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Optical flat

An optical flat is a precision optical tool consisting of a plate, typically made from high-quality glass or fused quartz, that is lapped and polished to achieve extreme surface flatness on one or both sides, often within a few tens of nanometers or a fraction of a light wavelength.^[1]^[2] These devices serve as reference standards in metrology to assess the flatness of other surfaces, such as optical components or mechanical parts, by exploiting the principles of optical interferometry.^[3]^[4] In operation, an optical flat is placed in gentle contact or near proximity to the test surface under illumination from a monochromatic light source, such as a sodium or helium-neon lamp, which generates interference fringe patterns due to the thin air film between the surfaces.^[1]^[2] These fringes, resembling contour lines, indicate deviations from perfect flatness; for instance, straight parallel fringes denote a flat surface, while curved or irregular patterns reveal convex or concave irregularities, with each fringe typically corresponding to a deviation of about 0.295 micrometers (one light band).^[3]^[4] The method provides non-contact, high-resolution measurements accurate to nanometers, making it essential for quality control in precision engineering.^[2]^[1] Optical flats are widely applied in the fabrication and testing of optical elements like lenses, mirrors, prisms, filters, and laser crystals, as well as in calibrating gauge blocks and aligning components in interferometers or telescopes.^[1]^[2] They are fabricated using techniques similar to those for high-quality mirror substrates, involving meticulous polishing and verification with interferometers or liquid references, and are available in diameters ranging from 1 to 12 inches with flatness grades such as λ/10 or better.^[3]^[1] Materials like fused silica are preferred for their low thermal expansion coefficient (around 0.55 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹), ensuring stability in varying conditions.^[1]^[3] Despite their precision, interpretation requires expertise, and they are limited to reflective or near-reflective test surfaces.^[4]

Introduction

Definition

An optical flat is an optical-grade piece of glass or quartz lapped and polished to extreme flatness on one or both sides, typically achieving deviations within a few tens of nanometers, such as λ/10 to λ/20 where λ represents the wavelength of light used (often 632.8 nm for helium-neon lasers).^[1]^[5]^[6] Its primary function is to serve as a reference standard in metrology for assessing the flatness of unknown surfaces, where contact between the optical flat and the test surface generates light interference patterns that reveal deviations.^[6]^[7] These patterns, known as fringes, provide a visual indication of surface irregularities without requiring direct mechanical measurement.^[1] Key specifications include diameters commonly ranging from 25 mm to 150 mm to accommodate various test surfaces, thicknesses of approximately 10-20 mm to ensure mechanical stability during use, and surface finishes with scratch-dig ratings of 40-20 or better for minimal defects that could interfere with observations.^[8]^[9]^[10] Unlike mechanical gauge blocks, which measure length through physical contact and wringing, optical flats depend on optical interference for precise flatness evaluation, enabling sub-wavelength accuracy.^[11]^[4]

Historical development

The development of optical flats originated in the late 19th century, closely tied to advancements in interferometry pioneered by Albert A. Michelson. In the 1880s, Michelson employed highly polished glass flats as beam splitters and reference surfaces in his interferometer experiments, enabling precise measurements of light wavelengths and laying the groundwork for their use in flatness testing through interference patterns.^[12]^[13] These early flats, typically made from optical glass, marked the transition from mechanical gauging to optical metrology, with Michelson's work demonstrating their potential for sub-wavelength accuracy in surface evaluation.^[13] In the early 20th century, optical flats gained widespread adoption for precision metrology, particularly in gauge block calibration at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST). By the 1920s, researchers C. G. Peters and H. S. Boyd refined interferometric techniques using master optical flats to assess end-face flatness, achieving standardization to within a few millionths of an inch (approximately 25 nm). This effort, spurred by World War I demands for accurate length standards, established optical flats as essential tools for industrial calibration, with NBS producing sets of gauge blocks certified via these methods.^[14] Post-World War II advancements focused on enhancing material stability and illumination consistency. By 1950, NBS publications described the use of quartz glass test flats in interferometric methods for calibrating end standards, improving thermal stability due to the material's low coefficient of expansion and reducing measurement errors in varying environmental conditions.^[15] Concurrently, integration with monochromatic light sources, such as sodium lamps emitting at 589 nm, refined fringe visibility and accuracy in interference testing.^[1] By the 2020s, modern optical flats, often fabricated from fused silica for superior homogeneity and durability, support sub-nanometer precision through integration with laser interferometry in semiconductor manufacturing. These developments enable atomic-scale flatness verification for photolithography masks and wafers, with systems like laser Fizeau interferometers achieving resolutions below 0.1 nm over large apertures.^[16]^[1]

