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PIV

PIV is an acronym with multiple meanings. For the science and technology usage, see [[Particle image velocimetry]]. In science and technology: In medicine: In security and government: Other uses:

Science and technology

Particle image velocimetry

(PIV) is an optical method for and quantitative measurement of velocities, involving the of tracer particles into the flow and capturing their motion through double-frame illuminated by a sheet. The technique determines instantaneous fields by analyzing the displacement of particles between two exposures separated by a short time interval, typically using algorithms on subregions of the images to compute fields. This approach enables non-intrusive, whole-field mapping of two or three velocity components in a plane, with applications spanning low-speed to supersonic flows. The development of traces back to the late 1970s with early laser speckle velocimetry techniques, but the term "" was coined in 1984 by researchers including R.J. Adrian, C.J. Pickering, and N.A. Halliwell. Key milestones include the introduction of pulsed Nd:YAG lasers in 1986 for better illumination control and the transition to digital processing in the early 1990s, which replaced photographic films with cameras and enabled real-time analysis. Adoption surged in research during the 1990s, with stereoscopic extensions by the mid-1990s allowing three-component measurements, establishing PIV as a standard tool in experimental . Core PIV systems comprise a double-pulsed (e.g., Nd:YAG at 532 nm, 5-10 ns pulse duration, up to 400 mJ energy) to form a thin light sheet, high-resolution cameras (e.g., or with 10 μm pixels) for capturing particle images, and synchronization hardware to ensure precise timing between pulses (typically 10 Hz repetition). Seeding particles, such as 1-5 μm diameter hollow glass spheres, must follow the flow faithfully while scattering sufficient light, and processing software applies interrogation windows (16-64 pixels) for correlation-based velocity estimation. Advanced setups incorporate multiple cameras for stereoscopic or volumetric PIV to resolve out-of-plane components. PIV finds widespread use in for testing of wakes and vortex dynamics, hydrodynamics for analyzing tunnel flows around models like wings, and studies to map velocity fields in reacting environments such as combustors. For instance, in facilities, PIV has measured up to 60,000 velocity vectors over 1.7 m² areas to quantify wake instabilities. In cardiovascular , it visualizes blood flow patterns, though distinct from medical procedural contexts. The primary advantages of PIV include its non-intrusive nature, providing high (down to 0.05 pixels accuracy) and instantaneous planar maps over large fields without disturbing the . It excels in capturing turbulent structures and has a high dynamic range (0-200 m/s), making it superior to point-wise techniques like laser Doppler velocimetry for global insights. Limitations encompass dependency on adequate particle density and image quality for reliable correlation, with out-of-plane components challenging without ; standard systems are also limited to 10-20 kHz repetition rates, insufficient for the smallest scales, and require optical access. Note that PIV in differs from , an parameter unrelated to .

Peak inverse voltage

Peak inverse voltage (PIV), also denoted as the repetitive peak reverse voltage (VRRM), represents the maximum reverse-bias voltage a can sustain without undergoing or other destructive failure mechanisms. This rating ensures the blocks current effectively in reverse bias, a fundamental operation in many electronic devices. PIV is specified in manufacturer datasheets, often as VRRM for repetitive pulsed conditions or VR for continuous DC reverse voltage, and exceeding it can lead to irreversible damage due to excessive leakage current and heat generation. The importance of PIV lies in its role as a safety margin during diode selection for circuits involving , where reverse voltages can peak significantly higher than average levels. In power supplies and , for instance, the must have a PIV rating exceeding the circuit's peak reverse voltage to prevent , ensuring reliable operation and longevity. Factors influencing PIV include , with the rating increasing as rises due to changes in and properties, opposite to the behavior of forward . Doping concentrations and substrate materials also affect it; for example, lightly doped n-type substrates widen the , enhancing PIV tolerance. influences performance under varying reverse but is secondary to structural in determining the base rating. Typical PIV values span from 50 V for small-signal diodes to over 10 kV for specialized high-voltage power diodes, with common diodes like the 1N4004 rated at 400 V. Applications of PIV-rated diodes are prominent in AC-DC conversion circuits, such as half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, where the PIV must match or exceed the input peak voltage—equal to the peak AC for half-wave setups and twice that for center-tap full-wave configurations. In clamping circuits, diodes limit transient voltage spikes to protect sensitive components, while in surge protection, high-PIV diodes absorb overvoltages. Zener diodes intentionally operate near their PIV for , and Schottky diodes, with PIV ratings often between 50 V and 100 V, suit fast-switching low-voltage in power supplies. The concept of PIV originated with the advancement of diodes in the mid-20th century, building on post-World War II developments in p-n technology that enabled precise voltage ratings for reliable .

