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Periostitis

Periostitis is inflammation of the periosteum, the dense fibrous connective tissue membrane that envelops the outer surface of all bones except at the articular surfaces of long bones.^[1] This condition manifests in acute and chronic forms, with the acute type typically resulting from bacterial infection and characterized by diffuse suppuration, severe localized pain, constitutional symptoms such as fever, and potential progression to bone necrosis.^[1] In contrast, chronic periostitis features hyperemia, swelling, tenderness, and aching pain over the affected bone, often without systemic involvement.^[1] Periostitis arises from diverse etiologies, including infectious agents (such as Staphylococcus species in proliferative forms), mechanical trauma, repetitive overuse (particularly in athletes), tumors, vascular disorders, and systemic conditions like hypertrophic osteoarthropathy.^[2]^[3] A common presentation is medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS), also termed shin splints, where periostitis develops along the medial border of the tibia due to traction from muscles like the soleus and flexor digitorum longus during high-impact activities such as running or jumping.^[4] Risk factors for overuse-related periostitis include female sex, elevated body mass index, increased navicular drop (indicating foot pronation), low physical fitness levels, and training on hard surfaces.^[4] In systemic cases, such as secondary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy associated with lung malignancies or congenital heart disease, periostitis presents as symmetric new bone formation along the diaphyses and metaphyses of long bones, often accompanied by digital clubbing and polyarthritis.^[3] Symptoms of periostitis generally include localized bone tenderness, swelling, and pain exacerbated by pressure or weight-bearing, with chronic forms potentially leading to stiffness and morning discomfort.^[5] In infectious acute cases, additional signs may involve pus formation, chills, and fever, while overuse variants like shin splints cause exercise-induced pain along the distal two-thirds of the medial tibia that subsides with rest but recurs with activity.^[5]^[4] Diagnosis relies on clinical history and physical examination, supplemented by imaging such as MRI (preferred for soft tissue detail) or bone scans to detect periosteal reactions, which appear as new bone formation visible 1-3 weeks post-insult and vary from smooth, solid layers in benign cases to aggressive laminated or spiculated patterns in malignancy or severe infection.^[2]^[4] Treatment strategies emphasize addressing the underlying cause, with conservative management for overuse periostitis involving relative rest, activity modification, ice application, and gradual rehabilitation to correct biomechanical issues like hip weakness or improper footwear.^[5]^[4] Infectious forms require antibiotics and possible surgical drainage, while systemic periostitis in hypertrophic osteoarthropathy may resolve with treatment of the primary disease, such as tumor resection.^[3] Prophylaxis for athletes includes orthotics, strength training, and progressive loading to mitigate incidence rates, which affect 13.6-20% of runners and up to 35% of military recruits.^[4] Overall, most cases respond well to non-operative interventions, though persistent symptoms necessitate exclusion of stress fractures or other pathologies.^[5]

Anatomy and Pathophysiology

Periosteum Structure and Function

The periosteum is a dense, fibrous connective tissue membrane that envelops the outer surface of all bones, excluding articular cartilage surfaces and parts of tendon or ligament insertions where direct bone attachment occurs.^[6] It is absent on intra-articular portions of bones and sesamoid bones such as the patella.^[7] Composed primarily of collagen fibers, fibroblasts, and osteogenic cells, the periosteum provides structural support and facilitates bone development throughout life.^[8] The periosteum exhibits a distinct layered architecture, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and an inner cambium layer. The outer fibrous layer is a tough, collagen-rich stratum divided into a superficial inelastic portion, which is highly vascularized and cell-poor, and a deeper fibroelastic portion containing elastic fibers and fibroblasts.^[6] This layer incorporates Sharpey's fibers—collagenous bundles that anchor the periosteum firmly to the underlying cortical bone.^[8] In contrast, the inner cambium layer, also known as the osteogenic layer, is highly cellular and comprises mesenchymal progenitor cells, osteoblasts, fibroblasts, and sparse collagen matrix, enabling it to support bone formation and repair.^[7] The thickness of the periosteum varies significantly, measuring up to several hundred micrometers in fetuses and children where it is thicker to accommodate rapid growth, but thinning to as little as 0.1–0.5 mm in adults, often becoming indistinguishable from the fibrous layer with age.^[6] Functionally, the periosteum serves multiple essential roles in bone physiology. It acts as a protective barrier, shielding the bone from mechanical stress and infection while contributing to structural integrity through its fibrous composition.^[8] The membrane provides nutrient supply via a rich vascular network, where periosteal arteries—originating from surrounding soft tissues and branching from the bone's nutrient arteries—penetrate the cortex through Volkmann and Haversian canals, accounting for approximately one-third of cortical bone blood flow.^[6] Additionally, it facilitates anchorage for ligaments, tendons, and muscles via Sharpey's fibers, ensuring mechanical stability.^[7] Sensory innervation, provided by nerves accompanying the blood vessels (including sympathetic vasomotor fibers and sensory fibers releasing calcitonin gene-related peptide), enables pain detection and stress response.^[8] Finally, the cambium layer plays a critical role in bone modeling and remodeling, particularly during growth through intramembranous ossification and in healing via osteoprogenitor cell differentiation into osteoblasts for appositional bone growth.^[6]

