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Photogram

A photogram is a photographic image produced without a camera by placing objects directly onto light-sensitive material, such as photographic paper, and exposing it to light, which creates silhouettes, abstract forms, or patterns based on the objects' shapes, textures, and degrees of transparency.^[1] This cameraless technique, also known as a rayograph when associated with artist Man Ray, directly records the interplay of light and shadow on the emulsion, bypassing lenses and optics to emphasize the chemical and material essence of photography.^[2] The origins of the photogram trace back to the earliest experiments in light-sensitive chemistry; in 1727, German scholar Johann Heinrich Schulze observed that sunlight darkened a solution of silver nitrate inside a glass container, inadvertently producing the first proto-photogram by projecting shapes through stencils.^[3] By 1835, British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot advanced the method intentionally, creating "photogenic drawings" on salt paper sensitized with silver nitrate to document botanical specimens and everyday objects, marking the technique's role in the invention of photography itself.^[3] In 1842, astronomer Sir John Herschel developed the cyanotype process—a stable blue-toned variant of the photogram—which British botanist Anna Atkins used in 1843 to produce Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions, the world's first book illustrated entirely with photographs.^[3] Although overshadowed by camera-based photography in the mid-19th century, the photogram saw a significant revival among avant-garde artists in the early 20th century, particularly in the Dada and Surrealist movements, where it served as a tool for abstraction and experimentation.^[1] German artist Christian Schad pioneered "Schadographs" between 1918 and 1919, arranging glass, fabric, and urban debris on sensitized paper to evoke chance and fragmentation amid post-World War I turmoil.^[3] In 1922, Hungarian artist László Moholy-Nagy independently explored photograms in Berlin, using them to investigate light, space, and motion in works that blurred the boundaries between photography and sculpture.^[3] That same year, American expatriate Man Ray in Paris refined the process with whimsical compositions of household items, dubbing them "rayographs" and publishing a portfolio titled Champs Délicieux in 1922, which popularized the technique in artistic circles.^[3]^[1]^[4] Photograms have since evolved across scientific, artistic, and experimental contexts, influencing mid-20th-century figures like György Kepes at the New Bauhaus and continuing into contemporary practice with artists such as Susan Derges and Walead Beshty, who adapt the method using innovative materials, alternative light sources, and ecological themes to probe photography's materiality and ephemerality.^[3] This enduring technique underscores photography's roots in direct chemical response to light, offering a pure, unmediated exploration of form and shadow that remains vital in both historical analysis and modern innovation.^[2]

Definition and Principles

Definition

A photogram is a cameraless photographic image produced by placing objects directly onto light-sensitive material, such as photographic paper, and exposing it to light, which creates silhouettes or abstract forms through the blockage and transmission of light by the objects.^[1]^[5] This direct contact method eliminates the need for a lens or camera, relying instead on the physical arrangement of objects to modulate light exposure and generate tonal contrasts.^[6] Key characteristics include the absence of optical intermediaries, the use of contact printing, and variations in shading determined by the opacity of the objects and the duration of light exposure.^[1] The term "photogram" originates from the Greek roots "phōs" (light) and "gramma" (a drawing or written mark), reflecting the process of "drawing with light."^[7] It was coined in 1925 by Hungarian artist László Moholy-Nagy to describe his experimental camera-less works, which he termed "photograms" to emphasize their abstract, light-based composition.^[8]^[9] Visually, photograms often feature a dark-toned background with light silhouettes of the placed objects, where unexposed areas remain pale and exposed regions darken during development; this can be inverted through reversal processing to produce contrasting effects.^[1] This technique should not be confused with photogrammetry, a scientific method for extracting measurements from photographs to create maps or 3D models.^[10]

Underlying Principles

Photograms rely on the fundamental interaction between light and photosensitive materials, specifically the activation of silver halide crystals embedded in photographic emulsions. When ultraviolet or visible light strikes these crystals—typically silver bromide (AgBr), silver chloride (AgCl), or mixtures thereof—it initiates a photochemical reaction. Photons absorbed by the halide ions generate free electrons that migrate to sensitivity sites within the crystal lattice, reducing silver ions (Ag⁺) to neutral metallic silver atoms. This forms a latent image, consisting of clusters of just a few silver atoms per exposed crystal, which is invisible to the naked eye but serves as a catalyst for subsequent development.^[11] During development, a reducing agent amplifies this latent image by further converting exposed silver halides to metallic silver grains, while unexposed crystals remain intact until fixed.^[12] The core technique of photogram creation is contact printing, where objects are placed directly on the emulsion surface to produce shadowgrams through differential light exposure. Light rays travel in straight lines and are blocked variably by the objects' opacity and density; opaque or dense materials prevent nearly all light from reaching the underlying emulsion, resulting in unexposed areas that remain light after processing, while translucent or sparse areas allow partial transmission, creating tonal gradients. The sharpness of edges in the resulting image depends on the proximity of the object to the emulsion—close contact minimizes light diffraction around the object's contours, yielding crisp silhouettes, whereas gaps can cause blurring due to scattered light.^[13] This process inherently produces a negative image due to the inversion effect: areas directly hit by light undergo reduction and darken upon development, while shadowed regions stay unexposed and appear light, reversing the tonal values of the original subject. For instance, a solid object blocking light will render as a white silhouette against a dark background. Reversal to a positive image is achievable through additional processing steps, such as bleaching the developed silver to silver halide and re-exposing the print to uniform light, followed by a second development that renders the formerly unexposed areas dark.^[14] Several factors influence the outcome of photogram exposure, primarily the duration and intensity of the light source, as well as the sensitivity of the material. Longer exposure times or higher light intensities—such as from an enlarger lamp versus diffuse sunlight—provide more photons to activate the silver halides, potentially leading to denser metallic silver deposits and darker tones in exposed areas. Material sensitivity, analogous to ISO ratings in film (e.g., photographic papers with effective sensitivities around ISO 3–6), determines the minimum light required for adequate latent image formation; higher-sensitivity emulsions respond to shorter exposures but may introduce more grain.^[15] Balancing these elements ensures controlled contrast and detail without over- or underexposure.^[16]