Medicine

Parainfluenza virus

(HPIVs) are single-stranded, negative-sense RNA viruses belonging to the family, specifically within the genera Respirovirus (HPIV-1 and HPIV-3) and Rubulavirus (HPIV-2 and HPIV-4). There are four main types (HPIV-1 through HPIV-4), with subtypes for HPIV-4 (4a and 4b); HPIV-1, -2, and -3 are the primary pathogens affecting humans, while HPIV-4 causes milder or infections. These enveloped viruses primarily target the epithelium, leading to a range of illnesses from common colds to severe lower infections. HPIVs spread through respiratory droplets, direct contact with contaminated surfaces, or fomites, with an of 2 to 6 days. Symptoms typically include fever, runny , , and , progressing to (laryngotracheobronchitis) in HPIV-1 and -2 cases, or bronchiolitis and in HPIV-3 infections, particularly in young children. The viruses are highly contagious, especially in crowded settings like daycares, and can cause reinfections throughout life due to type-specific immunity. Epidemiologically, HPIVs are a leading cause of respiratory illness in infants and young children, with nearly all children infected by age 5, developing antibodies to multiple types. Infections peak seasonally: HPIV-1 and -2 in fall (odd-numbered years for HPIV-1, even for HPIV-2), and HPIV-3 year-round with spring-summer surges, contributing to global pediatric burden in temperate climates. In the United States, HPIVs account for up to 17% of hospitalizations due to acute respiratory tract infections in children under 5 years old, second only to . HPIV-3 is particularly severe in neonates and infants under 6 months, often causing or due to its ability to infect very young hosts lacking maternal antibodies. In contrast, HPIV-1 and -2 more commonly lead to in toddlers. Diagnosis relies on molecular methods like reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from nasopharyngeal swabs, which is more sensitive than or detection assays. Treatment is primarily supportive, including hydration, oxygen, and nebulized racemic epinephrine for ; in severe or immunocompromised cases, aerosolized or intravenous may be used, though evidence is limited to small studies showing mixed efficacy. No licensed exists as of 2025, with research ongoing for live-attenuated candidates. HPIVs were first isolated in the late 1950s from children with , initially termed croup-associated viruses, marking their recognition as distinct from . Since then, they have been implicated in major pediatric outbreaks, driving annual and significant hospitalization rates, estimated at 18,000 to 35,000 U.S. children under 5 per HPIV-1 epidemic year alone.

Peripheral intravenous line

A peripheral intravenous line (PIV), also known as a peripheral intravenous , is a short, flexible tube inserted into a peripheral , typically in the arms, hands, or legs, to provide temporary vascular access for administering fluids, medications, or blood products. These catheters are commonly sized between 18 and 24 , with smaller gauges allowing for slower flow rates suitable for routine therapy and larger ones for rapid needs. Over one billion PIVs are used annually worldwide, making them the most common vascular access device in healthcare settings. The insertion procedure follows aseptic technique to minimize infection risk, involving hand hygiene, glove use, selection (often with a to engorge the ), and insertion of the over a needle at a shallow into the . Once the is punctured, the needle is withdrawn, the is advanced, flushed with saline, and secured with a transparent dressing. For standard short PIVs (under 5 cm), the over-the-needle method is used, while longer peripheral lines may employ the with a guidewire for precise placement. The typical is 72 to 96 hours, after which the site is rotated to prevent complications, though evidence supports longer durations if no issues arise. PIVs are indicated for short-term , including hydration, antibiotic administration, , and blood transfusions, particularly in , , or outpatient settings. They are preferred for therapies lasting less than a week due to their ease of placement and lower cost compared to central lines. Common complications include (vein inflammation), infiltration (fluid leakage into surrounding tissue), , and , with insertion failure rates up to 50% on the first attempt. Prevention strategies involve regular site monitoring, prompt rotation every 72-96 hours, use of for skin preparation, and avoiding sites with signs of compromise. Standard PIVs differ from midline catheters (3-8 inches long, for intermediate therapy) and peripherally inserted central catheters (PICC, longer and centrally tipped), which are used for extended access but require more specialized insertion. The historical evolution of PIVs began in the early with glass or metal needles, but the marked a with the introduction of catheters and tubing, replacing rigid materials and reducing risks like and tissue damage. This shift, pioneered by innovations such as the 1950 threaded catheter method, enabled safer, indwelling access and transformed into a routine practice.

