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Mycelium-based materials

Mycelium-based materials are sustainable bio-composites derived from the filamentous network of fungal mycelium, which naturally binds organic substrates such as agricultural waste to form lightweight, biodegradable alternatives to conventional plastics, foams, and leathers.^[1]^[2] These materials, including both pure mycelium forms and mycelium-reinforced composites, exhibit tunable properties like porosity, elasticity, and hydrophobicity, primarily due to the composition of chitin, glucans, proteins, and lipids in the mycelial structure.^[3]^[1] Production of mycelium-based materials typically involves solid-state fermentation, where selected fungal species such as Ganoderma lucidum or Pleurotus ostreatus are cultivated on lignocellulosic substrates under controlled environmental conditions, including temperatures of 24–30°C and high humidity levels (typically 70–99%).^[1]^[3] Growth occurs over typically 5–20 days, forming a dense mycelial mat that binds the substrate, followed by post-processing steps like heat treatment at 60°C or oven drying to terminate fungal activity and stabilize the material.^[2]^[3] Substrate composition, such as cellulose or nutrient-enriched broths, allows for tuning mechanical attributes, with nutrient-rich media increasing ductility and protein content while pure cellulose enhances stiffness through higher chitin synthesis.^[3] Key advantages of these materials include their low-cost production from renewable feedstocks, biodegradability, and significantly reduced carbon footprint compared to petrochemical alternatives, alongside inherent properties like flame retardancy, thermal stability up to 225–300°C, and low water uptake under high humidity.^[2]^[3]^[1] They also offer superior acoustic insulation, absorbing 70–75% of sound at 1,000 Hz, and mechanical strength comparable to expanded polystyrene foams, making them eco-friendly options for waste valorization.^[1]^[4] Notable applications encompass packaging, thermal and acoustic insulation in construction, myco-leather products like Mylo™ and Reishi™, and emerging biomedical uses such as wound-healing scaffolds due to the bioactive chitin and chitosan components.^[2]^[1] As of 2024, the global mycelium market was valued at approximately USD 2.93 billion and is projected to reach USD 5.35 billion by 2034.^[5] Recent advancements focus on scalability through bioreactor methods and strain optimization to overcome challenges like material variability and lack of standardization, positioning mycelium-based materials as versatile solutions for environmental sustainability across industries.^[4]^[2]

History and Development

Pioneering Research

The interest in mycelium as a basis for engineered materials emerged in the 2000s, driven by mycologist Paul Stamets' pioneering explorations of fungal composites for environmental remediation. In his 2005 book Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World, Stamets detailed mycoremediation techniques, where mycelium networks bind to organic substrates like wood chips or agricultural waste to degrade hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and other pollutants, demonstrating the fungus's adhesive and structural potential beyond natural ecosystems. This work, building on earlier experiments in the late 1990s at polluted sites in Bellingham, Washington, highlighted mycelium's ability to form durable, self-assembling composites, inspiring applications in sustainable material design.^[6] Stamets' 2008 TED presentation further amplified these concepts, emphasizing mycelium's role in creating low-energy, biodegradable alternatives to synthetic foams and plastics. Key experiments in the 2010s advanced these ideas into practical fabrication, notably through Ecovative Design's innovations with mycelium-bound agricultural waste. Founded in 2007 by Eben Bayer and Gavin McIntyre, the company developed methods to inoculate low-value byproducts such as hemp hurds, cotton gin waste, and seed hulls with fungal mycelium, allowing the hyphal network to colonize and bind the substrate into rigid, lightweight forms over 5–7 days. Their 2012 patent application (US 20120315687 A1) outlined optimized substrate compositions and growth conditions to produce mycological materials with densities comparable to polystyrene foam, suitable for packaging and insulation while fully compostable.^[7] These experiments established mycelium composites as a viable, zero-waste alternative to petroleum-based products, with early prototypes replacing Styrofoam in commercial trials by 2010. Academic milestones in the mid-2010s further refined biofabrication techniques, building on Stamets' foundations by quantifying mycelium's interwoven hyphae as a natural polymer matrix, enabling scalable production without chemical adhesives. Complementing these efforts, artists and designers played a crucial role in popularizing mycelium's aesthetic and formability; in 2009, Philip Ross launched his "Mycological Workshop" series and debuted Mycotecture Alpha, a functional teahouse sculpture grown from reishi mycelium blocks on sawdust substrates, showcased at the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf's Eat Art exhibit.^[8] Ross's installations, which biodegraded over time during display, demonstrated mycelium's moldability for artistic and architectural uses, bridging experimental science with creative applications.^[9] These foundational researches in the 2000s and 2010s transitioned into broader commercialization in the 2020s, as mycelium materials scaled for industrial use.