Mechanisms of Periostitis Development

Periostitis develops through a series of pathophysiological pathways initiated by an insult to the periosteum, leading to localized irritation and subsequent inflammatory cascade. The process begins with periosteal irritation, which triggers vascular dilation and increased permeability in the periosteal blood vessels, resulting in hyperemia and edema within the tissue layers. This acute response facilitates the infiltration of inflammatory cells, primarily neutrophils and macrophages, into the periosteum, where they release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). These cytokines amplify the inflammatory signal by promoting further recruitment of immune cells and stimulating resident periosteal cells, including fibroblasts and osteoprogenitor cells in the cambium layer.^[9]^[10]^[11] In the acute stage of inflammation, the heightened vascularity and cell infiltration cause nerve stimulation in the richly innervated periosteum, contributing to localized pain, while edema and hyperemia lead to tissue swelling. As the inflammation persists, it progresses to a chronic phase characterized by periosteal thickening due to fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition, which provides structural reinforcement but also perpetuates the inflammatory environment. Macrophages and other immune cells continue to release cytokines, sustaining the response and potentially leading to tissue necrosis in severe cases where blood supply is compromised or inflammation is unchecked. This necrotic potential arises from prolonged ischemia or overwhelming inflammatory mediator activity, distinguishing periostitis from deeper bone involvement in conditions like osteitis, which affects the cortical or medullary bone directly rather than the surface periosteum.^[9]^[12]^[13] A hallmark of periostitis is the reactive new bone formation, known as periosteal reaction, driven by ossification in the cambium layer. Osteoblast precursors in this inner layer differentiate and deposit woven bone initially, forming disorganized, hypervascular osseous tissue that appears as layered or solid deposits on imaging. Over time, this woven bone remodels into more organized lamellar bone through osteoblastic activity and vascular invasion, increasing periosteal thickness and contributing to the chronic architecture. Fibroblasts play a key role by synthesizing collagen matrix that supports this ossification, while cytokines like IL-1 and TNF-α enhance osteoblast recruitment and activity, ensuring the periosteum's reparative function even amid ongoing inflammation. This process underscores the periosteum's dual role in defense and repair, preventing deeper bone pathology in most cases.^[9]^[11]

Causes and Risk Factors

Infectious Etiologies

Infectious periostitis primarily arises from bacterial pathogens, with Staphylococcus aureus being the most common causative agent in acute cases, often in association with underlying osteomyelitis where the infection spreads to the periosteum, leading to inflammation, pus formation, and systemic symptoms such as fever.^[14] Streptococcus species, particularly in pediatric hematogenous osteomyelitis, can also contribute to periosteal involvement through similar inflammatory pathways.^[14] Mycobacterial infections, such as tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, can lead to periostitis through hematogenous spread or direct extension, often in the context of pulmonary disease or immunocompromise.^[15] Fungal etiologies are rare and typically occur in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV or undergoing transplantation, where disseminated infections from agents like Candida species or non-Aspergillus molds lead to periostitis via hematogenous seeding or contiguous spread from adjacent bone or soft tissue infections.^[16]^[17] Spirochetal infections, notably congenital syphilis caused by Treponema pallidum, result in syphilitic periostitis in infants, characterized by painful bone swelling, pseudoparalysis, and radiographic evidence of periosteal reaction, affecting up to 75% of symptomatic cases.^[18]^[19] The routes of infection for periostitis mirror those of osteoarticular infections, including hematogenous dissemination from a distant bacteremic source, which predominates in children and acute cases; direct inoculation through trauma, surgery, or open wounds; and contiguous extension from adjacent soft tissue abscesses or bone infections like osteomyelitis.^[20]^[14] In bacterial periostitis, such as that from S. aureus, the pathogen invades the periosteum directly or via vascular channels, eliciting an acute inflammatory response with potential for subperiosteal abscess formation if untreated.^[21] For fungal cases, hematogenous spread is common in disseminated disease among at-risk patients, while spirochetal periostitis in congenital syphilis occurs transplacentally, leading to multifocal skeletal involvement shortly after birth.^[22]^[18] Unique risk factors for infectious periostitis include immunosuppression from conditions like diabetes or HIV, which impair host defenses and facilitate opportunistic fungal or bacterial invasion; intravenous drug use, which promotes hematogenous seeding through contaminated needles and increases S. aureus bacteremia risk; and poor hygiene associated with chronic wounds, enabling direct or contiguous bacterial entry.^[16]^[20] These factors heighten susceptibility particularly in acute bacterial forms accompanying osteomyelitis and rare fungal manifestations.^[17]