Techniques and Materials

Traditional Photogram Process

The traditional photogram process relies on the light sensitivity of photographic paper's emulsion, where direct exposure creates silhouettes without a camera or lens.^[17] Preparation begins in a completely dark or safelit darkroom to prevent premature exposure of the materials. Select a sheet of light-sensitive gelatin silver printing paper, such as resin-coated (RC) variable-contrast paper, and cut it to the desired size. Arrange opaque or translucent objects directly on the paper's emulsion side; common examples include leaves for organic textures, glass for refractive patterns, or fabric for soft shadows, positioning them to achieve desired compositions based on their light-blocking properties.^[17]^[18] For exposure, place the prepared paper under a safelight-free light source, typically an enlarger set to wide-open aperture (e.g., f/2.8) without a negative inserted, to provide even illumination. Expose the assembly for 5-30 seconds, adjusting the duration based on the paper's sensitivity, light intensity, and desired contrast—shorter times yield lighter tones, while longer exposures increase density. Use a test strip from the paper's edge to calibrate the optimal time before committing to a full sheet.^[17]^[19] Development follows standard black-and-white print processing in chemical trays under safelight. Immerse the exposed paper emulsion-side up in a developer solution, such as Ilford Multigrade Developer or Kodak Dektol diluted to working strength at 68°F (20°C), agitating gently for 1-2 minutes until the image fully emerges. Transfer to a stop bath (dilute acetic acid or water) for 30 seconds to halt development, then to fixer for 2-4 minutes to remove unexposed silver halides and stabilize the image. Finally, wash in running water for at least 5 minutes to eliminate residual chemicals.^[18] After processing, allow the print to air dry on a drying screen or clothesline, or use a heat press for faster results while avoiding emulsion damage. For enhanced archival stability, optional toning with selenium or sepia can convert metallic silver to more inert compounds, extending the print's longevity.^[18]^[11] Safety precautions are essential due to the analog chemicals' toxicity and the darkroom's controlled environment. Use red or amber safelights compatible with the paper to avoid fogging, wear protective aprons and gloves, handle trays with tongs to prevent skin contact, and ensure proper ventilation when mixing or disposing of solutions per local regulations.^[18]

Variations and Materials

Photogram artists have explored a range of alternative materials to expand the tonal and textural possibilities beyond traditional silver gelatin paper. Cyanotype paper, sensitized with ferric ammonium citrate and potassium ferricyanide, yields distinctive blue-toned images where objects cast Prussian blue silhouettes against a pale background, offering a monochromatic aesthetic reminiscent of early blueprints. Liquid photographic emulsions, which consist of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin, can be brushed or poured onto unconventional surfaces such as wood, fabric, or canvas, allowing photograms to integrate with sculptural or mixed-media forms that capture the substrate's inherent texture. For color variations, chromogenic paper—comprising multiple emulsion layers sensitive to red, green, and blue light—enables the creation of vibrant photograms through the formation of cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes during development, producing nuanced, multi-hued silhouettes dependent on object translucency and exposure duration. Technique adaptations further diversify photogram outcomes by manipulating exposure dynamics. Multiple exposures, achieved by successively arranging and exposing objects on the same sheet, build layered compositions with overlapping shadows and graduated tones, enhancing depth and complexity in the final image. Introducing motion during exposure, such as gently shifting objects like leaves or threads while light is applied, generates blurred trails that evoke fluidity and energy, transforming static forms into abstract representations of movement. Sandwiching pre-exposed transparencies or films between the sensitized paper and a glass sheet during contact printing integrates additional image layers, creating composite effects where the transparency's details modulate the direct object shadows beneath. Hybrid approaches blend photogram processes with other artistic media to enrich interpretive potential. For instance, drawing with opaque ink on acetate sheets and overlaying them atop the paper before exposure combines linear elements with photogram silhouettes, yielding hybrid images that merge hand-drawn motifs with light-based impressions. Post-exposure chemical manipulations, such as selectively applying dilute bleach (often potassium ferricyanide with bromide) to developed prints, lighten specific areas to reveal underlying tones or adjust contrast, allowing artists to refine highlights and introduce subtle gradations without re-exposure. Equipment choices influence control and scale in photogram production. Outdoor sunlight serves as a natural UV source for exposures, providing variable intensity that can yield organic, unpredictable results, though it requires monitoring for consistent timing. In contrast, controlled indoor setups using UV lamps—such as blacklight or halogen sources emitting in the 350-400 nm range—offer precise duration and uniformity, ideal for repeatable experiments. Scale varies widely: intimate contact prints match object size directly on standard paper, while large-scale works involve coating expansive sheets (up to several meters) with emulsion for immersive installations, as seen in Susan Derges' riverine photograms that capture natural flows on oversized formats.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Experiments