Commercial Milestones

Ecovative Design launched its Mushroom® Packaging in 2010, introducing a biodegradable alternative to expanded polystyrene foam (Styrofoam) by growing mycelium on agricultural waste substrates.^[10] This product marked the first commercial application of mycelium-based materials for protective packaging, enabling companies like IKEA to adopt it as a sustainable substitute.^[11] In the 2020s, the sector saw significant expansions into fashion and luxury goods. Bolt Threads partnered with Adidas in 2021 to debut the Stan Smith Mylo™ shoe, the first commercial footwear featuring Mylo™, a mycelium-derived leather alternative grown from fungal networks; production of Mylo™ was halted in 2023 due to scaling challenges.^[12]^[13] Similarly, MycoWorks scaled production of its Fine Mycelium™ platform with the opening of the world's first commercial-scale facility in Union, South Carolina, in September 2023, enabling large-volume manufacturing of Reishi™, a sheet-form mycelium material for leather applications; however, the facility was closed in October 2025 as the company refocused on processing.^[14]^[15] By 2025, mycelium-based construction materials advanced toward broader commercialization, with Redhouse Architecture deploying mycelium composites in the MycoHab project to create structural building elements from invasive plant waste in Namibia, demonstrating scalable, self-supporting habitats.^[16] Biohm continued developing mycelium insulation panels for building applications, leveraging the material's inherent fire-resistant properties tested in lab-scale studies.^[17] ^[18] Investment in mycelium startups surpassed $100 million by 2024, with Ecovative alone securing $145 million in total funding to support material innovations.^[19] This capital fueled prototypes like mycelium composites for in-space applications, tested in 2025 for use on commercial space stations such as Starlab.^[20]

Biological Foundations

Fungal Species Utilized

Several fungal species from the Basidiomycota phylum, particularly white-rot fungi, are predominantly utilized in the production of mycelium-based materials due to their ability to form robust hyphal networks on organic substrates. Ganoderma lucidum is a primary species selected for applications requiring leather-like textures, attributed to its dimmitic or trimitic hyphal systems that create dense, interwoven networks providing flexibility and strength.^[21]^[22] This species exhibits rapid hyphal growth and efficient colonization of lignocellulosic substrates, making it suitable for myco-leather production.^[23] Similarly, Trametes versicolor is favored for structural composites because of its dense hyphal architecture, which enhances binding and mechanical integrity when grown on wood-based feedstocks.^[21]^[24] Pleurotus ostreatus represents an emerging strain in mycelium material development, with recent advancements in CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing enabling efficient modifications that support improvements in growth and substrate utilization for diverse applications.^[25]^[26] These genetic modifications focus on non-pathogenic traits while preserving the species' natural filamentous growth, which supports strong hyphal bonding for diverse applications.^[27] Selection of fungal species for mycelium-based materials emphasizes filamentous growth patterns that enable extensive network formation, compatibility with abundant substrates such as lignocellulosic agricultural waste, and non-pathogenic properties to ensure safety in industrial and consumer uses.^[21] White-rot species like those mentioned are preferred for their enzymatic degradation of complex polymers, facilitating uniform material formation without toxicity risks.^[28] Strain improvements have advanced through molecular breeding techniques, including protoplast fusion for hybrid generation and CRISPR/Cas9 for precise gene editing, as detailed in recent NIH-reviewed studies on industrial mycelia.^[25] These methods enhance desirable genetic traits, such as accelerated colonization and resilience, while maintaining non-GMO options where feasible. These species variations subtly influence mycelium structure by altering hyphal density and orientation.^[29]

Mycelium Structure and Function

Mycelium consists of a network of branched, tubular filaments known as hyphae, which typically have diameters ranging from 2 to 10 μm and form a interconnected mat-like structure.^[30] These hyphae are enclosed in cell walls primarily composed of chitin, a rigid polysaccharide that provides structural integrity and mechanical strength to the overall network.^[31] The chitin content in mycelium generally accounts for 20-40% of the dry weight, serving a role analogous to cellulose in plant cell walls by contributing to the material's toughness and resistance to deformation.^[32] In terms of function, mycelium facilitates nutrient absorption through the secretion of extracellular enzymes, such as lignocellulases and proteases, which break down complex organic substrates into absorbable monomers.^[33] This enzymatic activity enables the hyphae to colonize and penetrate substrates, leading to the self-assembly of a three-dimensional scaffold as the mycelium proliferates and intertwines.^[30] The resulting structure exhibits variable density, typically between 0.05 and 0.2 g/cm³, which influences its porosity and allows for efficient gas exchange and substrate integration during growth.^[34] Mycelium demonstrates rapid proliferation, with growth rates reaching up to 1 cm per day under optimal conditions, allowing it to quickly adapt to and colonize diverse lignocellulosic substrates such as sawdust or hemp hurds.^[35] This adaptability is evident in species like Ganoderma, where hyphal networks efficiently bind and reinforce organic matrices.^[36]