Non-Infectious Etiologies

Non-infectious etiologies of periostitis encompass a range of mechanical, traumatic, systemic, and iatrogenic factors that lead to periosteal inflammation without microbial involvement. These causes often result from repetitive microtrauma or underlying chronic conditions that disrupt normal periosteal homeostasis, triggering reactive bone formation and inflammation.^[23] Overuse and traumatic injuries represent common non-infectious triggers, particularly in athletes engaged in high-impact activities. Medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS), also known as shin splints, arises from repetitive stress on the tibia, causing periosteal strain and microtrauma to the surrounding musculature and bone envelope. This condition affects 13.6% to 20% of recreational runners and up to 35% of military personnel undergoing intense training. It is frequently associated with biomechanical factors such as flat feet (pes planus) and improper footwear, which exacerbate tibial loading during running or jumping. Other examples include stress reactions from chronic exertion in sports like soccer or ballet, where cumulative microtrauma leads to periosteal irritation without fracture.^[23]^[24]^[25] Systemic conditions can also induce periostitis through inflammatory or neoplastic pathways. Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (HOA) is a paraneoplastic or secondary syndrome characterized by diffuse periostitis, often linked to underlying malignancies such as lung cancer or chronic cardiopulmonary diseases like congenital heart disease. In HOA, periosteal proliferation typically affects the long bones of the extremities, driven by vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated mechanisms. Rheumatoid arthritis may rarely present with osteoperiostitis, involving periosteal new bone formation alongside joint erosions, though this is less common than in seronegative spondyloarthropathies. SAPHO syndrome (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteitis) is an autoinflammatory disorder featuring multifocal periostitis, hyperostosis, and sterile osteitis, often affecting the anterior chest wall and long bones, with skin manifestations like palmoplantar pustulosis.^[26]^[27]^[28] Iatrogenic causes include periostitis secondary to radiation therapy or interventions for bone tumors. Radiation-induced periostitis occurs as a reactive change following doses of 30-50 Gy, leading to osteoblastic damage and periosteal thickening, particularly in the mandible or pelvis after treatment for head and neck or pelvic malignancies. Similarly, bone tumors such as osteoid osteoma or Ewing sarcoma can provoke periosteal reactions mimicking proliferative periostitis, sometimes exacerbated by biopsy or surgical manipulation. Nutritional deficiencies, notably vitamin C deficiency in scurvy, impair collagen synthesis and cause subperiosteal hemorrhages leading to periostitis, historically observed in malnourished populations but still reported in modern cases of dietary inadequacy.^[29]^[30] Risk factors for non-infectious periostitis include participation in high-impact sports, poor biomechanics (e.g., leg length discrepancies or inadequate training progression), and nutritional deficits like vitamin C deficiency, which collectively heighten susceptibility to periosteal overload and inflammation. These etiologies often overlap with stress-induced inflammatory mechanisms, where mechanical strain promotes cytokine release and periosteal remodeling.^[25]^[31]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

The primary symptoms of periostitis include localized tenderness over the affected bone and a dull, aching pain that intensifies with physical activity or direct pressure on the area.^[32]^[33] Patients often report this pain as persistent and nagging, particularly in cases related to repetitive stress such as running.^[4] In acute periostitis, typically associated with infection, patients experience sharp, severe pain accompanied by constitutional symptoms like fever and chills.^[34] This form has a rapid onset and may last from several days to weeks if untreated.^[35] In contrast, chronic periostitis presents with an insidious onset, featuring milder soreness or fatigue-like discomfort that worsens gradually with ongoing activity and can persist for months.^[1]^[23] Pain is frequently localized along the tibia in conditions like shin splints, a common manifestation of tibial periostitis, and may radiate to adjacent joints in some instances.^[32]^[4] In systemic or autoinflammatory forms, nocturnal exacerbation of pain can occur, disrupting sleep and daily rest.^[36] Functionally, periostitis leads to reduced mobility, such as limping or difficulty bearing weight on the affected limb, which interferes with sports participation and routine activities like walking.^[5]^[33] In severe cases, the pain may persist even at rest, further limiting independence and quality of life.^[32]