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, scientific curiosity drove the first chemical experiments approximating photograms. As early as 1727, German scholar Johann Heinrich Schulze demonstrated light's effect on silver salts by projecting shapes through stencils onto a silver nitrate solution, producing darkened silhouettes—the first recorded photochemical images.^[3] Thomas Wedgwood, an English inventor, began testing light-sensitive materials around 1790, coating paper and white leather with silver nitrate to produce shadowy impressions of objects like leaves and paintings placed directly on the surface or via camera obscura projections.^[20] These "artificial suns" or shadowgraphs, as described by Humphry Davy in his 1802 publication in the Journal of the Royal Institution, formed fleeting positive images that darkened upon exposure but could not be fixed, fading quickly in light or washing away in water.^[21] Wedgwood's work, motivated by a desire to replicate natural forms for scientific study, marked the transition from mechanical shadow tracing to photochemical recording, though limited by the instability of the salts.^[22] By the early 1840s, advancements in fixing methods enabled more durable photograms, particularly in botanical documentation. Anna Atkins, a British botanist, employed the cyanotype process invented by Sir John Herschel in 1842 to create direct impressions of algae specimens laid on sensitized paper, exposed to sunlight to yield blue-toned silhouettes.^[23] Her self-published Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions (1843) compiled these photograms into the world's first book illustrated entirely with photographic images, serving as precise scientific records superior to hand-drawn illustrations for capturing fine details like fronds and textures.^[24] These early efforts prioritized empirical accuracy in fields like botany, using photograms for direct, unmediated impressions of specimens to advance natural history studies long before artistic applications emerged.^[25]

19th and Early 20th Century Advancements

In the late 1830s and 1840s, William Henry Fox Talbot advanced the photogram through his development of photogenic drawings, a process involving the sensitization of paper with sodium chloride and silver nitrate solutions. By placing objects such as botanical specimens or lace directly on the prepared paper and exposing it to sunlight, Talbot created silhouettes where light-exposed areas darkened, producing contact prints without a camera. These experiments, begun around 1834 and refined by 1839, were detailed in his publication The Pencil of Nature (1844–1846), which illustrated salted paper prints derived from such placements, marking an early step toward reproducible photography.^[26]^[27] By the mid-19th century, photograms found practical application in scientific illustration, particularly for botanical records, due to their ability to capture precise outlines of specimens. Hippolyte Bayard contributed early abstract experiments around 1842, using a direct positive cyanotype process to arrange plant materials and feathers on sensitized paper, resulting in layered, non-representational images that emphasized texture and form. These works, such as Arrangement of Specimens (ca. 1842), preserved at the Société Française de Photographie, extended beyond documentation to explore light's creative potential on flat surfaces.^[28] In the late 19th century, the pictorialist movement elevated photography as a form of fine art through manipulated compositions and tonal effects. Henry Peach Robinson, a key pictorialist theorist, influenced this view in his writings, such as Pictorial Effect in Photography (1869), advocating for artistic manipulation to evoke emotion and abstraction.^[29] Technical refinements during this period enhanced photogram viability. The introduction of sodium thiosulfate (hypo) as a fixing agent by Sir John Herschel in 1839 allowed for the removal of unexposed silver salts, ensuring image permanence without fading, a critical advancement for salted paper and early prints. Additionally, the adoption of glass plates in the 1850s via the wet collodion process enabled larger formats, as the rigid, transparent support facilitated detailed contact exposures and scaling up from small paper-based works to broader compositions.^[30]^[31]

Mid-20th Century Innovations

In the 1910s and 1920s, Dada and Surrealist artists adopted photograms to produce abstract forms that evoked the subconscious, deliberately circumventing the camera's representational constraints to prioritize chance and dreamlike associations. German Dadaist Christian Schad pioneered this revival in 1918 with his "schadographs," cameraless exposures of scavenged materials like paper scraps and fabric placed directly on sensitized paper, yielding jagged, irregular silhouettes that challenged conventional composition and embraced anti-art principles.^[32] Similarly, in Paris during the early 1920s, Man Ray developed "rayographs"—photograms of everyday objects such as thumbtacks and wire coils exposed to light—infusing Surrealist explorations of the irrational and automatic with ethereal, overlapping shadows that blurred boundaries between reality and illusion.^[33] During the 1930s and 1940s, the Bauhaus school's emphasis on modernist pedagogy elevated photograms as tools for studying light's dynamic interplay with form and space, fostering experimental approaches in art education. Hungarian-born artist and instructor László Moholy-Nagy, who joined the Bauhaus in 1923 and later directed the New Bauhaus in Chicago from 1937 until his death in 1946, integrated photograms into his curriculum to teach foundational principles of visual perception and abstraction, using them to demonstrate how light could sculpt intangible volumes without mechanical mediation.^[6] His "photoplastics," a term he applied to layered photograms and photomontages, exemplified this method by combining translucent overlays to create geometric interpenetrations that mirrored Constructivist ideals of precision and innovation.^[9] Following World War II, photograms resonated with Abstract Expressionism's emphasis on gestural spontaneity and non-representational expression, as artists drew parallels between the technique's fluid light traces and the movement's impulsive mark-making. In the late 1940s and 1950s, photographers aligned with this milieu, such as those in New York circles, employed photograms to capture organic, calligraphic forms that echoed the raw energy of action painting, prioritizing emotional immediacy over narrative content.^[34] These artistic developments coincided with technical advancements that expanded photogram experimentation, particularly the widespread adoption of faster gelatin silver emulsions in the 1930s and 1940s, which reduced exposure times from minutes to seconds and enabled finer control over subtle tonal gradations.^[35] Complementing this, the increasing use of artificial lighting sources, such as incandescent bulbs and early electronic flashes, facilitated indoor darkroom work, allowing artists to manipulate light intensity and direction for more precise, repeatable abstract effects without reliance on natural sunlight.^[36]