Production and Fabrication

Cultivation Processes

The cultivation of mycelium for biomaterial production starts with substrate preparation, utilizing lignocellulosic wastes such as agricultural byproducts like straw, sawdust, and hemp hurds. These substrates are sterilized via autoclaving at 121°C for 1 hour to eliminate microbial contaminants and promote efficient fungal colonization.^[4] This step ensures a nutrient-rich, sterile medium that supports mycelial growth without competition from unwanted organisms.^[37] Following preparation, the substrate is inoculated with fungal spores or mycelial spawn, typically at a rate of 10-20% of the substrate's dry weight. Incubation occurs under controlled conditions of 25-30°C and relative humidity exceeding 90%, fostering initial mycelial network formation.^[4] The growth process unfolds in distinct phases: a lag phase lasting 1-2 days for adaptation and spore germination, an exponential phase of 7-14 days characterized by rapid hyphal extension and substrate colonization, and a stationary phase where growth stabilizes as resources deplete.^[4]^[37] Environmental parameters are meticulously regulated to optimize mycelial development; for instance, CO2 concentrations around 10,000-20,000 ppm during colonization support hyphal extension.^[38] Species-specific optimizations, such as adjusted pH or nutrient supplementation, may further tailor these conditions to enhance yield for particular fungi like Ganoderma lucidum or Pleurotus ostreatus.^[37] Scale-up from laboratory flasks to industrial trays or bioreactors allows for efficient biomass production, achieving densities of 100-300 kg/m³.^[37]^[39] Modern bioreactors incorporate advanced controls, including filtration systems, to minimize contamination risks during large-scale incubation, thereby improving process reliability and output consistency.^[29]

Material Processing Techniques

After the initial cultivation phase, mycelium-based materials undergo processing to shape and stabilize them into functional forms. A primary technique involves molding inoculated substrates, such as agricultural waste mixed with fungal spores, into predefined shapes using custom molds; this allows the mycelium to colonize and bind the substrate over 5–7 days before further treatment.^[4] To enhance structural integrity, compression is applied post-colonization, where the grown material is pressed at pressures of 100–200 kPa to reduce porosity and increase density. Hot pressing at 120–200°C for 6–50 minutes further densifies the material, improving tensile strength up to 1.55 MPa and flexural properties by promoting chitin-glucan network bonding.^[4] Dehydration follows to halt fungal growth, typically via oven drying at around 80°C for 24 hours, reducing moisture content to 10–15% and yielding lightweight foams with compressive strengths of 130 kPa or higher.^[1]^[1] Composite formation integrates mycelium with natural fibers to reinforce mechanical performance, such as incorporating 20–30% hemp or flax by weight into the substrate matrix, which can significantly increase overall strength compared to pure mycelium.^[4] Recent advancements include extrusion techniques developed in 2025, where mycelium pastes containing rapeseed straw and sodium alginate are extruded through 1.6 mm nozzles to form filaments suitable for scalable production of reinforced panels.^[40] Surface treatments address limitations like hydrophilicity, with enzymatic coatings such as chitosan applied to improve water resistance while boosting compressive strength to 1.46 MPa.^[4] Heat-pressing at 150°C densifies the material into thin sheets mimicking leather, enhancing rigidity through molecular crosslinking without synthetic additives.^[2] Advanced methods like 3D printing enable precise fabrication, using extrusion-based systems to deposit mycelium pastes—formulated with colonizing hyphae, water, and binders like psyllium husk—achieving resolutions down to 5 mm layer heights in prototypes as of 2023, with ongoing refinements targeting finer details for complex geometries.^[41]