Signs and Complications

Clinical signs of periostitis typically include localized swelling, warmth, and erythema over the affected bone, often accompanied by point tenderness upon palpation.^[37] In cases of shin splints, a common form of tibial periostitis, mild swelling and tenderness along the inner aspect of the shinbone are prominent findings.^[33] Advanced infectious cases may present with diffuse suppuration and pus accumulation.^[38] Systemic manifestations in acute infectious periostitis often involve fever and chills, reflecting the underlying infection.^[37] Lymphadenopathy may occur regionally, particularly with bacterial etiologies spreading from adjacent soft tissues.^[39] Specific presentations include pseudoparalysis, characterized by refusal to move the affected limb due to severe pain from periosteal inflammation, commonly seen in congenital syphilis.^[40] In hypertrophic forms, such as hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, digital clubbing of the fingers and toes accompanies the periosteal reaction along long bones.^[26] Complications of untreated or severe periostitis can be significant, including abscess formation in infectious variants due to localized pus collection.^[38] Progression to osteomyelitis is a key risk in bacterial cases, where infection extends into the bone marrow, potentially leading to necrosis of surrounding tissue.^[37] Chronic ossification may result in bone deformity, such as saber shins—anterior bowing of the tibia—from persistent periosteal proliferation, notably in congenital syphilis.^[41] Pathologic fractures can arise in stress-related periostitis if underlying bone weakening persists, as seen in untreated shin splints evolving to stress reactions.^[33]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of periostitis begins with a detailed history to characterize the condition's onset, progression, and potential etiologies. Patients typically report pain that is either acute, often linked to recent trauma or infection, or chronic and insidious, associated with repetitive stress from activities such as running or marching.^[4] Aggravating factors include physical exertion in non-infectious cases or signs of infection like recent wounds or systemic illness in infectious variants.^[42] Associated symptoms may encompass localized tenderness, swelling, or warmth, alongside systemic features such as fever, chills, fatigue, or malaise, particularly in infectious or hematogenous forms.^[43] Risk factors elicited include athletic participation, military training, travel to endemic areas for infectious causes, or immunosuppression from conditions like diabetes or chemotherapy.^[4]^[42] Physical examination focuses on identifying localized signs of inflammation while assessing functional impact. Palpation along the affected bone shafts, such as the tibia or femur, reveals characteristic tenderness over the periosteum, often diffuse in overuse-related cases and more focal with edema or erythema in infectious ones.^[44] Swelling is measured for extent and progression, with warmth or redness noted in acute presentations.^[43] Gait and limb use are evaluated for antalgic patterns or reluctance to bear weight, particularly in lower extremity involvement, alongside checks for neurological deficits like paresthesia or vascular compromise such as diminished pulses.^[44] In suspected tibial periostitis, the hop test—single-leg hopping—elicits pain if positive, helping differentiate from stress fractures where pain is more localized to bony structures rather than the periosteal surface.^[45] Red flags warranting urgent further investigation include systemic symptoms like high fever, unexplained weight loss, or night pain, which may indicate underlying infection, malignancy, or hematogenous spread.^[42] These elements guide the presumptive diagnosis while distinguishing periostitis from mimics like stress fractures through pain localization and functional tests.^[4]

Diagnostic Imaging and Tests

Diagnosis of periostitis relies on a combination of imaging modalities and laboratory tests to confirm periosteal inflammation, assess its extent, and differentiate it from mimics such as tumors or fractures. Imaging is particularly valuable for visualizing periosteal reactions, while laboratory evaluations help identify underlying inflammatory or infectious processes. These tools are typically employed following clinical suspicion, providing objective evidence to guide management. Radiography, often the initial imaging study, reveals periosteal reactions as new bone formation along the cortical surface, appearing as single or multiple layers in acute cases and an "onion-skin" or laminated pattern in chronic or aggressive processes like osteomyelitis.^[46] These findings, such as solid thickening or spiculated layers, indicate the reactive nature of the periosteum but may be subtle in early stages.^[46] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) excels in early detection and soft tissue evaluation, demonstrating periosteal edema as hyperintense signal on T2-weighted sequences, often with associated bone marrow edema and muscle involvement.^[46] It is superior for delineating the extent of inflammation in non-ossified periostitis, such as in stress-related cases, where plain films may be normal.^[46] For superficial sites like the tibia, ultrasound can identify hypoechoic periosteal thickening and irregularity, with increased vascularity on Doppler, facilitating prompt diagnosis in accessible areas without radiation exposure.^[47] Computed tomography (CT) is useful for assessing cortical bone involvement and detailed periosteal reactions, particularly in complex anatomy or when evaluating for sequestra in infectious etiologies.^[48] Bone scintigraphy, using technetium-99m, shows increased radiotracer uptake in areas of active periosteal inflammation, aiding in detecting multifocal or occult involvement, as seen in poststreptococcal periostitis with diffuse tibial activity on delayed phases.^[49] Laboratory tests support diagnosis by indicating inflammation or infection. Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels may occur in periostitis associated with systemic inflammation or infection, reflecting the body's response to periosteal irritation.^[50] In suspected infectious cases, white blood cell (WBC) count with differential and blood cultures help identify bacterial causes, while serologic testing for syphilis (e.g., VDRL or RPR) is essential for congenital forms presenting with periostitis.^[18] Biopsy is rarely required but provides definitive histologic confirmation in ambiguous cases, revealing inflammatory infiltrates or organisms when imaging and labs are inconclusive.^[50] Overall diagnostic criteria integrate clinical findings with imaging evidence of periosteal reaction and supportive labs, emphasizing exclusion of differentials like malignancy through characteristic patterns such as lamellar layering on X-ray or edema on MRI.^[46]

