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Moonfish

Moonfish is a common name used for several unrelated species of marine fish characterized by their round or disc-like bodies and silvery appearance. These include members of the opah family (Lampridae), moonyfishes (family Monodactylidae), lookdown moonfishes (genus Selene in Carangidae), the Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), and the ocean sunfish (Mola mola). The term derives from the fish's moon-shaped profile and reflective scales. This article provides an overview of these groups, with detailed sections on taxonomy, description, habitat, and ecology for each. The opah (Lampris spp.), often called moonfish in some regions, is one prominent example known for its vibrant colors and unique physiology, covered in detail below.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Common Usage

The term "moonfish" serves as a vernacular name applied to at least five distinct groups of ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii), reflecting its lack of correspondence to any single taxonomic category and highlighting the ambiguity in common naming conventions for marine species.^[2] This polysemy arises from superficial resemblances in body shape or coloration among unrelated taxa, leading to regional variations in usage across English-speaking contexts. In primary English usage, particularly in commercial fishing and popular media, "moonfish" most frequently denotes the opah (genus Lampris), a large pelagic species prized in Pacific markets such as Hawaii.^[3] Secondary applications include the moonyfishes (family Monodactylidae), lookdown moonfishes (genus Selene), the Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), and the ocean sunfish (Mola mola), often in regional, linguistic, or aquarium trade contexts.^[2]^[4] The term traces to 18th-century naturalist descriptions, with Brünnich's 1788 description of the species (originally named Zeus guttatus) marking an early formal recognition, and gained renewed prominence after 2015 with the discovery of opah endothermy, which elevated public and scientific interest in the group.^[5]^[6] Major groups associated with the name include:

Opah (Lampris spp.): Large, colorful pelagic predators of open ocean waters.^[2]
Moonyfishes (Monodactylidae): Small, disc-shaped estuarine species popular in aquariums.^[7]
Lookdown moonfishes (Selene spp.): Silvery coastal carangids with downward-tilted eyes.^[2]
Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber): Deep-bodied reef dwellers of the Western Atlantic.^[2]
Ocean sunfish (Mola mola): Massive, globally distributed pelagic giants.^[2]
Moonfishes (Menidae): Deep-bodied, compressed Indo-Pacific species with elongated pelvic fins.^[8]

Etymology

The term "moonfish" derives from the English word "moon," applied to various fish species due to their round, silvery, or disc-like body shapes that evoke the moon's profile or luminous shine. This naming convention first appeared in English ichthyological literature in the mid-17th century, with the earliest recorded use dating to 1646, likely referring to pelagic species with striking, circular forms observed in Atlantic and Pacific waters.^[9]^[10] Cross-linguistically, the name reflects similar observations of lunar resemblance, particularly for the ocean sunfish (Mola mola), which is termed "moonfish" in multiple languages, including "pez luna" (Spanish for "moon fish") and "månefisk" (Danish for "moon fish").^[11] The opah (Lampris guttatus), another prominent moonfish, is called "moonfish" in Hawaiian and broader Pacific English dialects, emphasizing its large, rounded silhouette.^[3] By the late 18th century, the name gained traction in scientific texts; for instance, Danish zoologist Morten Thrane Brünnich first scientifically described the opah species in 1788 (as Zeus guttatus). In the 19th century, the term expanded to Atlantic species in the genus Selene (lookdowns and moonfishes), whose genus name derives directly from the Greek "selene" meaning "moon," alluding to their compressed, vaguely lunar body outline.^[12] Variations of the name include "moony" for species in the genus Monodactylus (moonyfishes), highlighting their silvery, glowing scales reminiscent of moonlight on water. Regional synonyms for the opah, such as "Jerusalem haddock," emerged in European and North American fisheries, possibly from historical trade routes or visual analogies to haddock but retaining the moonfish association in some contexts.^[13] Culturally, moonfish names carry symbolic weight in folklore, often portraying these fish as lunar omens or auspicious signs of abundance, while their striking appearance has long positioned them as prized delicacies in Pacific and Atlantic traditions.^[3]