Material Properties

Mechanical Characteristics

Mycelium-based materials exhibit a range of mechanical properties influenced by fungal species, substrate composition, and processing methods, making them suitable for lightweight applications requiring moderate load-bearing capacity. Tensile strength in pure mycelium foams typically ranges from 0.1 to 2 MPa, with values reported between 0.20 and 0.87 MPa depending on the lignocellulosic substrate and fungal strain, such as Lentinus sajor-caju grown on corn husk achieving the upper end.^[42] When reinforced with materials like bacterial cellulose or wood veneers, tensile strength can increase significantly, reaching up to 12.99 MPa in mycelium-wood composites optimized through high-pressure baking.^[43] The Young's modulus for these foams generally falls between 10 and 100 MPa, reflecting their cellular structure, though reinforced variants can exceed 1 GPa, as seen in bacterial cellulose-mycelium hybrids with a modulus of 1.10 GPa.^[44] These properties are evaluated using standards like ASTM D638 for tensile testing, ensuring consistent measurement across studies.^[42] Compressive properties of mycelium-based materials are highly density-dependent, with densities ranging from 0.05 to 0.3 g/cm³ in foam-like forms, corresponding to failure loads of 50 to 500 kPa. For instance, compressive strengths vary from 16.8 to 299.6 kPa across different formulations, with higher values linked to denser hyphal networks from species like Ganoderma lucidum. Fracture toughness arises from the interlocking of hyphae, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, which shows dense networks of filaments (mean diameter ~1.2 μm) that bridge and deflect cracks, yielding toughness values of 0.165 to 0.25 MPa·m^{1/2} in mycelium-laterite composites.^[45] Processing techniques, such as compression molding, can boost compressive strength up to threefold by increasing material density and hyphal alignment.^[42] In terms of impact resistance, mycelium materials demonstrate superior energy absorption compared to synthetic foams like expanded polystyrene, often 2 to 5 times higher due to viscoelastic damping from the flexible hyphal matrix. Impact strengths range from 0.21 to 2.70 kJ/m², outperforming polystyrene's typical 0.1 to 0.5 kJ/m² in Izod tests, with the damping effect enabling better shock mitigation in dynamic loading scenarios.^[42] These characteristics highlight the material's durability under physical stress, though variations underscore the need for tailored cultivation to optimize performance.

Thermal and Acoustic Properties

Mycelium-based materials exhibit low thermal conductivity, typically ranging from 0.03 to 0.08 W/m·K, which positions them as effective insulators comparable to lightweight foams and aerogels.^[46]^[47]^[48] This property arises from their high porosity and fibrous structure, which trap air and minimize heat transfer. For instance, insulation panels derived from mycelium can achieve an R-value of up to 3.5 per inch, similar to conventional materials like fiberglass or expanded polystyrene, enabling their use in energy-efficient building applications.^[49]^[50] In terms of fire resistance, certain mycelium composites demonstrate a limiting oxygen index (LOI) greater than 21%, indicating self-extinguishing behavior in low-oxygen environments and outperforming many synthetic polymers.^[48] During combustion, these materials form a protective char layer that acts as a thermal barrier, reducing flame spread and heat release rates as evaluated through cone calorimetry.^[51] Such characteristics have been assessed in line with standards like ASTM E84 for surface burning, highlighting their potential as safer alternatives to flammable insulants.^[51] The acoustic properties of mycelium-based materials stem from their porous architecture, featuring 70-90% void space that facilitates sound wave dissipation through friction and viscous losses. This results in noise reduction coefficients (NRC) of 0.6 to 0.9 across mid-frequency ranges of 500-2000 Hz, making them suitable for soundproofing in architectural settings.^[52] A 2022 study explored tuned damping techniques, such as substrate optimization, to enhance low-frequency absorption and targeted noise reduction in urban environments.^[53] Moisture absorption poses a key degradation factor, with mycelium composites capable of taking up to 20% water by weight in short-term exposure, which compromises thermal stability by increasing conductivity and accelerating degradation onset.^[54]^[42] This hygroscopic nature, influenced by fungal species and substrate density, can shift thermal degradation temperatures lower during wet conditions, necessitating protective coatings for long-term performance.^[42]^[55]

Applications

Packaging Solutions

Mycelium-based materials have emerged as a viable alternative to expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam in protective packaging, offering lightweight cushioning that is fully biodegradable and compostable. Companies like Ecovative Design have developed Mushroom® Packaging, which grows mycelium on agricultural waste substrates to form custom-shaped inserts that provide mechanical protection comparable to traditional foams. Since 2020, IKEA has incorporated these mycelium foams to cushion fragile items during shipping, replacing non-biodegradable polystyrene and reducing reliance on petroleum-based materials.^[56] This approach emphasizes short-lifecycle disposables, where the material fully composts in home conditions within 45 days, returning nutrients to the soil without generating microplastics.^[10] In electronics packaging, mycelium composites enable precise custom molds that safeguard delicate components while minimizing environmental impact. For instance, Dell pioneered the use of mycelium-based cushioning in 2011 for server shipments, a practice that continues to demonstrate the material's shock-absorbing qualities and ease of molding. Life-cycle assessments indicate that producing mycelium packaging emits 90% less greenhouse gases than EPS, primarily due to its low-energy growth process using renewable feedstocks rather than fossil fuels.^[57]^[58] These attributes make mycelium particularly suited for disposable protective applications, where it outperforms plastics in end-of-life disposal without compromising on performance. By 2025, innovations in mycelium-based packaging have extended to edible wraps for food applications, leveraging the natural antimicrobial properties of fungal chitin to inhibit bacterial growth and extend product shelf life. These thin, flexible films, often grown from food-safe mycelium strains, provide barrier protection against moisture and contaminants while being consumable, thus eliminating waste entirely. Recent advancements, including coatings derived from edible fungi, have enabled scalable production of such wraps that integrate seamlessly with fresh produce packaging.^[59] The sector's growth reflects increasing adoption, with the global mycelium packaging market projected to reach approximately USD 93 million in 2025, driven by demand for bio-based alternatives. Facilities like those operated by Magical Mushroom Company demonstrate scalability, with capacities exceeding 1 million units per year, supporting broader commercialization.^[60]^[61]