Treatment

Conservative Therapies

Conservative therapies form the cornerstone of periostitis management, particularly for overuse-related cases such as medial tibial stress syndrome (shin splints), and initial treatment of infectious forms, aiming to reduce inflammation, promote healing, and prevent progression without invasive procedures. These approaches are typically guided by clinical evaluation and imaging to tailor interventions based on etiology, with most patients achieving resolution through non-surgical means.^[51] Rest and activity modification are fundamental, often following the RICE protocol—rest to avoid weight-bearing, ice application for 15-20 minutes several times daily, compression with wraps to minimize swelling, and elevation to reduce edema. Aggravating activities, such as running or jumping, should be avoided for 2-6 weeks, substituting low-impact alternatives like swimming or cycling to maintain fitness while allowing periosteal recovery.^[52]^[53] Pharmacotherapy addresses pain, inflammation, and underlying infection. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen at 400-600 mg every 6-8 hours as needed, effectively alleviate symptoms in non-infectious periostitis by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. For bacterial etiologies, antibiotics such as clindamycin (initially 600 mg IV every 6-8 hours, transitioning to 300-450 mg orally every 6-8 hours) are prescribed for a total of 4-6 weeks, targeting common pathogens such as Staphylococcus species, alongside addressing any dental or soft-tissue sources of infection.^[54]^[55]^[50] Adjunctive measures enhance recovery. Physical therapy, including eccentric strengthening exercises for the calf muscles and stretching of the tibialis anterior, improves biomechanics and reduces recurrence risk in shin splint cases, typically over 4-8 weeks. Custom orthotics correct lower extremity alignment issues, such as excessive pronation, distributing forces away from the tibia. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) may be used for chronic cases, with low-quality evidence suggesting benefit in reducing pain and promoting healing.^[4] In hypertrophic forms, like hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, bisphosphonates such as zoledronic acid (4 mg IV every 6-12 months) inhibit osteoclast activity and relieve bone pain.^[51]^[56]^[57] Corticosteroid injections are rarely used due to the risk of tendon rupture or periosteal weakening, with potential complications outweighing benefits in most scenarios. Nutritional support, including adequate calcium (1,000-1,200 mg daily) and vitamin D (600-800 IU daily) intake, supports bone remodeling and healing, especially in adolescents or those with deficiencies.^[58]^[59]

Surgical Interventions

Surgical interventions for periostitis are reserved for cases where conservative therapies have failed, particularly in persistent chronic non-infectious forms or complicated infectious presentations involving abscess formation or severe deformity. Indications typically include refractory symptoms lasting more than three to six months despite non-operative management, the presence of pus or abscess requiring drainage in infectious etiologies, and significant structural defects or deformities that impair function.^[60]^[37]^[61] In infectious periostitis, procedures focus on debridement and drainage to eradicate infection and remove necrotic tissue. Surgical debridement involves excising inflamed periosteum and any involved bone, often combined with incision and drainage of abscesses, followed by irrigation to clear purulent material. For non-infectious chronic cases, such as tibial periostitis in athletes, common procedures include fasciotomy of the deep posterior compartment to relieve fascial tension, periosteal stripping along the posteromedial tibia to reduce traction on the periosteum, and creation of a soleus sling to stabilize soft tissues. In cases with bony defects, bone grafting may be employed to restore structural integrity. Endoscopic-assisted techniques, such as minimally invasive fasciotomy, are increasingly used to minimize tissue disruption and facilitate faster recovery. Postoperative rehabilitation generally spans 4 to 8 weeks, emphasizing gradual weight-bearing and physical therapy to restore strength and mobility.^[62]^[63]^[64] Success rates for surgical intervention in athletic populations with chronic tibial periostitis exceed 80%, with many patients achieving significant pain reduction (up to 72%) and return to activity, though outcomes vary based on procedure and patient factors. Potential complications include recurrence of infection, excessive scarring leading to stiffness, delayed wound healing, and nerve injury, with overall rates ranging from 2.7% to 28% depending on the technique.^[65]^[66]^[67]