Security and government

Personal identity verification

Personal Identity Verification (PIV) is a U.S. federal standard established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 201 for issuing secure, interoperable smart cards to federal employees and contractors. This standard ensures a common identification system that supports both physical and logical access control while meeting the security objectives outlined in Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12 (HSPD-12), issued in 2004. HSPD-12 mandates the use of these credentials for all federal facilities and information systems, making PIV implementation required for granting access to government resources. The PIV card is the core component, a embedding (PKI) digital certificates, data such as fingerprints, and a digital photograph of the cardholder. It facilitates physical access to buildings via contactless readers and logical access to networks and applications through contact interfaces. Key security features include the Cardholder Unique Identifier (CHUID) for initial authentication, PIV Authentication certificates for verifying cardholder identity, and support for two-factor authentication mechanisms, such as something-you-have (the card) combined with something-you-know (a PIN) or something-you-are (), to achieve compliance with federal network access requirements. For non-federal entities, the PIV-Interoperable (PIV-I) provides a subset of these features to enable interoperability with federal systems without full federal sponsorship. PIV cards are applied in diverse contexts, including entry to secure facilities, to computers, and signing of emails or documents to ensure authenticity and . As of 2024, approximately five million PIV cards have been issued across agencies, supporting widespread adoption for enhanced security. The standard has evolved significantly, with FIPS 201-3, the third revision of the standard published in 2022 (following initial in 2005), incorporating enhanced such as stronger key sizes and algorithms specified in NIST Special 800-78-5 (published July 15, 2024) to address advancing threats. These updates were further detailed in SP 800-73-5 and SP 800-78-5, published on July 15, 2024. They align with broader guidelines, ensuring long-term interoperability and security.

Post-implementation verification

Post-implementation verification (PIV), also known as post-implementation review (PIR) in some frameworks, is a critical phase in and IT frameworks, such as ITIL and , focused on validating that deployed systems, changes, or projects function as intended, meet specified requirements, and deliver expected performance and compliance outcomes after going live. This process confirms the absence of unintended disruptions, such as integration failures or deviations from key performance indicators (KPIs), while capturing to refine future initiatives. The steps in PIV typically commence 30 to 90 days post-deployment to allow sufficient , beginning with a of documentation, user results, and initial performance metrics. Subsequent activities include interviews, audits of system logs, and surveys to assess user satisfaction and , culminating in an of variances against predefined objectives and the of an for any identified deficiencies. These steps integrate seamlessly with methodologies like agile, where iterative reviews occur at sprint ends, or , emphasizing comprehensive end-of-phase evaluations. PIV holds significant importance in ensuring return on investment (ROI) by verifying that benefits, such as cost savings or enhanced efficiency, are realized, while mitigating risks like security vulnerabilities or non-compliance that could arise from incomplete implementations. In enterprise and government settings, it identifies subtle issues, such as unmet KPIs in software integrations, that might otherwise lead to prolonged downtime or regulatory penalties, thereby promoting continuous improvement and accountability. For instance, during the U.S. Postal Service's Year 2000 remediation efforts, PIV confirmed compliance for critical applications through independent code reviews and testing observations, averting potential operational failures. Common tools and methods for PIV include internal audits to scrutinize deployment records, user surveys for qualitative feedback, and performance metrics dashboards to quantify outcomes like system uptime or response times. These are often supported by software such as tools for tracking variances or platforms for automated reporting, ensuring objective assessments regardless of the underlying . PIV finds broad applications in software rollouts, where it verifies seamless user adoption; infrastructure projects, confirming under load; and policy changes, ensuring alignment with organizational goals. It is particularly prevalent in government and enterprise environments, such as validating IT changes in regulated sectors to maintain audit trails and operational . Systems like personal identity verification may briefly undergo PIV to audit post-deployment with security standards. Historically, PIV gained prominence in the alongside the emergence of IT standards. This development addressed growing complexities in enterprise IT, establishing PIV as a staple for verifying implementations in an era of rapid technological adoption.