Construction Materials

Mycelium-based materials have emerged as promising alternatives in sustainable architecture, particularly for constructing bricks, insulation panels, and structural elements that reduce reliance on carbon-intensive traditional materials like concrete and foam. These bio-composites leverage the binding properties of fungal mycelium to grow lightweight, biodegradable components from agricultural waste substrates, offering lower embodied energy during production compared to synthetic counterparts.^[18] Research highlights their potential to integrate into building systems for enhanced environmental performance, with ongoing advancements addressing mechanical limitations through processing techniques like compression and heat treatment.^[62] Mycelium bricks, grown by inoculating lignocellulosic substrates such as hemp hurds or straw with fungal spores and allowing colonization in molds, provide a low-energy alternative to fired clay or cement bricks. Prototypes developed by UK-based company Biohm in 2023 demonstrated compressive strengths exceeding 0.2 MPa after densification, enabling their use in non-load-bearing applications within housing demonstrations, such as partition walls in pilot UK builds. These bricks are up to 60 times lighter than conventional masonry while maintaining sufficient durability for indoor environments, with Biohm's efforts focusing on scalability for broader adoption in residential construction.^[63]^[64] Insulation panels made from mycelium often employ sandwich composite designs, where a mycelium-bound core is layered between natural fiber facings to enhance rigidity and thermal performance. These panels achieve R-values greater than 3 per inch, comparable to expanded polystyrene but with superior biodegradability and lower production emissions, as validated in 2025 pilot installations for wall infills in energy-efficient buildings. For instance, projects incorporating such panels have shown effective thermal regulation, reducing heating demands by up to 56% in simulated low-rise structures due to the material's hygroscopic properties.^[65]^[66]^[67] In structural applications, mycelium composites derived from species like Trametes versicolor have been engineered for load-bearing walls through optimized growth and reinforcement, achieving compressive strengths suitable for low-rise seismic zones when compliant with standards such as Eurocode 8. These composites, often hot-pressed for density, support vertical loads in prototype pavilions and exhibit flexibility that aids energy dissipation during minor tremors, as explored in branching structures like the 2017 MycoTree installation. Certification efforts emphasize their fire resistance and renewability, positioning them as viable for earthquake-prone regions with minimal environmental impact.^[68]^[69] A notable case study is Redhouse Studio's 2024 mycelium-based housing prototypes in Cleveland, Ohio, which utilized construction waste as substrate to grow bio-bricks and panels, achieving an 80% reduction in embodied carbon compared to standard wood-frame builds through on-site cultivation and waste diversion. These homes incorporated mycelium for both insulation and cladding, demonstrating end-of-life compostability and contributing to local carbon sequestration. Additionally, mycelium's porous structure provides acoustic enhancements in such builds, absorbing sound waves for improved indoor comfort.^[70]^[71]

Fashion and Miscellaneous Uses

Mycelium-based materials have emerged as innovative leather substitutes in the fashion industry, offering a vegan alternative to traditional animal hides. Mylo, developed by Bolt Threads, is a mycelium-derived leather that has been utilized in high-profile products such as Stella McCartney's Frayme bag, first showcased on the runway during Paris Fashion Week in 2021.^[72]^[73] This material mimics the tensile strength of cowhide, with mycelium leathers generally exhibiting values around 9.5 MPa, making it suitable for durable accessories like bags and garments.^[12]^[74] In cosmetics, mycelium serves as a scaffold for drug delivery systems due to its porous structure and biocompatibility, enabling controlled release applications. These scaffolds are fully biodegradable, decomposing in soil within approximately 30 days under suitable conditions.^[75]^[76] By 2025, formulations incorporating mycelium extracts have advanced into skincare products, such as hydrating masks that leverage beta-glucans from mushroom mycelium to repair the skin barrier and provide moisture retention.^[77] Miscellaneous uses of mycelium-based materials include acoustic applications, where panels crafted from fungal networks offer effective sound absorption for environments like recording studios, achieving a noise reduction coefficient (NRC) greater than 0.8 in key frequency ranges. Layered mycelium absorbers have demonstrated the ability to reduce room reverberation by up to 40% through enhanced sound wave dissipation in mid-to-high frequencies.^[78]^[79] Additionally, fungal leather prototypes have been integrated into automotive interiors, as seen in General Motors' 2024 Cadillac concepts featuring mycelium-based components for sustainable, lightweight seating and trim.^[80] These applications benefit from mycelium's thermal insulating properties, which contribute to comfort in wearable and interior contexts without adding bulk.^[81]