Prevention and Prognosis

Preventive Measures

Preventive measures for periostitis focus on reducing risk factors associated with overuse, infection, and underlying systemic conditions, particularly in at-risk populations such as athletes and individuals with chronic diseases. For athletes, especially runners prone to medial tibial stress syndrome—a common form of overuse periostitis—gradual progression of training intensity and duration allows the musculoskeletal system to adapt and minimizes repetitive stress on the tibia. Cross-training with low-impact activities, such as swimming or cycling, helps distribute mechanical loads and prevents overuse injuries. Incorporating warm-up routines, including dynamic stretching of the calves and shins, enhances flexibility and reduces injury risk. Proper footwear with adequate cushioning and arch support, along with custom orthotics if needed, corrects biomechanical imbalances that contribute to tibial stress. Biomechanical assessments, such as gait analysis, enable early identification of running form issues like overpronation or excessive heel striking, allowing targeted corrections to avert onset. In the general population, preventing infectious periostitis involves strategies to avoid bacterial spread to bone tissues. Proper wound care, including thorough cleaning with soap and water, application of antiseptic ointments, and protective dressings, reduces the risk of skin infections progressing to osteomyelitis and subsequent periostitis. In endemic areas for syphilis, a known cause of syphilitic periostitis, safe sexual practices such as consistent condom use and routine screening for sexually transmitted infections are essential preventive steps, as no vaccine is currently available. Managing underlying conditions like psoriatic arthritis through disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and regular monitoring helps control systemic inflammation that may lead to periarticular periostitis.^[3] For systemic forms such as hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, prevention includes early screening and treatment of primary conditions like lung malignancies or congenital heart disease to mitigate associated periostitis.^[3] Lifestyle modifications further support bone health and vascular integrity to prevent periostitis. Maintaining a calcium-rich diet, supplemented with vitamin D as needed, optimizes bone density and resilience against stress reactions. Weight management reduces mechanical overload on lower extremities, particularly in overweight individuals engaging in high-impact activities. Smoking cessation improves calcium absorption and peripheral blood flow, countering the bone-weakening effects of tobacco use. Early intervention for precursors, such as mild shin pain during activity, through rest and activity modification, can halt progression to full periostitis, especially when overuse risks are recognized.

Prognosis and Outcomes

The prognosis for periostitis varies significantly depending on the underlying etiology, with acute and overuse-related cases generally exhibiting excellent outcomes when managed conservatively, while infectious or systemic forms carry a higher risk of prolonged recovery and complications. In cases of medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS), a common overuse form of periostitis often termed shin splints, most patients achieve resolution with rest, ice, and gradual return to activity within 2-4 weeks, provided there is adherence to treatment protocols.^[60]^[62] Infectious periostitis, typically bacterial in origin, has a more guarded prognosis, often requiring 4-6 weeks of intravenous antibiotics followed by oral therapy, with recovery extending to several months in severe instances and an increased risk of progression to chronic osteomyelitis if treatment is delayed.^[37]^[68] Key factors influencing outcomes include early diagnosis to prevent escalation, patient compliance with rest and rehabilitation, and the absence of complications such as osteomyelitis or stress fractures. For athletes, recurrence rates can be as high as 20% or more without targeted preventive strategies like biomechanical corrections or gradual training progression, particularly in high-impact sports.^[69]^[53] In hypertrophic periostitis, often secondary to underlying malignancies like lung cancer, the prognosis is primarily determined by the primary disease, with poor long-term survival rates associated with advanced neoplastic conditions despite symptomatic relief from periostitis.^[26]^[3] Long-term implications are generally favorable for non-systemic cases, with rare instances of residual pain or minor bony deformity following appropriate intervention; however, ongoing monitoring for associated systemic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel conditions or malignancies, is essential to mitigate recurrence or progression.^[70]^[26]