Opah

Taxonomy and Species

The opah belongs to the family Lampridae in the order Lampriformes, a group of pelagic fishes known for their distinctive body shapes. The genus Lampris, established by Retzius in 1799, currently includes six recognized species, primarily distributed in tropical and temperate oceans worldwide. These species underwent taxonomic revisions in the late 2010s, with several new ones described based on genetic and morphological analyses.^[14]^[15] Key species include Lampris guttatus (opah), the most widespread, found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; Lampris immaculatus (southern opah), circumglobal in southern temperate waters; Lampris australensis (southern spotted opah), restricted to the Southern Hemisphere; Lampris incognitus (small-eye Pacific opah), in the central and northeast Pacific; Lampris lauta (east Atlantic opah), in the eastern Atlantic; and Lampris megalopsis (bigeye Pacific opah), cosmopolitan in deeper waters.^[14] Species are distinguished by differences in fin ray counts, spot patterns, eye size, and genetic markers. The family Lampridae has fossil records dating back to the Eocene, but specific genus-level fossils are limited. The name "opah" derives from Hawaiian, while "moonfish" refers to its round, silvery body resembling a full moon. As of 2025, the taxonomy remains stable with these six species, though further genetic studies continue.^[1]

Physical Description

The opah (Lampris guttatus) possesses a distinctive deeply keeled, discoid body that is laterally compressed, giving it an oval profile adapted for pelagic life. This species can reach a maximum total length of up to 2 meters and a weight of 270 kilograms, making it one of the largest lampridiform fishes. In contrast, the smaller Lampris immaculatus attains a maximum length of about 1.1 meters and weighs up to 30 kilograms.^[16]^[17]^[18] The live coloration of L. guttatus is striking and iridescent, featuring a silvery-grey upper body that fades to rose red on the belly, accented by irregular rows of white spots across the flanks; the fins are vermilion, and the area around the large eyes is golden. L. immaculatus exhibits a similar but less brilliant golden-orange to vermilion hue in patches, without the prominent white spots. Juveniles of both species display more numerous and pronounced spots compared to adults.^[16]^[17]^[18] Key anatomical features include large eyes suited for vision in low-light conditions, a small terminal mouth that is toothless, and minute cycloid scales that contribute to the fish's iridescent sheen. The tail is forked with a broadly lunate caudal fin, while the pectoral fins are long and falcate, often extending up to the length of the body; the pelvic fins are similarly shaped but slightly longer. Opahs also feature robust gill arches with an expanded surface area that enhances oxygen uptake, supporting their active metabolism; these traits align with their partial endothermy, where heat generated by pectoral fin flapping is retained through vascular counter-current exchanges.^[16]^[19]^[20]

Distribution and Habitat

The opah (Lampris spp.), including the widely distributed L. guttatus and the southern L. australensis, inhabit temperate and tropical oceans globally, with L. guttatus occurring from approximately 50°N to 40°S in the Pacific, across the Atlantic from the Grand Banks to Argentina, and in regions like the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and western Pacific from Japan to New Zealand.^[21]^[22] L. australensis is restricted to the southern hemisphere, primarily in the subtropical Pacific and Indian Oceans.^[22] These fish are oceanic pelagic species, avoiding estuarine environments and favoring open waters well offshore, often near productive features such as seamounts, oceanic fronts, and island chains.^[21] Opah primarily occupy the mesopelagic zone at depths of 50–500 m, with most activity between 50 and 400 m, though they rarely exceed 400 m and can reach over 500 m occasionally.^[21]^[23] They prefer water temperatures of 10–22°C, tolerating a broader range of 5–25°C but avoiding conditions below approximately 8°C, with vertical distribution often limited by the depth profiles of temperature and dissolved oxygen (requiring >1 ml/l).^[21]^[23] In the central North Pacific, opah experience average ambient temperatures of 14.7–16.5°C over 24-hour periods.^[23] Migration patterns include seasonal horizontal movements, with opah shifting poleward during warmer months and equatorward in cooler periods, as observed in the northeast Atlantic where they move northward into the North Sea and off Norway in summer.^[21] Vertical migrations are predominantly diel, with individuals occupying shallower depths of 50–150 m at night and deeper layers of 100–400 m during the day in subtropical gyres northwest of Hawaii.^[23] These movements are tied to thermoclines and environmental gradients, influencing habitat use in dynamic currents such as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and the California Current in the eastern Pacific.^[21] Regionally, opah are common in areas like the Hawaiian Islands—where catches peak in the fourth quarter within the 200-mile exclusive economic zone—and the California Current system, with higher concentrations east of Hawaii (mean catch rate of 0.98 fish per 1,000 hooks).^[21]^[1] They are oceanic and solitary in open waters, but rare beach strandings occur sporadically, such as along the Oregon coast and North Sea shores.^[1]^[5]