Sustainability and Challenges

Environmental Impacts

Mycelium-based materials offer significant ecological advantages over conventional synthetic alternatives, primarily through their biological growth processes that mimic natural carbon cycles and utilize renewable feedstocks. During cultivation, the fungal mycelium network sequesters carbon dioxide as it binds to organic substrates, resulting in a negative carbon footprint for the material. Studies indicate that mycelium insulation composites can achieve embodied emissions of approximately -244 kg CO₂ equivalent per cubic meter, translating to roughly 1-1.5 kg CO₂ sequestered per kg of material when accounting for typical densities of 150-250 kg/m³.^[82]^[83] This sequestration occurs naturally during the growth phase, where the fungi fix CO₂ into biomass without requiring additional energy-intensive inputs. Life cycle assessments (LCAs) further highlight the reduced emissions profile of mycelium materials compared to petroleum-based foams like expanded polystyrene (EPS). For instance, production of mycelium bio-foam packaging generates up to 90% lower greenhouse gas emissions than EPS equivalents, primarily due to the avoidance of fossil fuel-derived feedstocks and lower energy demands in low-temperature growth processes.^[58] Similarly, mycelium composites exhibit a global warming potential of 0.37 kg CO₂ equivalent per kg, outperforming EPS in climate change impacts across cradle-to-gate analyses.^[84] These benefits extend to end-of-life stages, where mycelium materials biodegrade without releasing persistent pollutants. A key environmental strength lies in waste utilization, as mycelium growth transforms agricultural byproducts—such as crop residues and coffee grounds—into functional composites, diverting waste from landfills or incineration. This process can yield up to 200-300 kg of material per ton of substrate, depending on fungal strain and growth conditions, while enriching the remaining residue for use as soil amendments.^[85] The resulting materials demonstrate high biodegradability in soil, with degradation rates exceeding 60% by weight after 90 days of burial, fully breaking down into non-toxic components that enhance soil fertility.^[86]^[83] Recent metrics from 2024-2025 underscore additional resource efficiencies, particularly in water usage. Mycelium leather production requires only about 45 liters of water per kg, a fraction of the 2,000-17,000 liters per kg associated with animal leather processing, which includes tanning and wastewater generation.^[87]^[88] These non-toxic fungal processes avoid harmful chemicals like heavy metals or solvents, thereby supporting biodiversity by minimizing ecosystem disruption during production and disposal.^[62] Beyond direct production benefits, mycelium materials contribute to broader ecological restoration through their innate bioremediation capabilities. Fungal mycelium effectively degrades persistent pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soils via extracellular enzymes like laccases and peroxidases, converting them into less harmful compounds and aiding habitat recovery.^[89]^[90] This dual role as a sustainable material and environmental remediator positions mycelium-based composites as a versatile tool for mitigating anthropogenic impacts.

Limitations and Future Prospects

One major limitation in the production of mycelium-based materials is scalability, stemming from the inherent biological variability of fungal growth, which leads to inconsistencies in material density and mechanical properties. This variability arises from factors such as substrate composition, environmental conditions, and fungal strain differences, often resulting in non-uniform yields that hinder large-scale manufacturing. Additionally, the need for sterilization to prevent contamination during growth consumes significant energy, accounting for a substantial portion of production costs, with energy use in mycelium sheet production contributing up to 41% of the overall environmental impact in some processes.^[62]^[91]^[92] Durability challenges further restrict the widespread adoption of these materials, particularly their sensitivity to moisture, which causes swelling and degradation of mechanical strength. Exposure to high humidity can lead to fungal reactivation and material breakdown, compromising structural integrity in damp environments and limiting applications in outdoor or variable climates. These issues underscore the need for protective treatments or controlled conditions to maintain performance over time.^[39]^[93]^[94] Looking ahead, research in 2025 and beyond focuses on overcoming these barriers through innovative approaches, such as AI-optimized bioreactors that monitor and adjust growth parameters in real-time to achieve more uniform yields and reduce variability. Hybrid composites incorporating nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes anchored to mycelium, have shown promise in enhancing strength up to approximately 30 MPa while enabling self-healing properties. Frontiers in genetic engineering aim to improve UV resistance by modifying fungal strains, drawing on techniques that boost tolerance in filamentous fungi through targeted gene edits. Market projections indicate robust growth, with the global mycelium sector expected to reach USD 5.31 billion by 2030, driven by demand for sustainable alternatives. These advancements, motivated by the materials' potential environmental benefits, position mycelium-based composites for broader commercialization.^[95]^[96]^[97]^[98]