Epidemiology and History

Epidemiological Patterns

Periostitis manifests in various forms, with overuse-related cases, such as medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS), being notably prevalent among physically active populations. Among runners, the prevalence ranges from 13.6% to 20%, contributing significantly to lower limb injuries.^[71] In military recruits undergoing intensive training, rates can escalate to 35%, often linked to repetitive marching and running activities.^[53] In contrast, infectious periostitis remains rare in the general population, comprising a small fraction of bone infections, with overall osteomyelitis incidence at approximately 21.8 cases per 100,000 person-years, where periostitis appears as a secondary feature in select cases.^[72] Incidence patterns highlight elevated risks in adolescents and young adults, driven by rapid skeletal growth and heightened participation in sports or training programs. This demographic experiences peaks during periods of increased mechanical loading, such as basic military training, where overuse injuries surge due to abrupt escalations in activity.^[73] Occupational exposure in professions involving repetitive strain further contributes to incidence through chronic tibial stress, though specific rates vary by workload intensity.^[37] Demographic trends show overuse periostitis disproportionately affecting females, who face 1.5 to 2.3 times higher risk compared to males, potentially due to biomechanical and hormonal factors influencing lower extremity loading.^[74] ^[53] Congenital forms are prominent in syphilis-endemic regions, where untreated prenatal infections lead to skeletal involvement in 60-80% of symptomatic cases, with transmission rates from early-stage maternal syphilis reaching 60-100%. As of 2024, the United States reported nearly 4,000 cases of congenital syphilis, marking a 700% rise since 2015 and heightening risks for associated skeletal manifestations such as periostitis in affected regions.^[75] ^[76] ^[77] Globally, infectious periostitis exhibits higher occurrence in developing countries, correlating with elevated burdens of bacterial infections and limited healthcare access, while overuse types predominate in industrialized settings with active lifestyles.^[12] Recent post-2020 studies indicate a rise in inflammatory musculoskeletal conditions following COVID-19, including arthralgias linked to persistent immune activation.^[78]

Historical and Paleopathological Context

The term periostitis derives from the Greek roots "peri-" meaning around, "osteon" meaning bone, and "-itis" denoting inflammation, reflecting the condition's involvement of the periosteum surrounding bone surfaces. The term was first recorded in medical literature between 1835 and 1845, marking its formal entry into 19th-century anatomical and pathological nomenclature. Early observations of periostitis-like symptoms appeared in the 16th century, when physicians linked severe bone pain and swelling—manifesting as periosteal inflammation—to syphilis outbreaks following its introduction to Europe around 1495.^[79] These descriptions, often tied to secondary syphilis stages, noted nocturnal bone aches and periosteal reactions as hallmark features, though the condition was not yet distinctly named.^[80] By the 1800s, periostitis was formalized in orthopedic texts as an inflammatory response frequently associated with bacterial infections, such as those causing osteomyelitis, with surgeons like Nathan Smith advocating periosteal incisions to relieve tension in acute cases.^[81] In the mid-19th century, Rudolf Virchow advanced understanding through histopathological studies of syphilitic bone lesions, describing hypertrophic forms characterized by excessive periosteal new bone formation and cellular infiltration in his 1858 and 1859 works on syphilis pathology.^[82]^[83] Paleopathological evidence reveals periostitis as an ancient condition predating human evolution, with traces in fossil records spanning millions of years. In dinosaurs, a notable case involves the right humerus of an adult Camarasaurus grandis from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation (approximately 150 million years ago), where a juxtacortical lesion along the distal anterior diaphysis led to chronic periostitis, likely from repetitive stress or trauma causing secondary myositis and fasciitis.^[84] Prevalence is also documented in fossil crocodylians, particularly Borealosuchus formidabilis from the Paleocene (about 66-56 million years ago), where analysis of 7,154 skeletal elements from 80 individuals identified 134 cases of periostitis—57% of all pathologies—primarily affecting vertebrae and suggesting nonspecific responses to metabolic or infectious stressors, though without CT confirmation in the original study.^[85]