Manufacturing and materials

Production process

The production of optical flats begins with the selection of high-quality fused quartz as the primary material, valued for its exceptional thermal stability and optical transparency, which minimize distortions during fabrication.^[3] Raw quartz blanks are initially shaped through rough grinding using diamond tools on surface grinders operating at speeds around 1200 rpm, removing excess material to achieve an approximate flat form within 1 mm of the final dimensions and ensuring initial parallelism.^[17] Following rough shaping, the lapping process refines the surface flatness and parallelism. This involves the three-plate method, where sets of three quartz plates are iteratively lapped against one another using loose abrasive slurries, such as cerium oxide suspended in a vehicle, applied on grooved cast iron plates that provide a stable, self-correcting grinding medium. ^[18] The plates are rubbed in a controlled planetary motion under light pressure, progressing through grit sizes from 120 μm down to 3 μm across multiple stages—roughing, pre-grinding, fine grinding—to embed and dislodge abrasives effectively, achieving parallelism within a few microns and surface roughness on the order of micrometers.^[18] Cast iron plates are preferred for their composite structure of hard cementite and soft ferrite, which helps maintain even abrasion and plate flatness during the process.^[18] Cerium oxide serves as the key abrasive due to its chemical reactivity with silica, enhancing material removal while promoting uniformity.^[19] For the final surface figure, fine polishing employs pitch laps—tools formed from a mixture of hard or soft pitch, often preconditioned for optimal conformance—charged with colloidal silica slurry in an alkaline hydrosol. The workpiece is placed on the rotating pitch lap (typically motorized at low speeds with an overarm for even pressure), where the slurry facilitates chemical-mechanical action, reducing surface roughness to below 1 nm RMS over several hours of polishing.^[17] Progress is monitored iteratively using a Fizeau interferometer, which illuminates the surface with a monochromatic source to reveal interference fringes; deviations are corrected by adjusting lap pressure, slurry concentration, or dwell time on high spots, ensuring the surface approaches the target flatness.^[20] This step yields optically smooth, low-scatter surfaces suitable for precision interferometry. Certification involves final testing against a master optical flat or absolute reference standard under a helium-neon (HeNe) laser at 632.8 nm wavelength, where the assembled pair is observed for straight, parallel fringes indicating deviations no greater than λ/20 peak-to-valley (approximately 32 nm).^[5] This verification, often conducted in a controlled environment to avoid thermal gradients, confirms the flat's suitability for metrology applications and includes documentation of the measured flatness error.^[20] Fused quartz's properties, such as low thermal expansion, are critical here to maintain stability during testing (see Material properties).^[3]

Material properties

Optical flats are primarily fabricated from materials that exhibit exceptional dimensional stability, optical clarity, and mechanical durability to ensure reliable metrology applications. The most common materials are fused silica and Zerodur glass-ceramic, selected for their low coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE), which minimize shape changes under temperature variations and preserve flatness during use.^[6]^[21]^[22] Fused silica, a synthetic form of quartz, has a CTE of approximately $0.55 \times 10^{-6} /^\circ\mathrm{C}, providing high thermal stability suitable for precision environments.^[6] Zerodur, a lithium aluminosilicate glass-ceramic, achieves an even lower near-zero CTE of $0 \pm 0.02 \times 10^{-6} \mathrm{K}^{-1} over 0–50°C, making it ideal for applications requiring extreme dimensional consistency, such as in astronomical optics or high-end metrology.^[22]^[23] Optically, these materials offer high transparency in the visible spectrum, with fused silica transmitting over 90% from 400–700 nm, enabling clear interference fringe observation without significant light absorption or scattering.^[24] Both exhibit low birefringence—typically less than 4 nm/cm for fused silica—ensuring uniform refractive index and avoiding polarization-induced distortions in measurements.^[25] Additionally, their high homogeneity, with refractive index variations below $10^{-5} across the material, prevents internal wavefront aberrations that could compromise flatness assessment.^[22] Mechanically, fused silica's Mohs hardness of 7 resists scratching during wringing contact, while its polishability allows surfaces to achieve root-mean-square (RMS) roughness below 1 nm, essential for resolving sub-wavelength deviations.^[26]^[27] Zerodur shares similar hardness (around Mohs 6) and can be polished to comparable smoothness, though its composite structure enhances resistance to thermal shock.^[22] A key trade-off involves cost and performance: ordinary glasses like BK7 are cheaper but have higher CTE values (around $8 \times 10^{-6} /^\circ\mathrm{C}), leading to greater thermal drift and limiting their use in high-precision labs, where fused silica or Zerodur is preferred for superior stability.^[6]^[24]