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Trans-nuclei CRISPR/Cas9: safe approach for genome editing in the ...
Dec 30, 2024 · In this study, we developed a foreign-DNA-free genome editing method in Pleurotus ostreatus by transferring the Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) complex between nuclei in ...
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A Review Delving into the Factors Influencing Mycelium-Based ...
Jun 3, 2024 · Regarding fungal species selection, the paper highlights the significance of considering factors like mycelium species, decay type, hyphal ...
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Review on mushroom mycelium-based products and their ...
Jan 10, 2025 · Many fungal members have been used in the traditional biotechnology sectors, such as food fermentation, antibiotics, and industrial enzyme ...
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Morphology and mechanics of fungal mycelium | Scientific Reports
Oct 12, 2017 · Mycelium has a porous structure composed of tubular filaments called hypha. Typically, hyphae have diameters on the order of 1–30 , depending on ...
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Mechanical properties of dense mycelium-bound composites under ...
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Evaluation of Biomass and Chitin Production of Morchella ...
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Extracellular Enzyme Activities and Carbon/Nitrogen Utilization in ...
Dec 21, 2021 · Fungi employ extracellular enzymes to initiate the degradation of organic macromolecules into smaller units and to acquire the nutrients for ...
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Development and characterization of mycelium bio-composites by ...
The density of the prepared mycelium bio-composites was found to be 0.249−0.336 g/cm³, which was close to the results of 0.094−0.350 g/cm³ that reported in some ...
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Data on modeling mycelium growth in Pleurotus sp. cultivation by ...
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Comparison of Extraction Methods of Chitin from Ganoderma ... - NIH
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Mycelium-Based Composite: The Future Sustainable Biomaterial - NIH
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Extrusion-based additive manufacturing of complex three ...
Jun 17, 2025 · Using a 1.6 mm nozzle, we extruded a paste containing living fungal mycelium, rapeseed straw, and sodium alginate into various sizes and shapes.
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Three-Dimensional Printing of Living Mycelium-Based Composites
Three-dimensional printing methods, as an alternative to molding techniques, can be used to form mycelium-based composites, allowing unique shapes to be ...
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Mechanical, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Mycelium-Based ...
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Mechanical characteristics of bacterial cellulose-reinforced ...
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Fracture and Toughening of Mycelium-based Biocomposites
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Sep 5, 2025 · Mycelium bio-composites achieved thermal conductivity values of 0.034-0.039 W/m·K, comparable to conventional insulators. The moisture behaviour ...
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Lightweight, thermal insulation, hydrophobic mycelium composites ...
Mycelium composites with high porosity (∼93%) demonstrate energy absorption of 32 kJ m−3, cushioning coefficient of 5, thermal conductivity of 0.044 W m−1 K−1, ...
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Acoustic and thermal properties of mycelium-based insulation ...
The sound absorption coefficients of mycelium-based insulation boards produced using PO fungus were higher than those produced with GL fungus. It was found that ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Mycelium Insulation: Everything to Know About Sustainable, Fungi ...
Aug 6, 2024 · What is the R-value of mycelium insulation based on other insulation types? It ranges from R-3 or R-4 per inch of thickness, whereas ...
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Greensulate – A fungus-based insulation material that's grown ...
Jan 6, 2011 · Greensulate is an R-3-per-inch rigid insulation material that is made from intertwining mycelium (rootlike filaments of a fungus) that are grown in ...
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Thermal and physico-mechanical evaluation of mycelium-based ...
The deduced Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) from 14 out of 17 tested foams were above 21 %. The LOI results provided proof of the self-extinguishing nature for ...
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Fungal Mycelium Fire Properties & Composites
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Engineered mycelium composite construction materials from fungal ...
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A Study on the Sound Absorption Properties of Mycelium-Based ...
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The Influences of Different Mixing Methods for Fungi and Substrates ...
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[PDF] A13: Mycelium as Emergent Insulator Material - UCL Press Journals
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Dell is First to Use Mushroom-Based Computer Packaging
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Advances in Edible Packaging: The Role of Mycelium-Based Materials
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Mycelium-based Packaging Market Size, Share, Trends – 2034
Mycelium-based packaging market was valued at USD 84.9 million in 2024 and is estimated to grow at a CAGR of over 9.4% from 2025 to 2034 driven by rising ...
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Mycelium-Based Breakthroughs: Exploring Commercialization ...
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Mycelium Tech - BIOHM