Physiology and Behavior

The opah (Lampris guttatus) represents the first documented case of a fully endothermic fish, capable of generating and retaining heat to maintain a whole-body temperature roughly 5°C warmer than the surrounding seawater. This physiological adaptation is powered primarily by the red aerobic muscle in the pectoral fins, which flaps continuously to produce metabolic heat, while specialized vascular structures—such as the cranial rete mirabile and counter-current heat exchangers in the gills—redirect warmed blood throughout the body, including to the heart and brain.^[6] By buffering against the cold temperatures of the mesopelagic zone (often below 10°C), this endothermy supports elevated aerobic performance, faster reaction times, and sustained activity levels that would otherwise be limited in ectothermic fishes.^[6] The metabolic cost of this thermoregulation is significant, with the opah's resting oxygen consumption rate measured at 13.4 to 14.6 mg O₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹—two to three times higher than predicted for similar-sized ectotherms—highlighting the evolutionary trade-off for enhanced physiological capabilities in deep, cold waters.^[24] A foundational aspect of opah endothermy involves the heat balance equation, which approximates the required thermal power as:

Q = m \cdot c \cdot \Delta T

Here, Q denotes the heat production rate (in watts or joules per second), m is the fish's body mass (in kg), c is the specific heat capacity of water (approximately 4184 J kg⁻¹ °C⁻¹, used as a proxy for biological tissue), and \Delta T is the maintained temperature gradient (typically 5°C).^[6] This simplified model, derived from bioenergetic principles, underscores how continuous muscular activity and vascular efficiency enable the opah to offset heat loss in dynamic oceanic environments, though actual rates vary with activity and depth. Detailed measurements from tagged specimens confirm that this system allows the opah to remain active at depths up to 400 m without the torpor typical of cold-bodied predators.^[6] In terms of diet, the opah is an opportunistic carnivore that preys on a diverse array of midwater organisms, including smaller mesopelagic fishes like lanternfish (Myctophidae) and barracudinas (Stomias), cephalopods such as onychoteuthid squid (Moroteuthis ingens), and crustaceans including krill. Stomach content analyses reveal a broad trophic niche, with squid comprising up to 93% frequency in some populations and fishes dominating by weight (58–67%), reflecting the opah's ability to exploit vertically migrating prey across the water column.^[1]^[25] This foraging strategy benefits from the opah's endothermy, which enhances visual acuity and muscle power for pursuing evasive targets in dim conditions.^[6] Behaviorally, opah are typically solitary or form small, loose aggregations, occasionally observed in proximity to faster pelagic species like tunas (Thunnus spp.) or billfishes (Istiophoridae), possibly for opportunistic feeding or navigation cues. Their locomotion relies on a distinctive lift-based propulsion, where the large, wing-like pectoral fins flap continuously to generate both lift and thrust, supplemented by the caudal fin for steering—enabling sustained cruising speeds of up to 20 km/h and burst capabilities exceeding this in pursuits.^[6]^[26] This flapping motion not only facilitates efficient travel across vast distances but also contributes directly to heat generation for endothermy. Opah exhibit diel vertical migration patterns, descending to 50–400 m during daylight hours and ascending toward the surface at night, likely to track the migrations of prey like squid and lanternfish while exploiting thermal gradients for energy conservation.^[1] Sensory adaptations complement these behaviors, with the opah's prominent, large eyes (up to 10% of body length) optimized for detecting faint bioluminescent signals from prey in the low-light mesopelagic realm, enhancing foraging success during deep dives. Non-lethal parasitism is common, including tetraphyllidean cestodes (Tetraphyllidea), which occur as larval stages in the opah's tissues without apparent impact on host fitness.^[6]^[27]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