Principles of operation

Light interference basics

Light exhibits wave properties that enable interference phenomena, where coherent waves superimpose to produce regions of enhanced or reduced intensity. In the context of optical flats, monochromatic coherent light is essential for generating clear interference patterns. A common source is a sodium vapor lamp, which emits light primarily at a wavelength of 589 nm, providing the necessary spectral purity for interferometry.^[28]^[6] When this light strikes the air-glass interface formed between an optical flat and a test surface, partial reflection occurs at the two boundaries of the thin air gap, while the remainder transmits through. These reflected waves—one from the bottom surface of the flat (glass-air interface, no phase shift) and one from the top surface of the test piece (air-glass interface, π phase shift)—recombine after traveling different paths, leading to interference based on their phase difference.^[29] The condition for interference depends on the optical path length difference \delta = 2 \mu t \cos \theta, where \mu is the refractive index of the medium in the gap (typically air, so \mu = 1), t is the gap thickness, and \theta is the angle of incidence relative to the normal. Due to the relative π phase shift, destructive interference, producing dark fringes, occurs when \delta = m \lambda for integer m, while constructive interference, yielding bright fringes, happens when \delta = (m + 1/2) \lambda. This results in visible bands whose positions reveal variations in gap thickness.^[29]^[30] Fizeau fringes specifically arise in setups involving two nearly parallel plates, such as an optical flat and a test surface, where interference is due to the slight wedge shape or curvature in the air gap between them. These multiple-beam interferences provide high-contrast patterns sensitive to surface irregularities.^[31]^[32] For effective testing with optical flats, the light source must have a coherence length exceeding the maximum path difference in the air gap (typically on the order of micrometers) to ensure stable fringes and resolve nanometer-scale deviations in surface flatness. Sodium lamps meet this requirement through their narrow linewidth, enabling path differences on the order of micrometers to produce observable interference without washout.^[28]

Fringe pattern formation

When an optical flat is wrung onto a test surface, an ultrathin air film forms between them, with the gap thickness h(x,y) varying spatially due to deviations in the test surface's flatness from the ideal plane of the optical flat.^[33] Monochromatic light incident normally on this film undergoes partial reflection at both the upper (air-glass) and lower (glass-air) interfaces, producing two coherent beams that interfere upon recombination.^[34] The interference arises from the optical path difference (OPD) of $2h in the air film (n \approx 1), combined with a phase shift of \pi upon reflection from the denser glass medium at the lower interface (no shift at the upper air-to-glass reflection). The total phase difference is thus \delta = \frac{4\pi h}{\lambda} + \pi, where \lambda is the wavelength. The resulting intensity is I = 2I_0 \left(1 + \cos \delta \right) = 2I_0 \left(1 - \cos \frac{4\pi h}{\lambda} \right), with I_0 the intensity of each beam (assuming equal amplitudes).^[29]^[34] Destructive interference (dark fringes) occurs when \delta = (2m+1)\pi, simplifying to $2h = m\lambda or fringe order m = \frac{2h}{\lambda} (integer m \geq 0); the zero-order fringe (m=0, dark) appears at actual contact points where h=0. Constructive interference (bright fringes) occurs at $2h = (m + \frac{1}{2})\lambda. This simplified Airy equation holds for normal incidence and negligible multiple reflections in the thin film.^[33]^[29] The spatial variation of h(x,y) determines the fringe pattern geometry. For a linear tilt (wedge-shaped gap with small angle \alpha), h(x) \approx x \alpha, yielding straight, parallel dark fringes spaced by \Delta x = \frac{\lambda}{2 \sin \alpha} \approx \frac{\lambda}{2\alpha} (in radians), where adjacent fringes differ by \Delta m = 1.^[33] For quadratic deviations like convexity or concavity, the fringes form approximate concentric circles centered near the extremum, with local spacing inversely related to the radius of curvature.^[33]^[35]