Post-1960s Evolution

In the 1960s and 1970s, photograms gained prominence within conceptual art, particularly through Fluxus, where artists integrated cameraless techniques into performances and assemblages to challenge conventional artistic boundaries and emphasize ephemeral, process-based creation.^[37] For instance, Fluxus member Alison Knowles employed cyanotype photograms—exposing everyday objects like beans or fabrics directly on sensitized paper—to explore themes of chance and materiality in works dating back to the movement's peak.^[38] Concurrently, feminist explorations repurposed photograms to interrogate domesticity; Czech artist Běla Kolářová created "radiograms" by pressing household items such as needles, matches, and hair clippings onto soft wax to form artificial negatives, then exposing them to light, thereby revealing the hidden aesthetics and labor embedded in ordinary objects.^[39] These approaches extended mid-century analog innovations by prioritizing idea over image, aligning photograms with broader postmodern critiques of representation.^[40] The 1990s and 2000s witnessed a revival of photograms in installation art, often on a large scale to address environmental concerns and the interplay between human intervention and natural processes. British artist Susan Derges pioneered immersive works like her River Taw series (1998–2000), producing expansive photograms by floating photographic paper in streams under moonlight, capturing water's flow, debris, and ecological rhythms to metaphorically depict cycles of transformation and environmental fragility.^[41] Similarly, Adam Fuss contributed monumental photograms, such as those from his Love series (1992), using natural elements like water droplets and insects on Cibachrome sheets to evoke organic impermanence and the sublime scale of nature.^[42] These installations transformed galleries into site-specific environments, scaling up the intimate contact-printing method to foster viewer immersion in pressing ecological narratives. From the 2010s to 2025, photograms evolved through digital hybrids, blending analog origins with computational tools; artists scanned traditional photograms for post-production editing or employed software to simulate light-object interactions, enabling iterative experimentation without repeated chemical exposure.^[43] A parallel emphasis on sustainability emerged, with practitioners adopting eco-friendly alternatives like plant-based pigments and low-toxicity developers in processes such as cyanotypes, reducing hazardous waste from traditional silver halide chemistry.^[44] This integration was evident in global exhibitions like the 2022 "Unearthed: Photography's Roots" at Dulwich Picture Gallery, which featured cameraless works by diverse international artists, underscoring photograms' adaptability to contemporary concerns of technology, ecology, and inclusivity.^[45]

Notable Artists and Contributions

Early Pioneers

The early pioneers of photograms in the 19th century bridged scientific experimentation and artistic expression, transforming cameraless photography from a technical curiosity into a medium for capturing natural forms and personal narratives. These innovators, working in the 1830s and 1840s, laid the groundwork for photograms as an art form by emphasizing direct impressions of objects on light-sensitive surfaces, often without the intermediary of a camera lens. Their contributions highlighted the poetic potential of shadows and silhouettes, influencing subsequent developments in photographic processes.^[26] William Henry Fox Talbot stands as a foundational figure in photogram history through his invention of the photogenic drawing process in the mid-1830s, which involved placing objects directly on sensitized paper to create negative images exposed to sunlight. His experiments during travels in Italy and at his Lacock Abbey estate produced some of the earliest known photograms, including delicate impressions of lace and leaves that showcased the medium's ability to render intricate textures without drawing or engraving. A notable example is his Pattern of Lace, Folded in V Shape (c. 1835), a paper negative that captures the fine filigree of fabric, demonstrating the precision of his salt-fixed silver chloride method. These works not only predated his 1841 calotype patent but also inspired its negative-positive system, shifting photograms toward reproducible art.^[46]^[26]^[47] Anna Atkins advanced photograms into the realm of systematic artistic documentation in the 1840s, utilizing the cyanotype process invented by John Herschel to produce the first book illustrated entirely with photographs. Her Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions (1843–1853), self-published in installments, features over 400 blue-toned impressions of seaweed and botanical specimens arranged directly on paper, emphasizing their organic forms and scientific accuracy as both art and reference. As a botanist, Atkins's approach elevated photograms beyond mere experimentation, creating a visual taxonomy that celebrated nature's elegance and marked a milestone in women's contributions to photography.^[24]^[48]^[49] Hippolyte Bayard, a contemporary rival to Daguerre and Talbot, explored photograms in the 1840s through his direct positive process on paper, producing staged and abstract works that introduced directorial elements to the medium. His Arrangement of Specimens (c. 1842), a cyanotype composition of arranged objects like feathers and plants, exemplifies early cameraless experimentation with form and shadow, blending documentation with artistic intent. Bayard's self-portraits, such as Self-Portrait as a Drowned Man (1840), while primarily camera-based, incorporated photogram-like direct impressions in his broader oeuvre, pioneering narrative staging in photography to protest his overlooked inventions and assert personal agency.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Modernist Figures

Christian Schad pioneered the modernist revival of photograms in 1918 with his "schadographs," among the earliest intentionally abstract photographs created using a cameraless technique.^[32] He placed found objects such as scraps of paper and fabric directly on light-sensitive printing-out paper, exposing it to daylight near a windowsill to produce ethereal, shadowy forms that evoked x-ray-like transparency and depth.^[32] These works, often featuring irregular borders to defy conventional formats, challenged traditional photographic representation by emphasizing the medium's inherent abstraction and tactility.^[32] Man Ray advanced photogram experimentation in late 1921 and 1922 through his "rayographs," a series of cameraless images that transformed everyday objects into surreal, dreamlike compositions.^[53] By arranging personal items like combs, keys, glasses, and graters on photosensitive paper and exposing them to light, Ray created fluid, overlapping silhouettes that blurred the boundaries between reality and illusion.^[53] He compiled twelve of these originals into the limited-edition portfolio Champs Délicieux (Delicious Fields), published in Paris in 1922 with a preface by Tristan Tzara, marking a pivotal Dadaist-Surrealist fusion in photography.^[53] László Moholy-Nagy further elevated photograms in the 1920s as tools for exploring light, space, and kinetics, integrating them into his broader Constructivist vision.^[54] Starting around 1922, he exposed objects on photosensitive paper—initially using daylight on printing-out paper for brownish tones, then shifting to darkroom techniques for larger, more controlled abstractions—yielding luminous, ambiguous forms that suggested movement and spatial depth.^[54] These photograms informed his "space modulators," kinetic sculptures like the 1930 Light-Space Modulator, which used rotating metal and glass elements to project dynamic light patterns, extending photogram principles into three-dimensional, time-based art.^[54] The photograms of Schad, Ray, and Moholy-Nagy profoundly shaped 20th-century avant-garde movements, particularly Surrealism and New Vision photography. Man Ray's rayographs, with their automatic, unconscious imagery, bridged Dada to Surrealism by capturing dreamlike distortions and influencing the movement's emphasis on the irrational and subconscious in visual form.^[55] Moholy-Nagy's works exemplified New Vision's technological optimism, promoting photograms as a means to expand perception and reflect modernity's abstract realities, as detailed in his 1925 book Painting, Photography, Film.^[6]^[56] Collectively, these innovations positioned photograms as a core experimental strategy, inspiring subsequent artists to prioritize light's transformative potential over representational fidelity.^[56]