The opah (Lampris guttatus) is oviparous, with external fertilization occurring in open water, resulting in planktonic eggs that are scattered without parental care.^[28] Spawning takes place in warm surface waters of tropical and subtropical regions, where adults migrate to areas with temperatures between 20–29°C; in cooler temperate waters, it is more seasonal, with peaks observed in spring.^[29]^[1] Limited direct observations exist, but larval distributions in surface waters support inferences of epipelagic spawning over vast oceanic areas, potentially multiple times per year in equatorial zones.^[1] Fecundity is high, with estimates ranging from 7.2 to 9.7 million eggs per female in Caribbean populations.^[30] The life cycle begins with pelagic eggs that hatch into transparent, elongated larvae resembling ribbonfishes, adapted for a planktonic existence in the upper water column.^[31] These pre-juvenile larvae, initially slender and measuring less than 4.7 mm in standard length (SL), undergo a rapid morphological transformation to the characteristic deep-bodied adult form by approximately 10.6 mm SL, at which point fin development is complete and they resemble miniature adults.^[32]^[31] This shift occurs within days to weeks post-hatching, with larvae featuring sparse pigmentation primarily along the dorsal and ventral regions to enhance transparency and reduce predation risk.^[32] However, planktonic larvae experience high mortality rates due to intense predation in the epipelagic zone.^[29] Juveniles settle into a more active swimming lifestyle post-metamorphosis, growing rapidly in the initial years. Growth follows a von Bertalanffy model with parameters L∞ ≈ 119 cm, K ≈ 0.218 year⁻¹, and t₀ ≈ -0.78 years, yielding an early growth rate of approximately 20–25 cm per year before slowing.^[33] Sexual maturity is reached at around 80 cm fork length, corresponding to an age of 4–5 years, after which individuals attain full adult proportions.^[33] Opah exhibit a generation time of about 5 years and can live up to 13–14 years, though maximum longevity may exceed 20 years based on ageing via dorsal fin ray annuli.^[16]^[33]

Fisheries and Conservation

Opah (Lampris guttatus) is primarily captured as bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries targeting tunas and swordfish across the Pacific Ocean, though a targeted commercial fishery operates in Hawaiian waters using similar longline gear.^[1] Landings in Hawaii, where opah is most commercially exploited in the United States, totaled approximately 526,000 pounds (238.8 metric tons) in 2022.^[34] The fish is prized for its mild, sweet-flavored meat, which has a firm yet tender texture suitable for grilling, broiling, or raw preparations, and its skin, often utilized in fillets or for decorative purposes.^[35] In Japanese cuisine, the top loin cut is particularly valued for sashimi due to its lean, salmon-like qualities.^[36] Economically, U.S. wild-caught opah is considered a sustainable choice under National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) oversight, with exports often marketed as "moonfish" fillets to international markets, including Asia and Europe.^[1] Historical records indicate incidental catches of opah dating back to the 19th century, initially as rare bycatch in exploratory fisheries, evolving into more consistent landings with the expansion of longline operations in the 20th century.^[37] Conservation efforts classify Lampris guttatus as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2013), with no evidence of overfishing and stable population trends as of the latest assessments.^[38] Primary threats include bycatch mortality in longline fisheries and ingestion of marine plastic debris, with studies showing up to 60% of analyzed opah containing plastics in their stomachs, potentially affecting health and food chain contamination.^[39] Management in the Pacific relies on general longline regulations, including permits, catch reporting, and gear restrictions to minimize bycatch, rather than species-specific quotas for opah.^[40] Ongoing research focuses on post-release survival rates for incidentally caught pelagic species, including opah, to inform bycatch reduction strategies, though opah-specific data remain limited.^[41]

Moonyfishes

Taxonomy

The moonyfishes comprise the family Monodactylidae, established by Jordan and Evermann in 1898 and currently classified within the order Acanthuriformes.^[42]^[43] This family represents basal perch-like fishes among the percomorphs, with an evolutionary divergence from surgeonfishes (family Acanthuridae) estimated at approximately 50 million years ago during the Eocene.^[44] The only extant genus is Monodactylus Lacepède, 1801, which includes two primary species: M. argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758), known as the silver moony, and M. sebae (Cuvier, 1829), the African moony.^[45] No major taxonomic revisions to this genus have occurred as of 2025.^[46] Two extinct genera, Psettopsis Blot, 1969, and Pasaichthys Blot, 1969, are known from fossil remains dating to the Early Eocene at the Monte Bolca lagerstätten in Italy.^[47]^[48] Unlike the strictly marine opah of the order Lampriformes, the Monodactylidae form a euryhaline family adapted to variable salinities in coastal and estuarine environments.^[46]