Flatness testing procedure

Surface preparation

Surface preparation is essential for ensuring accurate interference fringe patterns during optical flat measurements, as any contaminants or irregularities can introduce errors in flatness assessment. The optical flat and the test surface must be meticulously cleaned to remove particulates, oils, and residues that could distort the air film between them. A common procedure involves initial ultrasonic cleaning in a bath containing reagent-grade isopropyl alcohol or acetone to dislodge stubborn contaminants without damaging the polished surfaces.^[36]^[37] Following the ultrasonic step, surfaces are wiped gently with lint-free lens tissue or a soft cloth to eliminate any remaining particles, ensuring absolute cleanliness.^[38]^[39] Fingerprints must be avoided, as they deposit oils that cause localized distortions in the interference pattern by altering the refractive index of the air wedge.^[37] Proper handling techniques prevent scratches or contamination during preparation and placement. Padded cotton or powder-free latex gloves should be worn to avoid direct skin contact, while vacuum tweezers or soft-tipped forceps are recommended for manipulating the optical flat, particularly for larger or delicate pieces.^[40]^[41] The optical flat should never be slid across the test surface; instead, it is placed and removed vertically to minimize abrasion.^[38]^[39] Storage in dust-free protective cases is critical to maintain surface integrity between uses, preventing accumulation of airborne particles that could compromise subsequent measurements.^[9]^[42] The test surface must meet specific requirements for reliable contact and interference visibility. It should be highly smooth with a surface roughness typically below Ra 0.1 μm to ensure clear fringe formation, and free of porosity or defects that might trap air or contaminants.^[43]^[38] After preparation, the surfaces are ready for wringing, where molecular adhesion brings them into close proximity for testing.^[6] Environmental conditions must be controlled to mitigate thermal expansion and moisture effects that could alter surface dimensions or introduce haze in the interference field. Testing is typically conducted at a stable temperature of 20 ± 1°C to minimize differential expansion between the optical flat and test piece.^[44] Relative humidity should be maintained below 50% to prevent condensation or static attraction of dust, ensuring consistent measurement conditions.^[45]^[46]

Illumination and observation

In optical flat testing, monochromatic light sources are essential for generating high-contrast interference fringes that reveal surface deviations. Low-pressure sodium lamps, emitting at a wavelength of 589 nm, and helium-neon lasers, at 632.8 nm, are commonly used due to their single-wavelength output, which produces distinct patterns without the interference blurring from multiple wavelengths in white light.^[21]^[6] White light is avoided because its polychromatic nature causes overlapping fringe orders, reducing visibility and accuracy.^[6] The standard setup positions the optical flat directly on the test surface, with illumination provided by a dedicated monolight unit featuring a frosted lens for diffuse, even lighting across the area. This diffuse illumination ensures uniform fringe formation, while a controlled dark environment enhances contrast by minimizing ambient light interference. For surfaces requiring enhanced fringe highlighting, grazing incidence can be applied by directing the light at a shallow angle to the assembly.^[47]^[35] Fringes are typically observed with the naked eye for qualitative evaluation of flatness, allowing immediate assessment of pattern straightness and spacing. For quantitative measurements, a microscope or photographic recording is employed to capture fine details and enable precise counting. To mitigate the effects of setup tilt, the optical flat is rotated in multiple orientations (e.g., 90 degrees), averaging observations to distinguish true surface irregularities from alignment errors.^[6]^[35] Deviation from flatness is determined by fringe counting, where the height difference h across the pattern is given by h = \frac{m \lambda}{2}, with m as the fringe order and \lambda the light wavelength; this yields a resolution of approximately 0.3 μm per fringe using sodium light.^[35]^[6]

Wringing and contact mechanics

Wringing mechanism

The wringing mechanism enables an optical flat to adhere temporarily to the test surface through intimate molecular contact, without the use of adhesives. The process begins with thoroughly cleaning both the optical flat and the test surface to remove contaminants such as dust, oils, or residues, typically using solvents like acetone or ethyl alcohol followed by dry wiping with lens tissue. The surfaces are then pressed together under light pressure, often accompanied by a gentle twisting or sliding motion to expel trapped air and particles, resulting in a near-zero gap across much of the contact area. This adhesion forms rapidly upon initial contact if the surfaces are sufficiently flat and clean, allowing the optical flat to remain in place during flatness testing.^[48]^[49] The physics underlying wringing relies primarily on short-range intermolecular forces, including van der Waals dispersion forces between atoms in the contacting materials, such as fused silica commonly used for optical flats. These forces generate an adhesion strength of approximately 100-200 psi at room temperature, sufficient to hold the flat securely yet permitting shear forces for repositioning via sliding without breaking the bond. Capillary forces from adsorbed water films on the surfaces can also contribute, particularly in ambient humidity, enhancing the overall adherence through liquid-mediated attraction at the contact points. The bonding is not solely due to atmospheric pressure, as experiments in vacuum demonstrate persistent adhesion attributable to these molecular interactions.^[48]^[50]^[51] Effective wringing requires both surfaces to be precisely lapped or polished to high flatness, typically with deviations less than λ/20 (e.g., ~28 nm for λ ≈ 546 nm green light) and surface roughness of 15-30 Å RMS to minimize uncontacted regions and ensure complementary topography that allows errors to cancel out. The contact area achieved depends on this match, often leaving small uncontacted islands if imperfections exist, but generally covering a substantial portion for accurate measurements. Adhesion duration varies from minutes to hours, influenced by environmental factors like humidity, which can promote capillary effects but also introduce contamination that weakens the bond over time; in controlled dry conditions, bonds can persist longer without separation.^[48]^[50]^[52]