Contemporary Practitioners

Ellen Carey, active since the 1980s, has developed innovative photogram techniques including her "blots" series and rollbacks (also termed rollograms), producing large-scale abstract works that subvert conventional photogram conventions by emphasizing materiality and chance in the darkroom process.^[57] Her "Dings & Shadows" series (2014) exemplifies this evolution, incorporating layered exposures to create luminous, non-representational forms that explore photography's inherent abstraction.^[57] Adam Fuss, working from the 1990s onward, blends historical processes like daguerreotypy with modern sensibilities in his photograms, notably capturing the sinuous movements of snakes and the vulnerability of infants in water to evoke themes of life, death, and primal energy.^[42] These works, such as his untitled snake photograms from the mid-1990s, achieve a haunting intimacy through direct contact printing, bridging archaic imaging methods with contemporary existential inquiries.^[58] His "From the Pond" series (1994) further extends this approach, using aquatic motifs to symbolize fluidity and rebirth in monumental scale.^[59] Susan Derges, working since the 1990s, uses photograms to capture natural processes and ecological themes, often exposing paper to moonlight or water flows outdoors to create images of frost, river currents, and dew drops that highlight environmental ephemerality and the interplay of light with organic matter.^[60] Walead Beshty, active from the 2000s, incorporates photograms into his critique of photography's materiality, as in his "Travel Photography" series (2007–2011), where he wraps color paper around objects during transit, exposing it to airport X-rays and handling to produce abstract, site-specific abstractions that question circulation, borders, and the medium's industrial processes.^[61] Emerging voices continue to expand photogram's boundaries into interdisciplinary realms. Ryan Peter's 2024 autograms integrate drawing and photography through hybrid processes, yielding monumental gelatin silver prints that conjure biomorphic landscapes and impossible forms, thus redefining the medium's painterly potential.^[62] Similarly, Yto Barrada's cameraless works, such as the Untitled (Bonbon) series (2017), informed by her Moroccan heritage and postcolonial dynamics, employ photograms to evoke the ephemerality of human movement and border tensions around the Strait of Gibraltar.^[63]

Artistic and Cultural Significance

Influence on Photography and Art

Photograms have significantly contributed to the development of abstraction in photography by eschewing representational realism and emphasizing form, light, and shadow as primary elements. This cameraless technique, which produces silhouettes and organic patterns directly on sensitized surfaces, challenged traditional notions of photographic depiction tied to the visible world, instead prioritizing the intrinsic qualities of light exposure. Advanced and taught at the Bauhaus by figures like László Moholy-Nagy, photograms influenced Constructivist principles by integrating industrial materials and geometric abstraction, fostering a visual language that treated photography as a tool for dynamic spatial exploration rather than mere documentation.^[64]^[65] In theoretical terms, photograms embodied Moholy-Nagy's vision of "pure photography," where light itself serves as the central medium, independent of lenses or subjects, to reveal unseen structures and energies. Moholy-Nagy described this approach as a direct engagement with photochemistry, allowing artists to manipulate light's inherent properties without mechanical intermediaries, thus elevating photography to an experimental art form akin to painting or sculpture. This emphasis on light's autonomy over narrative content positioned photograms as a foundational critique of pictorialism, promoting instead a modernist aesthetic of objectivity and innovation.^[6]^[66] In art education, photograms have endured as a pedagogical tool for instructing composition and the aesthetics of chance, enabling students to explore spatial relationships, tonal contrasts, and unpredictable outcomes through hands-on experimentation. By placing objects on paper and exposing them to light, learners grasp principles of balance, rhythm, and serendipity without relying on cameras, fostering an intuitive understanding of image-making that highlights the interplay between intention and accident. This method, rooted in Bauhaus workshops, continues in contemporary curricula to demystify photographic processes and encourage creative risk-taking.^[67] Amid the post-photographic digital era, photograms offer cultural critiques by underscoring ephemerality and directness in image production, contrasting the reproducibility and manipulation of digital tools. Their one-of-a-kind nature—emerging from singular exposures without editable layers—highlights the transient quality of light impressions, prompting reflections on authenticity in an age dominated by algorithmic generation and infinite iterations. Contemporary practitioners revisit photograms to interrogate how digital saturation erodes the immediacy of analog encounters, reclaiming a tactile, unmediated dialogue with the medium.^[68]^[69]