Description

Moonyfishes of the family Monodactylidae, in the genus Monodactylus, are characterized by a deep, strongly compressed, disc-like body that is often taller than it is long, particularly in M. sebae, providing a diamond-shaped profile suited to maneuvering in shallow, vegetated waters.^[46]^[49] The head is small with a moderately steep profile, and the mouth is small, protrusible, and terminal, equipped with bands of fine villiform teeth for feeding on small prey.^[45] Adults typically reach lengths of 15–25 cm, with M. sebae capable of attaining a body height up to 30 cm. The coloration is predominantly silvery, reflecting light for camouflage in estuarine environments, though juveniles of both species often display 4–5 dark vertical bars on the body that fade with age.^[50] The dorsal fin has 5–8 short, graduated spines followed by 42–46 soft rays on a long, scaly base, while the anal fin features 3 spines and 35–40 soft rays; both fins are roughly equal in length and can be extended for display.^[46] Pelvic fins are small and filamentous in juveniles. Scales are cycloid, small, and embedded, contributing to the smooth, nearly scaleless appearance.^[45] M. argenteus tends to have a slightly more elongated body compared to the taller, more orbicular form of M. sebae. This compressed morphology, combined with the reflective silvery integument, aids in school cohesion and evasion from predators in coastal habitats.^[50]

Habitat and Distribution

Moonyfishes of the family Monodactylidae are distributed primarily along Indo-Pacific coastlines, ranging from the Red Sea and East Africa (extending south to South Africa) through India and southern Asia to northern Australia.^[51] The species Monodactylus argenteus exhibits the widest range, occurring from the Persian Gulf and East Africa eastward to the Philippines, southern Japan, Samoa, New Caledonia, and Polynesia, including the tidal freshwater zones of estuaries like the Mekong Delta.^[51] In comparison, Monodactylus sebae is more restricted to African waters along the eastern Atlantic coast, from Cape Verde and Senegal south to Angola, including the Canary Islands.^[52] These fishes occupy shallow coastal and estuarine habitats, typically at depths less than 5 m, such as bays, mangrove forests, tidal creeks, lagoons, and the lower reaches of brackish rivers.^[51]^[52] As euryhaline species, they demonstrate tolerance to a broad salinity gradient from 0 to 35 ppt, enabling habitation across freshwater, brackish, and marine conditions.^[53] Moonyfishes prefer warm tropical waters with temperatures ranging from 24°C to 28°C and frequently form large shoals in vegetated areas like mangroves for shelter and foraging support.^[51]^[52] Their reliance on these dynamic estuarine environments exposes them to threats, particularly habitat loss driven by coastal development, which has resulted in widespread mangrove degradation across the Indo-Pacific.^[54]

Behavior and Human Use

Moonyfishes, including species such as Monodactylus argenteus and Monodactylus sebae, exhibit pronounced shoaling behavior in their natural habitats, often forming large schools numbering in the hundreds to facilitate social interactions and predator avoidance.^[55]^[56] These schools are particularly evident in estuarine and coastal environments, where juveniles may initially occur in smaller aggregations before joining larger groups as they mature.^[55] In aquarium settings, however, moonyfishes can display territorial and semi-aggressive tendencies, especially when housed in small groups of fewer than six individuals, leading to heightened belligerence; maintaining schools of at least six to eight specimens helps mitigate such conflicts and promotes more natural behavior.^[57]^[58] As diurnal feeders, moonyfishes primarily consume small invertebrates, plankton, zooplankton, and detritus in the wild, with M. argenteus targeting copepods and similar microcrustaceans while M. sebae includes small fish and shrimp in its diet.^[55]^[56] Their disc-shaped body facilitates opportunistic ambush tactics during feeding, allowing them to blend into mangrove or estuarine surroundings before striking at prey.^[59] In captivity, they readily accept frozen foods, pellets, and live invertebrates, but their active foraging requires ample swimming space to prevent stress.^[59] Wild individuals typically have a lifespan of 5 to 8 years, though this can extend to 7 to 10 years in well-maintained aquariums with optimal conditions.^[60]^[57] Moonyfishes hold significant appeal in the marine and brackish aquarium trade, particularly M. argenteus and M. sebae, due to their striking silvery appearance and graceful schooling displays.^[55]^[56] Successful husbandry demands large tanks exceeding 100 liters to accommodate their adult size of up to 25 cm, along with brackish water setups maintaining salinity between 1.005 and 1.015 specific gravity to mimic estuarine habitats.^[57]^[61] Captive breeding has advanced since the 2010s, with M. sebae first produced in 2007 at the University of Florida's Tropical Aquaculture Lab and M. argenteus achieving successful maturation and larval rearing through hormonal induction by 2020.^[62]^[63] The international trade in moonyfishes is centered on exports from Indonesia and India, where wild collection supports a commercial aquarium market, supplemented by emerging aquaculture operations to meet demand.^[64]^[7] While no major food fisheries target these species—only minor commercial catches using throw nets—the ornamental trade poses risks of overcollection in coastal regions, though sustainability efforts through captive breeding help mitigate depletion.^[55]^[56] Transport challenges remain a key concern, with mortality rates in the marine ornamental fish supply chain estimated at 5 to 12 percent for common species, often higher due to stress from capture and shipping.^[65] By 2025, guidelines from organizations like the Association of Zoos and Aquariums emphasize ethical sourcing, including traceability and reduced wild harvest quotas, to promote welfare and conservation in the trade.^[66]