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Towards the microbial home: An overview of developments in next ...
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What Is Mycelium Insulation? - Homedit
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Evaluating Mycelium as an insulation material: A... | F1000Research
Apr 24, 2025 · Regarding energy consumption, Mycelium reduced energy usage by 15.8%, which was better than Rock wool (13.3%), and comparable to XPS (15.7%).
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Thermal insulation and energy performance's assessment of a ...
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(PDF) Design of a load-bearing mycelium structure through informed ...
Dec 18, 2017 · MycoTree is a spatial branching structure made out of load-bearing mycelium components. Its geometry was designed using 3D graphic statics.
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Seismic Design of Buildings Worked examples - Eurocode 8
The work presented in this report is a deliverable within the framework of the Administrative. Arrangement SI2.558935 under the Memorandum of Understanding ...
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Recycling Building Debris With Fungus - Bluedot Living
Jan 22, 2024 · A Cleveland architecture firm is leveraging mushrooms to turn building debris into clean, new “bio-bricks” that can become new structures.
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(a) Redhouse Studio architectural projects with materials grown from...
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Stella McCartney Frayme is the world's first mushroom leather bag ...
Oct 6, 2021 · Mylo™️ is a material innovation by Bolt Threads and is a verified vegan, sustainable, animal-free leather alternative made from mycelium – the ...
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Mycofabrication of sustainable mycelium-based leather using ...
Aug 22, 2025 · The strength of the mycoleather was highly competitive with cowhide leather, which showed tensile strength of 9.5 MPa (Kim et al. 2021) ...
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Advanced mycelium materials as potential self-growing biomedical ...
Jun 16, 2021 · Mycelium, the vegetative part of fungi, is emerging as a highly tunable, self-growing, biodegradable, and low-cost biomaterial. Up to now, it ...
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Sustainable packaging applications from mycelium to substitute ...
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Life cycle assessment of mycelium based composite acoustic ...
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Mogu Acoustic Panels with Mycelium
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GM's EV Sales Skyrocket And Soon We'll Drive Mushroom Cars
Jan 4, 2025 · In a 2024 update, General Motors described the first proof-of-concept, a mycelium-based card holder for Cadillac. “The first demonstration ...
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Current state and future prospects of pure mycelium materials - PMC
Dec 20, 2021 · In this primer, we introduce pure mycelium materials, frame different production methods, review existing and potential future applications.
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the initial embodied emission and energy values per 1 m 3 and ...
Mycelium insulation material embodied emission value initially is −244 kgCO2eq/m 3 and with the decrease of energy requirement, embodied emissions are reduced ...
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Fabrication and Characterization of Mycelium-Based Green ...
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Life cycle assessment of mycelium-based composite materials
The system boundaries include the agar plate, seed and substrate preparation, mycelium growing, material handling and processing as well as cleaning processes.
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Mycelium-Based Composites as a Sustainable Solution for Waste ...
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Fabrication and Characterization of Mycelium-Based Green ...
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Mylea : a Better Leather - MIT Solve
Jul 1, 2019 · To develop a viable alternative to cow leather, Mycotech engineers mushroom roots to mimic its feel, look, and tensile strength.
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Surfactant-aided mycoremediation of soil contaminated with ...
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[PDF] Mycoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
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Variations in the Properties of Engineered Mycelium-Bound ... - MDPI
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Life cycle assessment of MycoWorks' Reishi™: the first low-carbon ...
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Mycelium based composites: A review of their bio-fabrication ...
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Characterization of Mycelium Biocomposites under Simulated ...
A combination of low temperatures and humidity resulted in significant moisture absorption, as indicated by TGA and DSC. This in turn decreased the hardness of ...<|separator|>
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Breaking Down the Barriers: The Future of Mycelium-Based Materials
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AI and Fungal Fermentation to Turn Agricultural Waste into Protein ...
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Anchoring mycelium on CNTs to make strong and smart self ...
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[PDF] Molecular basis of fungal UV resistance - SCI Journals
Particularly, those effector genes individually contributing ~40% to conidial UVB resistance. (Table 1) are highly potential for use in genetic engineering.
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Mycelium Market | Size, Share, Growth | 2024 - 2030
Global Mycelium Market was valued at USD 3.22 Billion in 2023 and is projected to reach a market size of USD 5.31 Billion by the end of 2030.