Applications Beyond Fine Art

Photograms have found significant utility in scientific contexts, particularly in early botanical studies where they enabled direct impressions of plant specimens for documentation and classification. In the 19th century, pioneers like Anna Atkins employed cyanotype photograms—placing algae and ferns directly on sensitized paper—to create detailed, accurate reproductions in her seminal work Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions (1843–1853), revolutionizing botanical illustration by capturing fine structural details without distortion from lenses.^[70] Similarly, William Henry Fox Talbot produced early photogenic drawings of botanical specimens, such as leaves and lace-like plant structures, by exposing salted paper to sunlight, establishing photograms as a precise tool for scientific visualization of natural forms.^[71] Beyond historical applications, photograms serve as valuable educational tools in schools, facilitating hands-on demonstrations of light science and photographic principles. Students create photograms by arranging objects on light-sensitive paper and exposing them to light, directly observing how light interacts with matter to produce images, which reinforces concepts like exposure, shadow formation, and chemical reactions in photography.^[72] This cameraless method is accessible and engaging, often integrated into K-12 curricula to teach visual literacy and the physics of light without requiring cameras or complex equipment, as seen in programs like the Getty Museum's sun print activities for children.^[73] In higher education, photograms encourage experimental creativity, helping learners grasp the foundational mechanics of image-making through tactile experimentation.^[67] In therapeutic settings, photograms promote tactile creativity and sensory exploration, particularly in art therapy for individuals coping with illness or trauma. Workshops utilizing photogram techniques allow participants to arrange personal objects or natural materials on sensitized surfaces, fostering emotional expression and mindfulness through the unpredictable interplay of light and shadow.^[74] For instance, a photogram art therapy session with breast cancer patients enabled metaphorical mending and healing narratives, as participants created images symbolizing vulnerability and resilience, demonstrating the process's efficacy in building interpersonal skills and emotional processing.^[75] This hands-on approach emphasizes sensory engagement over technical precision, making it suitable for diverse therapeutic needs. Commercially, photograms, especially cyanotypes, are applied in textile design for creating unique patterns on fabrics like cotton and silk. Designers coat natural fibers with iron-based sensitizers, place objects such as leaves or stencils on the material, and expose it to UV light to produce Prussian blue impressions, which can be fixed and incorporated into garments, upholstery, or decorative prints.^[76] This method yields eco-friendly, one-of-a-kind designs, as evidenced by commercial kits and fabrics pre-sensitized for cyanotype printing, enabling scalable production while preserving the technique's artisanal quality.^[77] Recent developments include alternative processes like chlorophyll printing and chlorography, which use plant chlorophyll and sunlight to create images on leaves and flowers for artistic, educational, and cultural conservation purposes. These eco-friendly techniques highlight photograms' adaptability in sustainable imaging practices.^[78]^[79]