Lookdown Moonfishes

Taxonomy and Species

The lookdown moonfishes are classified within the family Carangidae, commonly known as jacks and pompanos, and belong to the genus Selene, which was established by Lacépède in 1802. The genus is part of the order Carangiformes and is characterized by its inclusion in the diverse carangid lineage. No fossil records have been documented specifically for the genus Selene, though the broader Carangidae family has fossils dating back to the early Paleogene.^[67]^[68] The genus Selene currently includes seven recognized species, primarily distributed in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans, following a 2022 taxonomic revision that moved Selene orstedii to the new genus Paraselene. Key species include Selene vomer (lookdown), a coastal Atlantic species noted for its distinctive steep profile; Selene setapinnis (Atlantic moonfish), found from the United States to Brazil; Selene brevoortii (hairfin lookdown), ranging from the Gulf of California to Peru; and eastern Pacific endemics such as Selene peruviana (Pacific moonfish). Other species encompass Selene brownii (Caribbean moonfish), Selene dorsalis (African moonfish), and Selene spixii.^[69]^[70]^[71] The name "moonfish" derives particularly from S. setapinnis, reflecting its silvery, disc-shaped body that resembles a full moon when viewed from the side. Species within the genus are distinguished primarily through meristic features, such as differences in dorsal and anal fin ray counts, along with subtle variations in body proportions and scale patterns. As of 2025, the taxonomy of Selene remains stable with the seven species classification upheld by major ichthyological databases like FishBase, though ongoing genetic studies continue to review certain species for possible synonymy or subdivision.^[69]

Description

Lookdown moonfishes, belonging to the genus Selene, exhibit a distinctive body form characterized by a deep, strongly compressed profile that tapers rapidly toward the tail, providing a streamlined shape suited for agile swimming in coastal waters. The head features a steep, nearly vertical forehead that is slightly concave below the eye, with the lower jaw protruding slightly to position the small mouth ventrally, oriented downward for foraging near the substrate. Adults typically reach lengths of 30–60 cm total length (TL) across the genus, though species maxima vary (e.g., S. vomer up to 48 cm TL, S. setapinnis up to 60 cm TL).^[72]^[73] The coloration of lookdown moonfishes is predominantly silvery, often with a subtle metallic blue tint on the back, enhancing camouflage through reflection in their schooling environment. Fins are generally yellowish, with darker margins evident on the dorsal and anal fins in some individuals; juveniles display more pronounced patterns, including a dark bar through the eye, 4–5 broken dark bars along the body, and yellow-gold barring. Meristic counts vary by species; for example, S. vomer has a dorsal fin with 9 spines and 23 soft rays, and an anal fin with 3 spines and 18 soft rays, while S. setapinnis has 9 spines and 21 soft dorsal rays, and 3 spines and 17 soft anal rays; the anterior portions are elongated in juveniles but more rounded in adults, with the pelvic fins notably small. The mouth is small and equipped with fine, villiform teeth in bands, though these become reduced in larger adults.^[72]^[73]^[74] Species variations include S. setapinnis, which possesses a more disc-like body shape due to its proportionally deeper compression and a pronounced concave forehead, contrasting with the slightly less angular profile of S. vomer. Scales are very small and embedded, giving the body a nearly scaleless appearance, though they are cycloid in structure across the genus. This compressed, fusiform morphology, combined with the reflective silvery integument, facilitates rapid bursts of speed and evasive maneuvers, particularly in open water or near structures.^[75]^[76]

