the mesolimbic dopaminergic ...Missing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[74]
Dendritic spine density is increased on nucleus accumbens D2 ...
Jul 9, 2020 · After chronic social defeat stress, NAc MSNs exhibit increased dendritic spine density. However, it remains unclear if the dendritic spine ...
[75]
Environmental Enrichment and Social Isolation Mediate ... - PubMed
Environmental Enrichment and Social Isolation Mediate Neuroplasticity of Medium Spiny Neurons through the GSK3 Pathway. Cell Rep. 2018 Apr 10;23(2):555-567.
[76]
Dendritic spine degeneration is associated with age-related decline ...
Aug 28, 2025 · In the context of aging, it was previously shown that memory impairments are not primarily due to neuronal loss, but rather alterations in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
Physical Exercise Exerts Neuroprotective Effect on Memory ...
4 weeks of physical exercise improves memory function by mitigate the decline of striatum catecholamine and spine density in VD model.
[78]
Circuit Mechanisms of Parkinson's Disease - ScienceDirect
Mar 20, 2019 · This Review will discuss key clinical features of PD and their basis in neural circuit dysfunction. We will first review important disease symptoms.
[79]
Functional segregation of basal ganglia pathways in Parkinson's ...
Aug 6, 2018 · Loss of dopamine reduces D1 receptor dependent direct pathway MSN activation and increases D2 receptor dependent indirect pathway MSN ...
[80]
Dopaminergic denervation and spine loss in the striatum of MPTP ...
In line with these observations, our findings reveal a significant (30–50%) reduction in spine density in both the caudate nucleus and putamen of severely DA- ...
[81]
Loss and Remodeling of Striatal Dendritic Spines in Parkinson's ...
Striatal spine loss is an early event tightly associated with the extent of striatal DA denervation, but not the severity of parkinsonian motor symptoms.
[82]
iPSC-Derived Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons from Patients with ...
We found a significantly elevated release and neuronal distribution for α-synuclein, as well as hypoexcitability in the MSNs derived from the MSA-P patients.
[83]
Aberrant striatal plasticity is specifically associated with dyskinesia ...
Chronic L-DOPA treatment for Parkinson's disease often results in the development of abnormal involuntary movement, known as L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LIDs).
[84]
Maladaptive striatal plasticity in L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia - PMC
Dopamine (DA) replacement therapy with l-DOPA remains the most effective treatment for Parkinson's disease, but causes dyskinesia (abnormal involuntary ...
[85]
Comparison of the Long-Term Efficacy of Targeting the Subthalamic ...
Nov 26, 2024 · The present study represents a meta-analysis of the long-term (> 5 years) effects of DBS on the two most common targets, the subthalamic nucleus ...
[86]
Pitx3 deficiency promotes age-dependent alterations in striatal ...
Sep 7, 2022 · During aging, the targeted neurotransmitter, MSNs morphology and DNA methylation profile were significantly altered upon Pitx3 deficiency.
[87]
Synaptic pathology in Huntington's disease - NIH
Histopathologically, there is a massive loss of striatal projection neurons and less but significant loss in other areas throughout the cortico-basal ganglia- ...
[88]
DeltaFosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction - PubMed
Similar accumulation of DeltaFosB occurs after compulsive running, which suggests that DeltaFosB may accumulate in response to many types of compulsive ...
[89]
Manipulating ΔFOSB in D1-type Medium Spiny Neurons of the ...
ΔFOSB induction in D1 MSNs in vivo contributes to the transcriptional reorganization that occurs in NAc in response to drug exposure and promotes rewarding ...
[90]
Cocaine-induced dendritic spine formation in D1 and D2 ... - PNAS
In the present study, we analyzed dendritic spine density after chronic cocaine treatment in distinct D1 or D2 receptor-containing medium-sized spiny neurons ...
[91]
The “addicted” spine - Frontiers
Medium Spiny Neurons (MSNs) of the Nucleus Accumbens (Nacc) show a reduced number of dendritic spines and a decrease in TH-positive terminals upon ...
[92]
Altered Dendritic Spine Plasticity in Cocaine-Withdrawn Rats - NIH
Here we demonstrate that withdrawal from repeated cocaine is associated with metaplasticity in NAcore MSNs that is manifested by the induction of rapid changes ...
[93]
Cocaine-induced gene regulation in D1 and D2 neuronal ... - Nature
Jun 12, 2025 · Our findings provide a high-resolution transcriptomic map of D1 and D2 MSNs, illustrating the dynamic changes induced by cocaine exposure and withdrawal.Missing: spinogenesis | Show results with:spinogenesis
[94]
(PDF) Neurobiology of the incubation of drug craving: An update
Jan 19, 2025 · accumbens (NAc) MSNs to respond more strongly (ie, higher. neuronal activity) to glutamate released in response to cocaine cues. (Wolf, 2016) ...
[95]
Reward Mechanisms in Obesity: New Insights and Future Directions
The data reviewed above support the notion that obesity and drug addiction may arise from similar neuroadaptive responses in brain reward circuitries.