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When photographic film is exposed to light, the silver halide crystals suspended in the emulsion undergo chemical changes to form small centers of silver ...
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/photographic-emulsion
[13]
Becoming the Camera - Thoughts on Photograms - Ilford Photo
Jul 22, 2021 · With a photogram - you expose your paper to light (sunlight for photograms), with an object on top, and the area underneath the object remains ...Missing: differential | Show results with:differential
[14]
The Photographic Process and Film Sensitivity - sprawls.org
With light exposure, as opposed to direct x-ray interactions, a single silver halide grain must absorb more than one photon before it can be developed and can ...
[15]
The Black and White Paper Reversal Process - 35mmc
Feb 14, 2024 · This, as the name suggests, gives a positive image when processed in normal B&W paper developer and can produce some really beautiful results.
[16]
Photograms – Photography: What, How, Why
In a darkroom, a light-sensitive sheet of paper is placed under the enlarger. Then, objects or materials are arranged on top of the paper. These objects can be ...Missing: analog | Show results with:analog
[17]
Print processing (Printing the negative) – Photography: What, How ...
Beginners guide to making a B&W RC print: The darkroom; The enlarger; The chemicals; Setting the chemicals for proofing testing and printing; Making a contact ...Missing: tutorial | Show results with:tutorial
[18]
Making a photogram - traditional darkroom ideas - ePHOTOzine
Jan 9, 2001 · This provides an ideal concentrated light source for the exposure of the photogram ... Alternatives: If your clock or watch has a seconds finger ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
Schattenriss (Silhouette) - Goethe-Lexicon of Philosophical Concepts
Jan 31, 2021 · Silhouette and Papercut Itself a precursor medium to the dominant new reproductive technology of the nineteenth century, photography, the ...
[20]
Silhouettes, Design and Film Advertising in the Early 20th Century ...
39 Nearly all of the silhouette historians understand the form as a precursor to photography. Jackson describes the silhouette as a 'forerunner of Daguerre ...
[21]
Silver and Sunlight | Science History Institute
Jul 4, 2010 · Wedgwood experimented with silver nitrate in the 1790s and perhaps even earlier; Davy published his friend's results in 1802, adding some of ...
[22]
[PDF] Salt Print - Getty Museum
It was only toward the end of the eighteenth century that Thomas Wedgwood started his experiments with silver nitrate–coated paper and leather and produced the ...
[23]
Before Photography - Photographic Processes Series - Khan Academy
Oct 21, 2017 · Wedgwood is experimenting with silver nitrate. And he's brushing silver nitrate onto sheets of paper and onto pieces of stretched white leather. He was ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Anna Atkins's cyanotypes: the first book of photographs
Anna's self-published her detailed and meticulous botanical images using the cyanotype photographic process in her 1843 book, Photographs of British Algae: ...
[25]
Anna Atkins - Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions
The first book to be photographically printed and illustrated, Photographs of British Algae was published in fascicles beginning in 1843 and is a landmark ...
[26]
Early photography: Anna Atkins and algae - Kew Gardens
Jan 26, 2016 · Anna Atkins wrote and published the first fully photographically illustrated book, jumping ahead of the pioneers of early photography.Missing: forensics Wedgwood
[27]
William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) and the Invention of ...
Oct 1, 2004 · Talbot conceived a new way of making pictures, perfected photography's optical and chemical aspects, and invented the "calotype" process, a new ...Missing: cameraless | Show results with:cameraless
[28]
Photogenic Drawings | Salt Prints at Harvard
Talbot's early attempts included images he made without a camera, which he called photogenic drawings, meaning drawings produced by light. In general, the ...
[29]
a History - Photograms
History - Photographic adventures in the creation of photogram images in the early 1800s. The history of photography is punctuated by unique practitioners ...
[30]
Pictorial effect in photography : being hints on composition and ...
Dec 23, 2013 · Robinson, H. P. (Henry Peach), 1830-1901. Publication date: 1869. Topics: Composition (Photography). Publisher: London : Piper & Carter.Missing: photograms pictorialism
[31]
Chapter 9. The Albumen & Salted Paper Book
The discovery of the fixative properties of sodium thiosulfate (or "hyposulfite of soda" as it was known then) was made in 1839 by Sir John F. W. Herschel. He ...
[32]
Glass Plate Negatives (1850s to 1920s) - Early Photographic ...
Jun 16, 2025 · Early Photographic Formats and Processes ... There are two basic types of glass plate negatives: collodion wet plate and gelatin dry plate.Missing: larger | Show results with:larger
[33]
Christian Schad. Schadograph. 1918 - MoMA
The artist's "schadographs" are among the earliest intentionally abstract photographs. Using the cameraless photogram technique.
[34]
Man Ray - Rayograph - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Man Ray made his "rayographs" without a camera by placing objects-such as the thumbtacks, coil of wire, and other circular forms used here-directly on a sheet ...
[35]
Abstract Photography Movement Overview | TheArtStory
Aug 14, 2018 · Since the early advances of Schad, Man Ray et al, abstract artists have continually returned to the "photogram ... shadow, the very ...
[36]
Faster photographs: Electroplate and the daguerrotype
Mar 23, 2023 · The daguerreotype photographic process involved laborious polishing of a metal plate to a mirror finish and the use of dangerous chemical vapours.Missing: mid- emulsions artificial
[37]
History of Photography Timeline: The Complete Summary
Aug 29, 2020 · At long last, a soft and diffused artificial photography light had been invented. ... technology used to synchronize big studio photography lights ...
[38]
Flux Us Now! Fluxus Explored With a Camera - ONCURATING
The research-based film by Dorothee Richter and Ronald Kolb, was released in 2013. It is based on a large collection of formal and informal interviews and ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[39]
Alison Knowles - Art News
May 30, 2011 · ... Fluxus ... They are affixed in a row on the paper and, above each object, its image is reproduced using a cyanotype photogram process, leaving ...
[40]
Běla Kolářová - Letters From Portugal
... domestic objects--paper clips, matches, needles, nails, and hair clippings. As she wrote in an artist's statement in 1968, her work focused on "a world so ...
[41]
Běla Kolářová. Radiogram of Circle. 1962-63 - MoMA
Běla Kolářová. Radiogram of Circle. 1962-63. Gelatin silver print. 23 5/8 × 19 7/8" (60 × 50.5 cm). Acquired through the generosity of Marie-Josée Kravis.
[42]
https://fraenkelgallery.com/artists/adam-fuss
[43]
Adam Fuss | Fraenkel Gallery
His work includes photograms of water droplets, smoke, flowers, christening gowns, birds captured in flight, and snakes swimming through water—images that ...Missing: environmental | Show results with:environmental
[44]
Hybrid photography: the limitless future of ... - Hoa Ta gallery
May 22, 2023 · Hybrid photography combines, substitutes, and complicates image creation using steps from at least two basic photography processes.
[45]
sustainable alternative photographic processes by Dan Hermouet
Jan 14, 2022 · Photographer Dan Hermouet to reveal how he cooks photography by distilling pigments from a river, scrubbing off the rust from old tools, and mixing special ...
[46]
An artificial intelligence model for predicting an appropriate mAs ...