Other uses

Penis-in-vagina intercourse

Penis-in-vagina (PIV) intercourse refers to the sexual act in which a is inserted into a , commonly abbreviated as PIV in discussions of sexual , and . This term emphasizes the specific mechanics of penetrative heterosexual and is often contrasted with other forms of sexual activity to promote broader understandings of intimacy. The abbreviation PIV emerged prominently in online discussions, academic literature, and materials during the , coinciding with increased focus on , mutual , and health risks in sexual encounters. It gained traction in feminist discourse and sex-positive communities to explicitly name and critique normative sexual practices, highlighting how PIV can involve risks such as sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or while underscoring the importance of enthusiastic and for all participants. In educational contexts, PIV is used to differentiate it from non-penetrative acts, encouraging comprehensive discussions about diverse sexual experiences. Culturally, PIV has been critiqued within feminist analyses for embodying the "coital imperative," a societal that penile-vaginal penetration constitutes the primary or "real" form of in heterosexual relationships, often prioritizing and reproduction over female satisfaction or alternatives. This imperative reinforces gender norms by marginalizing non-penetrative activities like mutual masturbation or , which can offer comparable intimacy without the same physical risks. Such critiques, prominent in sex-positive movements, advocate for de-centering PIV to foster more equitable and pleasurable sexual dynamics. From a health perspective, PIV is a common route for transmitting s, including , where the virus can enter through the lining of the , , or , with receptive partners facing higher risk. Similarly, human papillomavirus (HPV) spreads primarily through skin-to-skin contact during vaginal sex, potentially leading to or cancers if untreated. It also carries a high risk of , as deposited in or near the can fertilize an egg. Safe practices include consistent use to reduce STI and risks by up to 98% when used correctly, alongside water-based to prevent tears that could facilitate infection. Etymologically, "PIV" originated as in the early , reflecting the rise of explicit, acronym-based in sex-positive and feminist online spaces to destigmatize and analyze sexual acts. This usage aligns with broader sex-positive movements that seek to reclaim and redefine sexual for and , moving away from euphemistic or clinical phrasing. While PIV strictly denotes penile-vaginal , the term is occasionally expanded in informal contexts to include analogous acts like toy-assisted , though purists maintain its focus on biological penile insertion to distinguish it from other forms.

Private investment vehicle

A private investment vehicle (PIV) is a legal , typically structured as a or , that pools capital from a limited number of accredited investors to facilitate investments in private markets such as , , hedge funds, or . These vehicles allow investors to combine resources for targeted opportunities not accessible through public markets, often managed by professional fund managers who make investment decisions on behalf of limited partners. PIVs are exclusive to high-net-worth individuals, institutions, or qualified investors, ensuring they remain unregulated as public investment companies under U.S. securities laws. The structure of a PIV generally follows a model, where general partners (GPs) oversee operations, investment strategies, and distributions, while (LPs) provide the capital and bear . Management fees, typically 1-2% of , and performance-based , often 20% of profits, are common compensation mechanisms for GPs. Many PIVs are domiciled offshore, such as in the , to leverage tax-neutral environments and regulatory flexibility, avoiding U.S. corporate taxes while complying with investor home-country reporting requirements. Special purpose vehicles (SPVs), a subset of PIVs, are often used for single transactions, like co-investments in specific deals, to isolate risks and streamline participation. In the United States, PIVs are subject to oversight by the but are exempt from registration as investment companies if they meet criteria under the , such as limiting investors to accredited individuals or entities under Regulation D. Investment advisers managing PIVs with over $150 million in assets must register with the , adhering to duties and disclosure rules. The Dodd-Frank Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 expanded regulation by requiring adviser registration and systemic risk reporting for larger funds. Non-U.S. PIVs may face additional scrutiny under anti-money laundering laws but benefit from lighter domestic reporting in jurisdictions like the . PIVs are widely applied in private equity for buyouts and , for early-stage startups, hedge funds for alternative strategies, and for property acquisitions, enabling diversified exposure to illiquid assets. For instance, vehicles like Blackstone's BREIT pool funds for commercial investments, while SPVs facilitate targeted co-investments in leveraged buyouts without committing to a broader fund. These applications allow institutional investors, such as funds, to access high-growth opportunities while maintaining portfolio diversification. The advantages of PIVs include potential for higher returns through and access to exclusive deals, reduced portfolio volatility due to longer holding periods, and anonymity for investors in structures. However, risks encompass illiquidity, as investments are often locked for 7-10 years; high fees that can erode returns; and limited , increasing vulnerability to manager or market downturns. Regulatory compliance costs have also risen post-Dodd-Frank, potentially deterring smaller managers. Historically, PIVs gained prominence during the 1980s private equity boom, driven by leveraged buyouts and junk bond financing that enabled large-scale acquisitions, marking a shift from niche buyouts to a major asset class. The industry expanded significantly in the 1990s and 2000s, but the prompted reforms; the Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 introduced adviser registration and oversight to mitigate systemic risks, solidifying PIVs' role in global finance while enhancing investor protections.

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