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Proliferative periostitis (periostitis ossificans or so-called “Garrè's osteomyelitis”) represents a periosteal reaction to the presence of inflammation. This ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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May 31, 2023 · Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of acute and chronic hematogenous osteomyelitis in adults and children.[1][5] Increasingly ...Missing: periostitis | Show results with:periostitis
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Congenital and maternal syphilis is caused by the transmission of the spirochete Treponema pallidum ... Osteochondritis and periostitis are commonly seen (75%).Etiology · History and Physical · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
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Apr 13, 2021 · Conversely, atypical infections such as tuberculosis and fungal and parasitic infections can cause focal bone destruction simulating tumor.
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Aug 22, 2016 · Infectious periostitis is the term used for infection that invades the periosteum only and does not involve the cortex and bone marrow.
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There are three mechanisms by which fungi infect bones: hematogenous dissemination, direct inoculation, and contiguous infection. Of the presumed mechanisms of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Jul 7, 2022 · Periostitis can be caused by several causes, including exercise intensity and training surfaces. Furthermore, a sudden increase in training ...Missing: general | Show results with:general
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Nov 7, 2022 · The complications of hypertrophic osteoarthropathy itself are limited to pain and loss of range of motion from edema and periostitis.
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It is characterized by a combination of clinical findings, including severe disabling arthralgia and arthritis, digital clubbing, and periostosis of tubular ...Continuing Education Activity · Etiology · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
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Rheumatoid osteoperiostitis ; Synonyms: Poulet's disease; Rheumatoid arthritis with osteoperiostitis ; SNOMED CT: Rheumatoid osteoperiostitis (129563009); ...
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May 24, 2021 · 1.2. 7. Iatrogenic Processes. Radiation osteonecrosis can occur following radiotherapy (30–50 Gy) due to a combination of damage to osteoblasts ...
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We present here a review of commonly encountered bone lesions [Table 1] that can mimic bone tumors and discuss the key imaging and clinical features.
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It is caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin C intake that results in several metabolic abnormalities, including defective collagen synthesis and impaired ...
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Nov 7, 2024 · Shin splints can cause pain in the front of your lower leg. The pain of shin splints is from the inflammation of the muscles, tendons, and bone tissue around ...
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Periostitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the periosteum around tubular bones and in the tibia, known as shin splints or MTSS. There is a ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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There is a strong association between CNO and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), psoriasis (both palmoplantar pustulosis [PPP] and psoriasis vulgaris), severe ...
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Proliferative periostitis, or osteomyelitis, is one type of bone infection. Staphylococcus and other similar bacteria are usually the cause. Staphylococcus ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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Lymphadenopathy is a common abnormal finding during the physical exam in general medical practice. It can be caused by neoplasm, inflammatory conditions, or ...Missing: periostitis | Show results with:periostitis
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... congenital syphilis and periostitis ... Central nervous system infection with Treponema pallidum is common among infants with confirmed congenital syphilis.
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Sep 18, 2024 · In pediatrics, the finding caused by periostitis with anterior bowing could be suggestive of congenital syphilis 1. In acquired syphilis ...
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Pathologies of entheses are called enthesopathies. The term enthesitis (inflammation) describes a process observed in entheses following mechanical injury.
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Jul 10, 2022 · On physical examination, scars or local disturbance of wound healing may be noted along with the cardinal signs of inflammation. Range of motion ...Missing: periostitis red flags
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Physical Examination: A physical examination can reveal localized tenderness, swelling, and changes in skin color and temperature. Imaging: X-rays or more ...
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Medial Tibial Stress. Syndrome is defined as pain along the posteromedial tibia, positive fulcrum test and hop testing.1,2. Modifications to this guideline ...
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The causes of periosteal reaction are broad, including trauma, infection, arthritis, tumors, and drug-induced and vascular entities. When periosteal reaction ...
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Imaging is needed for the diagnosis of bone and joint infections, determining the severity and extent of disease, planning biopsy, and monitoring the response ...
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Mar 24, 2011 · Bisphosphonates are generally effective therapy for HOA-related pain. ZA may be even more efficacious and longer lasting than pamidronate.
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Around 3000 BC the sexually transmitted syphilis emerged from endemic syphilis in South-Western Asia, due to lower temperatures of the post-glacial era and ...
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[PDF] Shakespearean syphilis
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Nathan Smith in 1827 knew that there was increased tension in the early stages of bone infection and that it was necessary to incise the periosteum and drill ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Origin and spread of syphilis - ScholarWorks at University of Montana
In the 16th century, the. French called syphilis the Neapolitian disease, whereas. Neapolitans, who believed the illness had been brought by the. French ...<|separator|>
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Other invaluable contributions were made throughout the late 19th century, such the description of the pathology of syphilis by Rudolf Virchow in 1859, in his ...
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Mar 13, 2017 · A juxtacorticallesion is noted on an adult Camarasaurus grandis right humerus located along the distal anterior diaphysis and terminating at the ...
[83]
paleopathological evaluation and radiological study of 46 egyptian ...
Tibial periostitis was observed in 1/33 mummies (9). Arthritic changes - X-ray ... human ancient Egyptian mummified re-. mains present in our country ...
[84]
[PDF] leidyosuchus ( borealosuchus) formidabilis
Dec 28, 1998 · 26 showing periosteopathy of the dorsal vertebrae. Photo by Robert Spading. Page 2. PALEOPATHOLOGY. OFTHE. PALEOCENE CROCODILE.Missing: CT scans