Impact on measurements

Wringing significantly reduces the air gap between the optical flat and the test surface to less than 25 nm, far below λ/4 (approximately 137 nm for green light at 546 nm wavelength), which eliminates diffuse reflections and enables the observation of distinct zero-order interference fringes.^[53] This minimal gap allows for the detection of minute surface deviations, with resolutions as fine as 0.01 fringes corresponding to about 3 nm (based on λ/2 ≈ 273 nm per full fringe shift in the air film).^[53] In the wrung state, the effective measurement resolution approximately doubles compared to non-contact configurations, where larger gaps lead to broader fringe patterns and reduced sensitivity to small irregularities.^[53] The wringing process facilitates error compensation by measuring relative flatness, where imperfections in the optical flat and test surface tend to average out during contact, particularly when the surfaces are uncorrelated or when multiple orientations are used in calibration procedures.^[54] This improves the overall accuracy of flatness assessment by focusing on differential deviations rather than absolute errors in either surface.^[55] However, limitations arise from incomplete wringing, such as when contaminants like dirt prevent full molecular adhesion, resulting in residual air films that introduce artificial tilts or distortions in the fringe patterns and compromise measurement reliability.^[55]^[53] Proper surface cleaning and technique are essential to mitigate these effects and ensure valid results.

Precision and limitations

Achieving measurement precision

Optical flats enable sub-micrometer surface flatness measurements through interferometric principles, achieving typical precisions of 25-50 nm for standard grades over diameters up to 100 mm.^[56] Master-grade flats, used as reference standards, attain flatness specifications of 10-20 nm across similar apertures, allowing detection of deviations as fine as a fraction of a light fringe under monochromatic illumination.^[56] These levels are realized by polishing fused quartz or similar low-expansion materials to tolerances expressed in fractions of the illuminating wavelength (e.g., λ/20 ≈ 32 nm for 633 nm light), ensuring minimal intrinsic distortion in the reference surface.^[56] Key to deriving absolute flatness from relative interferograms is the application of multiple wringing configurations, such as 3-way assemblies, which average out systematic profile errors across orientations.^[56] In a 3-way wringing, the optical flat is successively contacted and rotated relative to two others, enabling computation of the true surface map independent of individual tilts or rotations.^[57] Such techniques transform relative fringe patterns into absolute flatness profiles, with wringing films limited to ~25 nm to preserve interference clarity.^[56] Calibration of optical flats traces to NIST standards through interferometric comparison in a Fizeau or similar setup, where the test flat is aligned against a certified master under controlled conditions.^[57] This process yields an uncertainty of typically ±5-10 nm, dominated by random measurement repeatability (standard deviation 1-6 nm) and systematic contributions from alignment and master reference errors.^[57] NIST employs the 3-flat intercomparison method for master calibration, ensuring traceability with coverage factors accounting for environmental variances.^[57] Enhancing precision further involves stringent temperature control to ±0.1°C, mitigating thermal expansion distortions.^[56] Stable thermal environments, often achieved via insulated enclosures, minimize gradient-induced tilts, preserving the sub-10 nm resolution essential for metrology applications.^[56]

Sources of error

Systematic errors in optical flat measurements primarily stem from misalignment and optical setup imperfections. Tilt misalignment between the reference flat and the test surface can produce off-axis beam propagation, leading to distorted fringe patterns and potential interpretation errors equivalent to up to one fringe across the aperture.^[58] Similarly, the use of non-monochromatic light sources reduces fringe contrast by introducing spectral broadening, which blurs interference bands and can result in assessment inaccuracies of approximately 0.5 fringe.^[6] Random errors are often induced by environmental disturbances during observation. Dust particles or contaminants on the optical surfaces can create localized false contours in the fringe field, mimicking surface irregularities, while vibrations from ambient sources cause fringe instability and motion blur in the pattern. These effects are commonly mitigated by performing measurements in multiple surface orientations and averaging results, as well as employing vibration-isolated platforms.^[59] Thermal gradients across the flat or test piece can further contribute to random variations by inducing transient bowing, with typical sensitivities of around 10 nm per °C for fused silica substrates due to differential expansion.^[57] Instrumental errors arise from limitations in the measurement apparatus itself. The inherent figure error of the reference optical flat directly propagates into the test result, as the observed fringes reflect deviations from both the test surface and the reference; this can be corrected by employing witness flats or multi-flat comparison techniques to subtract the reference's contribution.^[31] Wavelength instability in the illumination source, such as laser drift, introduces phase shifts that alter fringe spacing, with common stabilities achieving ±0.1 nm in controlled setups.^[60] To quantify overall measurement reliability, an uncertainty budget is typically assembled using the root sum square (RSS) combination of these error components, including contributions from alignment, noise, and environmental factors. For high-end Fizeau-based optical flat systems, this yields total uncertainties on the order of ±λ/50, as demonstrated in absolute flatness assessments with expanded uncertainties around ±0.0071 µm at λ = 633 nm.^[61]^[31]