Habitat and Ecology

Lookdown moonfishes of the genus Selene are distributed across the Western Atlantic Ocean from Canada to Argentina, including the Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda, and in the eastern Pacific from California, USA, to Peru. These species inhabit coastal environments such as reefs, bays, and seagrass beds in temperate to tropical waters, typically at depths ranging from 1 to 50 meters over sandy or hard bottoms. Juveniles often utilize estuarine and brackish areas for shelter, while adults remain in marine coastal zones.^[72]^[73]^[77] Ecologically, lookdown moonfishes are schooling predators that primarily feed on crustaceans like shrimps and crabs, as well as small fishes and worms, foraging in mid-water or near the bottom during the day. They serve as prey for larger carnivores, including jacks and sharks, contributing to the trophic dynamics of coastal ecosystems. Their silvery coloration provides camouflage within schools, enhancing survival against visual predators.^[72]^[73] Behaviorally, these fish are diurnal and form mixed schools with other species, often migrating seasonally to warmer coastal areas; generation time is estimated at around 2 years for some species like S. setapinnis. Presence in estuarine habitats positions them as potential indicators of water quality, as juveniles rely on these areas with suitable salinity and prey availability.^[73]^[72]^[73]

Other Moonfishes

Atlantic Spadefish

The Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber) is a marine fish belonging to the family Ephippidae, known regionally as a moonfish due to its distinctive disc-like body shape that resembles other moonfishes in the broader group.^[78]^[79] This species is the sole member of its genus and is characterized by its deep, compressed body, which gives it a spade-like profile with a blunt snout.^[79] Adults exhibit a silvery body marked by four to six irregular blackish vertical bands that often fade with age, while juveniles display more prominent dark banding for camouflage.^[78]^[79] The fish can reach a maximum length of 91 cm (total length) and weight of 9 kg, though common sizes are around 50 cm.^[79]^[78] Its fins include 9 dorsal spines, 21-24 dorsal soft rays, 3 anal spines, and 17-18 anal soft rays, with small brush-like teeth adapted for its diet.^[79] The Atlantic spadefish inhabits shallow coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, ranging from Massachusetts, USA, to Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean.^[79]^[78] It prefers depths of 1-50 m in subtropical climates, often associating with reefs, shipwrecks, mangroves, sandy beaches, and harbors; juveniles frequent brackish estuaries where they mimic floating debris for protection.^[79]^[78] Ecologically, this omnivorous species feeds on benthic invertebrates such as crustaceans, mollusks, annelids, sponges, and cnidarians, supplemented by plankton and jellyfish tentacles, with feeding activity peaking midday.^[79]^[78] It forms large schools of up to 500 individuals and is known for its curious behavior, such as circling divers, while exhibiting strong fighting ability that makes it a prized gamefish.^[78]^[79] Spawning occurs from May to September, with females releasing up to 1 million eggs per season that hatch within about 24 hours.^[78] In human use, the Atlantic spadefish supports minor commercial fisheries where it is marketed fresh for its mild-flavored flesh, though consumption carries a risk of ciguatera poisoning.^[79]^[78] It is also popular in recreational angling and appears in public aquariums, but lacks specific management plans despite potential overfishing risks from its schooling habit; its conservation status is Least Concern per IUCN.^[78]^[80]