Apr 8, 2025 · This study aimed to establish a machine learning (ML) model for predicting an appropriate current–time product (mAs) using the target exposure indicator in ...
[47]
Discover Garry Fabian Miller's cameraless photography | Wallpaper*
Jul 28, 2025 · In 2022, the Dulwich Picture Gallery held an exhibition entitled Unearthed: Photography's Roots which told the story of photography through ...
[48]
Pattern of lace, folded into V shape | Fox Talbot, William Henry
Mar 21, 2017 · Photograph by William Henry Fox Talbot, 'Pattern of Lace, folded in V shape', paper negative - photogenic drawing, c. 1835.
[49]
William Henry Fox Talbot - Getty Museum
Jul 2, 2025 · From 1844 to 1846, Talbot published The Pencil of Nature, the first commercially published book to be illustrated with photographs. Issued in ...
[50]
Anna Atkins and the cyanotype process - Smarthistory
Despite these societal restrictions, Atkins's 1843 book of algae was the first-ever published book of photographs. Atkins's interest in science and botany ...
[51]
Anna Atkins - Getty Museum
Mar 28, 2025 · Trained as a botanist, Anna Atkins developed an interest in photography as a means of recording botanical specimens for a scientific reference book.Missing: forensics Wedgwood
[52]
[Arrangement of Specimens] (Getty Museum)
Jul 26, 2025 · Hippolyte Bayard, an early inventor of photography, did not limit himself to using one of the three processes he had devised.
[53]
Hippolyte Bayard - Getty Museum
Aug 21, 2024 · Bayard is best known today for his 1840 self-portrait as a drowned man, to which he added text protesting the lack of recognition for his ...
[54]
Fake news: the drowning of Hippolyte Bayard - About JSTOR
Sep 12, 2018 · In a grainy 1840 photograph, a partially-covered corpse is propped against a wall, its decay evident in the darkening skin of the face and hands.
[55]
Man Ray's Champs Délicieux Turns 100 | Magazine - MoMA
Feb 3, 2022 · In 1922, a limited-edition album containing 12 photographs by Man Ray was published in Paris by a little-known printer, the Société Générale ...Missing: 1921-1922 | Show results with:1921-1922
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BIOGRAPHY - MOHOLY-NAGY FOUNDATION
But by the middle 1920s Moholy was skillfully manipulating light and shadow to develop a distinctive photogram style. ... Self portrait of László Moholy-Nagy<|separator|>
[57]
Dada and Surrealist Photography | TheArtStory
Nov 5, 2017 · The ground-breaking practice of photography inspired by Dada experiments and Surrealist foray into the unconscious and dream realms.
[58]
New Vision Photography - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Oct 1, 2004 · Surrealist photographers made use of such techniques as double exposure, combination printing, and reversed tonality ( 1987.1100. 81 ) to evoke ...
[59]
Ellen Carey: Dings, Pulls, and Shadows
Since the 1990s, experimental photographer Ellen Carey has been making photographs that defy the photographic convention of depicting identifiable subjects.Missing: rollograms | Show results with:rollograms
[60]
Ellen Carey Photography Rollbacks
Ellen Carey Photography · Photography Degree Zero: Polaroid 20 X 24 Rollbacks · Return to Photography Degree Zero >.Missing: rollograms | Show results with:rollograms
[61]
Adam Fuss - Untitled - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
For this work, he let loose half a dozen snakes on a large sheet of photographic paper dusted with a fine coating of talcum powder.
[62]
Adam Fuss on His Cameraless Images and Experimenting with Live ...
Sep 21, 2015 · Fuss has incorporated his snakes, both the ornery and the cooperative, into his current show of photographs at Cheim & Read.
[63]
Ryan Peter - Artworks for Sale & More - Artsy
Discover and purchase Ryan Peter's artworks, available for sale. Browse our selection of paintings, prints, and sculptures by the artist, and find art you ...Missing: photograms | Show results with:photograms
[64]
Yto Barrada - Pace Gallery
Informed by postcolonial thought and socio-political concerns, Barrada's interests range from the tensions around borders, immigration, and tourism to the urban ...
[65]
Yto Barrada, Ceuta Border, Illegally Crossing the ... - Smarthistory
Feb 21, 2023 · Barrada shares in a long photographic tradition of the medium's engagement with issues of migration. At the turn of the twentieth century ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Photography at the Bauhaus - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Oct 1, 2004 · ... Constructivism to illustrated newspapers to avant-garde film. The smaller cameras and faster exposures gave them a new dexterity, enabling ...
[67]
Bauhaus Movement Overview | TheArtStory
Nov 21, 2010 · Moholy-Nagy's photograms stand as monuments to the pioneering technological and creative spirit of the Bauhaus: in particular its commitment to ...
[68]
Straight Photography Movement Overview - The Art Story
Oct 30, 2017 · "The photogram, or camera-less record of forms produced by light ... In 1869 Henry Peach Robinson's book, Pictorial Effect in Photography ...
[69]
The Photogram as a Medium of Art and Education - Theatron
According to her the photogram can be regarded as the ancient formula of representation: the shadow and the trace of presence, these two are the origins of the ...
[70]
Amazon.com: Photograms in the digital era eBook
The photogram is a photographic depiction produced without the use of a photo camera. The technique is as simple as that: you put various objects on the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
(PDF) The Changing Nature of the Photogram: Comparing Historical ...
The research investigates the photogram technique, tracing its historical roots and contemporary relevance in photography. By analyzing works from early ...
[72]
Cyanotypes: The origins of photography - Kew Gardens
Feb 28, 2023 · Sir John Herschel began by experimenting with sun prints (or photograms). These were one of the earliest forms of photography and involved ...
[73]
William Henry Fox Talbot - [Botanical Specimen]
These earliest successful trials were cameraless images--what today we would call photograms. Here the plant itself was laid directly on top of a sheet of ...
[74]
Picture This: Using Photography to Teach Science, Math, and Writing
Students used both animate and inanimate objects to make photograms, which taught them the scientific properties of light and how to create photographic images ...
[75]
Sun Prints: Cameraless Photographs (Education at the Getty)
Learn about the sun print or cyanotype, an early technique for making photographs without a camera.
[76]
Groups & Workshops | Art Therapy
Photogram Workshop. I provide photogram workshops for adults coping with cancer which is part of an ongoing research project. l also offer ...
[77]
Mending through metaphor: Art therapy for healing in cancer care ...
... photogram art therapy workshop with eight women (ages 43–62 years) at varying stages of breast cancer, it is revealed how one session may have provided ...
[78]
Cyanotypes on fabric – preparing the fabric - Alternative Photography
Apr 19, 2016 · Cyanotypes work on a variety of surfaces but, being a textile artist, I use natural fibre fabrics, usually silk or cotton but also linen, hemp, ...
[79]
Cyanotype Mural Fabric - Jacquard Products
5-day delivery 14-day returnsCyanotype is the “original” sun-printing process and one of the earliest photographic techniques ever developed. Discovered in 1842 and distinctive for ...
[80]
Chlorophyll prints – nature expresses itself - Alternative Photography
Oct 24, 2020 · Chlorophyll printing is an alternative photographic process where photographic images are developed on natural leaves through the action of photosynthesis.Missing: science | Show results with:science
[81]
Chlorography or Chlorotyping from the Decomposition of ... - MDPI
This study explores the use of chlorography as a natural photographic developing technique that utilizes the decomposition of chlorophyll and other plant ...