Advanced applications

Surface shape determination

Optical flats enable qualitative mapping of non-flat surface profiles by analyzing the curvature and orientation of interference fringes formed during contact. When the optical flat is wrung onto the test surface, straight, equally spaced fringes indicate local flatness, while bowed or curved fringes reveal deviations, with the direction of bowing signifying convex (fringes bowing inward) or concave (fringes bowing outward) regions. To isolate specific zones of irregularity, the flat is rotated in 90° increments and re-wringed, allowing observation of fringe patterns in perpendicular directions; a surface appearing flat in one orientation may exhibit curvature in another, thus identifying the principal axes of deviation.^[62] For quantitative surface shape determination, phase-shifting interferometry (PSI) employs the optical flat as a high-precision reference to generate a detailed topographic map. In this technique, the flat is placed in contact or near-contact with the test surface under monochromatic illumination, producing interferograms; controlled phase shifts (typically via piezoelectric transducers) are introduced to capture a series of images, from which the phase difference is computed to yield height variations with sub-wavelength accuracy. This method extends beyond binary flatness assessment by reconstructing the full 3D profile through unwrapping the phase map, often achieving resolutions better than 1 nm over areas up to 50 mm in diameter, as demonstrated in measurements of optical flats themselves where the technique resolves surface figure errors to λ/10000 (approximately 0.06 nm at 632.8 nm).^[63]^[64]^[65] Hybrid methods further enhance capability by integrating optical flat interferometry with stylus profilometry, using the former for broad-area, non-contact fringe-based profiling and the latter for localized, high-vertical-resolution tracing (down to 0.1 nm), particularly useful for validating complex topographies in precision manufacturing.^[66] In software-based analysis, digitized fringe patterns from optical flat measurements are processed using Fourier transform techniques to demodulate the phase, followed by fitting to Zernike polynomials that decompose the surface into orthogonal aberration modes such as piston, tilt, defocus, and higher-order terms. This representation quantifies deviations efficiently, enabling aberration correction and predictive modeling for applications like aspheric lens molding, where surface irregularities must be mapped to nanometer scales, or semiconductor wafer flatness verification, achieving effective resolutions of 1 nm over 50 mm apertures through enhanced signal processing.^[67]^[68]

Long-term stability

Optical flats are susceptible to gradual degradation over extended periods, primarily from surface contamination and micro-scratches incurred during repeated wringing processes. Contamination, such as dust or residues, can accumulate and alter interference fringe patterns, while improper wringing—particularly full contact without lateral sliding—risks introducing fine scratches that compromise surface figure and lead to a loss in flatness of several nanometers annually if not addressed.^[69]^[3] Fused silica optical flats exhibit remarkable long-term stability, with measurements indicating less than 1 nm of drift over 10 years under constant temperature conditions, attributed to the material's low thermal expansion and high viscosity relaxation time constant of approximately 10 years. For example, interferometric monitoring of flats stored horizontally revealed peak-to-valley deformations of 6.7–7.6 nm over 6–9 years, often manifesting as slight concavity due to gravitational effects. Periodic recertification every 1–2 years is recommended to verify performance, especially for high-precision applications, as individual flats may vary in response to environmental stresses.^[70]^[71]^[72] To preserve stability, maintenance involves annual cleaning with lint-free tissues and isopropyl alcohol to remove contaminants, followed by interferometric rechecking to detect any figure changes. Flats should be stored and used in environments with humidity below 50% to mitigate hydrolytic degradation, which can etch surfaces through water molecule interactions, particularly in non-silica glasses.^[73]^[74] When properly stored in dry, stable conditions, optical flats have an indefinite shelf life, though quartz-based (fused silica) variants demonstrate superior aging resistance compared to standard glass due to enhanced chemical inertness and minimal structural relaxation.^[6]^[75]