Ocean Sunfish

The ocean sunfish, scientifically known as Mola mola, belongs to the family Molidae within the order Tetraodontiformes, and it serves as the type species of the genus Mola.^[81] This species is recognized for its distinctive morphology and pelagic lifestyle, contributing to its occasional association with the common name "moonfish" in various non-English languages, such as "poisson lune" in French or "pez luna" in Spanish, which translate to "moon fish" due to its rounded, disc-like shape; however, this name is rarely used in English, where "ocean sunfish" predominates.^[82] The family Molidae encompasses five recognized species, all characterized by their unusual body forms adapted to open-ocean environments.^[82] Physically, the ocean sunfish exhibits a massive, laterally flattened body resembling a truncated disc, with adults reaching lengths of up to 3.3 meters and weights exceeding 2,300 kilograms, making it the heaviest known bony fish.^[83] Its skin is thick and rubbery, covered in irregular tubercles that provide a rough texture, while the small terminal mouth is equipped with fused, beak-like teeth suited for its diet.^[81] The tail is notably abbreviated, forming a pseudocaudal fin or clavus that results from the fusion of dorsal and anal fin elements, propelling the fish through undulating motions of its large dorsal and anal fins rather than traditional tail oscillation.^[81] This species inhabits open oceanic waters worldwide, spanning tropical and temperate zones across all major oceans, from the surface down to depths of approximately 600 meters, though it occasionally ventures deeper during diurnal migrations. As a fully pelagic fish, it prefers epipelagic zones but demonstrates vertical movements influenced by temperature and prey availability, often remaining in waters between 10°C and 25°C. Ecologically, the ocean sunfish is a specialized feeder on gelatinous zooplankton, primarily jellyfish, salps, and ctenophores, consuming large quantities to compensate for the low caloric value of its prey.^[84] It frequently engages in surface basking behavior, lying horizontally at the water's surface to regulate body temperature after deep dives or possibly to deter parasites, a habit that makes it visible to observers and contributes to its "sunfish" moniker.^[85] Reproduction occurs via external fertilization in temperate waters, with females capable of producing up to 300 million buoyant eggs in a single spawning event, representing the highest fecundity among known vertebrates.^[86] This high reproductive output supports its population despite high juvenile mortality in the vast oceanic habitat.^[87]

Additional Species

Beyond the primary marine groups, several other fish species bear the common name "moonfish" in regional or trade contexts, often due to their silvery coloration or distinctive body profiles. These include deep-sea gadiforms, freshwater livebearers, and additional carangids, though the appellation is less prevalent and typically lacks dedicated fisheries outside local markets. The cusk (Brosme brosme), a gadiform in the family Lotidae, is referred to as moonfish in some North Atlantic dialects. Native to the northern Atlantic Ocean, it ranges from New Jersey northward to Newfoundland and Greenland, and from Iceland to Spitzbergen, inhabiting demersal zones at depths of 18–549 m on rough, rocky, or gravelly bottoms in cold waters (0–10°C). This commercially valued species, similar to cod in its elongated body and market use, is harvested by trawl for fresh, frozen, or salted products.^[88]^[89] The southern platyfish (Xiphophorus maculatus), a livebearing poeciliid, is commonly known as moonfish in the aquarium trade. Endemic to freshwater and brackish habitats in Central America, from Veracruz, Mexico, to northern Belize, it prefers slow-moving waters like canals, ditches, and weedy banks with silt bottoms at pH 7.0–8.0 and temperatures of 18–25°C. Reaching a maximum length of 6 cm, this small, fusiform fish is widely kept as an ornamental pet, with various color varieties bred for the hobby.^[90]^[91] The moonfish (Mene maculata), the only extant member of the family Menidae, features a small, silvery body with deep, triangular compression and metallic blue upper sides accented by dark spots, attaining 30 cm in total length. Distributed across the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa (south to Durban) to southern Japan, northeastern Australia, and New Caledonia, it inhabits reef-associated coastal shelves and estuaries at 50–200 m depth, often schooling near the bottom. It supports minor commercial fisheries via trawls and beach seines, with catches marketed fresh or dried.^[92] Regional variants include the harvestfish (Selene setapinnis), known as Atlantic moonfish and belonging to a distinct lineage within Carangidae, though similar in deep-bodied form to congeners like Selene vomer. Occurring in the western Atlantic from Nova Scotia to Argentina (absent in the Bahamas), it frequents benthopelagic inshore waters to 55 m depth, including brackish estuaries for juveniles. This species sustains local commercial harvests as a food fish, sold fresh.^[93] These designations highlight how "moonfish" frequently evokes the reflective, lunar-like sheen shared among such diverse taxa, but they remain incidental names without widespread economic focus.^[92]

References

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