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[PDF] Testing Flat Surface Optical Components - The University of Arizona
Then the negative lens is inserted in the path, and the Fizeau fringes are projected on the screen. These fringes can be further adjusted in direction and ...
[29]
Modified Method of Fizeau Fringes for Thickness Measurements*
### Summary of Fizeau Fringes and Light Interference in Optical Flats
[30]
[PDF] Coherence Length - Physics@Brock
A sodium (Na) lamp produces a nearly monochromatic light consisting of a doublet in the yellow region. Because these are individual sharp lines as opposed to a ...Missing: flat | Show results with:flat
[31]
[PDF] Basic Interferometry and Optical Testing Two-Beam Interference ...
Figure 16.4c shows a binary representa- tion of these interference fringes and represents the interference pattern obtained by interfering a nontilted plane ...Missing: derivation | Show results with:derivation
[32]
[PDF] Two-Beam Interference Equation Interferometric optical testing is ...
In order for interference fringes to be observed between two beams, several conditions must be met. The light in one beam must be both temporally and spatially ...
[33]
https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/jcwyant/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/08/2-BasicInterferometryAndOpticalTesting.pdf
[34]
Reading Light Bands - Kemet International
Light bands are formed by using an optical flat and monochromatic light to check surface flatness. Dark bands are interference lines used to measure flatness.Missing: coherent lamp<|separator|>
[35]
How to Clean Optics - Newport
First, dust with air. Then, use reagent-grade solvent and low-lint tissue, like a 60% acetone and 40% methanol mix, and clean edges first.
[36]
https://www.newport.com/n/how-to-clean-optics
[37]
How to Measure Flatness & Surface Finish Chart - Kemet International
The most common method within the Flat Lapping sector is by using a Monochromatic Sodium light unit and an Optical Flat. This gives extremely precise ...
[38]
[PDF] Info-sheet-measuring-flatness-with-monochromatic-lights.pdf
Flatness is measured using light bands formed by an optical flat and monochromatic light. The surface must be clean and dry. The bands measure .0000116" per ...
[39]
Application Note: Handling & Cleaning Optical Components
Feb 21, 2023 · Gloves are crucial when handling any optical component. The material of the gloves should be either cotton or powder-free latex. 2. Tweezers.
[40]
Optics Handling - Thorlabs
Items on this page include: Stainless Steel or Nylon Tweezers; Manual Vacuum Pick-Up Tool Kit; Vacuum Tip Replacement Kits; Nitrile, Cotton, or Latex Gloves.Missing: flat | Show results with:flat
[41]
Optics Cases - Thorlabs.com
Available below are a variety of storage boxes and objective cases that are designed to store optics while they are being transported or not in use.<|separator|>
[42]
https://www.thorlabs.com/NewGroupPage9_PF.cfm?ObjectGroup_ID=4132
[43]
[PDF] The Calibration of an Optical Flat by Interferometric Comparison to a ...
The freeform profile of an optical flat is defined as that form which the flat would take in a zero-gravity environment. Since no such environment yet exists in ...
[44]
Laboratory Temperature and Humidity Requirements & Compliance
Dec 22, 2020 · An optimal temperature for labs as being between 68 °F and 77 °F (20°C and 25 °C) with humidity levels somewhere between 30% and 50%.
[45]
[PDF] Environment conditions for Inframet test systems Report A34/21
8 Humidity. Inframet testing systems work best in conditions of medium level of relative humidity. Recommended level of humidity in installation room is 30-60%.
[46]
Monochromatic Light / Monolights - Lapmaster Wolters
Monochromatic lights (monolights) use a helium or sodium tube to produce a known wavelength light for measuring surface flatness, used with optical flats.Missing: neon | Show results with:neon
[47]
[PDF] fVIASA - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
However, optical contacting (the bonding of very flat, highly polished surfaces without the use of adhesives) has been treated largely as an art. Little is ...Missing: wringing capillary
[48]
None
### Summary of Wringing Mechanism for Optical Flats
[49]
Optical contact and van der Waals interactions - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · Physically, the effect of wringing can be based on intermolecular phenomena [2] such as dipole-dipole or van-der-Waals forces [3] on the one ...
[50]
The adherence of flat surfaces - Journals
By wringing together two of these plates and suspending them in a vacuum he proved that the adherence between them was not caused solely by atmosphere pressure ...
[51]
Optical Contact Bonding - RP Photonics
Optical contact bonding forms mechanically stable, high-quality interfaces between solids by preparing flat, clean surfaces ... forces such as Van der Waals ...Missing: capillary | Show results with:capillary
[52]
[PDF] The Gage block handbook - GovInfo
The Gage Block Handbook. Ted Doiron and John S. Beers. NETUnited States ... completed for wringing the block to the steel optical flat (platen).
[53]
Absolute Calibration of an Optical Flat - SPIE Digital Library
Fritz "Absolute Calibration of an Optical Flat", Proc. SPIE 0433, Contemporary Methods of Optical Manufacturing and Testing, (9 December 1983); https://doi ...
[54]
[PDF] Abstract - NPL Publications
Many of the experiments described in the literature involve wringing a gauge block to an optical flat, the resulting wringing film thickness being smaller due ...
[55]
None
Summary of each segment:
[56]
[PDF] The Calibration of an Optical Flat by Interferometric Comparison to a ...
The master and test flat assembly is encased in a cardboard and alum- inum foil insulating shell and is set on ways which allow it to pass back and forth under ...Missing: illumination | Show results with:illumination
[57]
How to Measure a Flat - Apre Instruments
A misaligned TF, any non-orthogonal tilt relative to the optical axis, will cause the returning beams to pass through the interferometer off axis. Off‐axis ...
[58]
[PDF] Vibration insensitive interferometric optical testing
This paper discusses two single-shot interferometric techniques for reducing the sensitivity of an optical test to vibration; simultaneous phase-shifting ...Missing: dust | Show results with:dust
[59]
Absolute distance measurement with micrometer accuracy using a ...
The laser can be set over a tuning range of wavelengths varying between 680 nm and 690 nm, with a repeatability (uncertainty) of 0.1 nm. Stably setting the ...
[60]
Investigation of error sources in absolute flatness measurement ...
Oct 8, 2024 · One of the main contributions of this study is proposing three additional error sources: focal shift, optical distortion, and y -axis vibration.
[61]
Flatness Fringe Interpretatioin - Starrett-Webber
This procedure covers the interpretation of interference fringe patterns generated by either an Optical Flat or a Flatness Interferometer for the purpose of ...<|separator|>
[62]
Simultaneous measurement of the surface shape and thickness for ...
Two types of phase-shifting algorithms were developed for simultaneous measurement of the surface and thickness variation of an optical flat.
[63]
Absolute measurement of optical flat surface shape based on the ...
Nov 4, 2015 · In this paper the conjugate differential method is proposed to measure the absolute surface shape of the flat mirror using a phase-shifting ...
[64]
Novel method for high accuracy figure measurement of optical flat
The well-known method for directly measuring the slope of an aspheric surface is called “reflection moiré method” introduced by Ligtenberg in 1954 [4]. The “ ...
[65]
Optical profilometer combined with stylus probe measurement device
The optical profilometer can quickly provide a coarse (low lateral resolution) image of the surface while the stylus probe device extends the lateral resolution ...
[66]
Fringe pattern demodulation using Zernike polynomials and a l1 ...
Jun 17, 2022 · We propose a closed fringe pattern demodulation technique based on the phase representation using a weighted linear combination of ZPs.Missing: surface | Show results with:surface
[67]
[PDF] Optical Flatness Metrology for 300 mm Silicon Wafers
Manufacturers of wafer testing equipment must create tools that allow measurement of flatness and nanotopography with sufficient accuracy and spatial resolution ...
[68]
Resurfacing Optical Flat - Advanced Optics
Re-polishing the surface of a piece back to its original accuracy can be less costly than replacement. Advanced Optics maintains an optical flat refinishing ...Missing: recertification | Show results with:recertification
[69]
Long-term deformation at room temperature observed in fused silica
### Summary of Findings on Long-Term Deformation in Fused Silica Flats
[70]
Fused silica long-term stability: case studies - SPIE Digital Library
Sep 21, 2011 · The time stability of fused silica is investigated, reporting new data on two flats that were purchased in 1981.
[71]
Selected Publications on Dimensional Metrology - Other Calibrations
The conclusion of this survey is that optical flats are quite stable over a period of several years, but since the individual requirements for precision may ...
[72]
How To Keep Optical Flats In Great Condition? - Kemet International
First clean the surfaces of the component and optical flat with a lens tissue or soft, lint free cloth. Both faces must be absolutely clean.Missing: maintenance recertification
[73]
Influence of humidity in the alteration of unstable glasses
Aug 4, 2023 · Results also confirmed that high humidity increased the alteration rate causing a higher hygroscopicity and reactivity of glasses.
[74]
Quartz Glass FAQ - Präzisions Glas & Optik GmbH
A: You should always choose optical quartz glass (FS) when high imaging accuracy is required. It should also be your choice when flatness, surface quality, and ...