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Picual

Picual is a prominent olive (Olea europaea) cultivar originating from Spain, particularly Andalusia, where it is the most extensively cultivated variety, comprising about 900,000 hectares primarily in the provinces of Jaén, Córdoba, and Granada.^[1] Known for its high productivity and suitability for oil extraction, Picual accounted for approximately 30% of global olive oil production as of 2019, making it a cornerstone of the international olive industry.^[2] The variety derives its name from the pointed tip ("pico" meaning beak in Spanish) of its fruit, and it is also recognized by numerous synonyms including Marteña, Lopereña, and Nevadillo Blanco.^[3]^[1] The Picual tree exhibits medium vigor with a spreading growth habit and dense canopy, producing medium-sized, asymmetrically elongated fruits that ripen early to a black color at maturity.^[3] Agronomically, it is self-fertile, highly productive with consistent yields, and tolerant to cold, salinity, and humidity, though it shows sensitivity to drought, limestone soils, verticillium wilt, leaf spot, and the olive fruit fly.^[3] This adaptability has facilitated its diffusion beyond Spain to regions such as Argentina, Australia, California, Egypt, and New Zealand, where it thrives in diverse climates.^[4] Early bearing and ease of mechanical harvesting further enhance its commercial value. Picual olives yield a high oil content of 20–27%, resulting in extra virgin olive oils characterized by exceptional stability due to elevated levels of oleic acid and polyphenols, which confer resistance to oxidation and health benefits.^[4]^[3] Sensorially, these oils typically present a full-bodied profile with intense fruitiness reminiscent of green olives, tomato, and fig leaf, accompanied by balanced bitterness and pungency that evoke freshly cut grass and a light peppery finish.^[1]^[5] Less than a quarter of Picual olives are processed into virgin or extra virgin grades, though demand is rising owing to award-winning examples that highlight its robust, versatile flavor suitable for both cooking and finishing dishes.^[4]

Origin and History

Early Origins

The Picual olive cultivar traces its origins to southern Spain, particularly the region of Andalusia in the province of Jaén, where it emerged as a prominent variety adapted to the local Mediterranean climate. While the specific naming and widespread recognition of Picual occurred later, its lineage stems from ancient olive plantings introduced or intensified during the Roman era, around 200–300 AD, as part of Hispania's agricultural expansion under Roman influence. This period saw the establishment of olive groves across the Iberian Peninsula, with Jaén becoming a key area for cultivation due to its fertile soils and suitable topography.^[6] Archaeological evidence indicates that olive cultivation in the Iberian Peninsula dates back much further, to Neolithic times between 3000 and 4000 BC, with charred olive stones and pollen records from sites in southern Spain demonstrating early exploitation and management of wild olives (Olea europaea var. sylvestris). While general olive domestication processes began in the Bronze Age (around 4500–4000 BP), predating Phoenician and Roman introductions by millennia, the Picual variety itself originated later, during the medieval Al-Andalus period (711–1492 AD) in southern Spain, derived from ancient lineages selected for traits like high oil yield and resilience. This adaptation involved shifting from gathering wild oleasters to intentional propagation, evidenced by changes in stone morphology from round wild forms to the more elongate shapes characteristic of early cultivars.^[6]^[7] Picual played a significant role in early Mediterranean trade and agriculture, contributing to the economic backbone of ancient Hispania through olive oil production for local use, export, and rituals. Roman agronomists, such as Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella—a native of southern Spain—documented advanced olive cultivation techniques in his first-century AD treatise De Re Rustica, emphasizing the importance of selecting hardy varieties for optimal yields in the region's dry conditions, thereby integrating olives into the broader Roman agricultural system.^[8] Genetic studies confirm Picual as a distinct lineage within the south Iberian Q1 chlorotype group, exhibiting low genetic diversity attributable to centuries of clonal propagation via cuttings and grafting, which preserved select genotypes while limiting variability from a narrow founder pool. This clonal history, linked to ancient management practices, underscores Picual's stability as a cultivar but also highlights the risks of vulnerability to diseases due to its homogenized gene pool.^[9]^[7]

Modern Cultivation Expansion

The Picual olive variety rose to prominence in the 20th century, driven by its exceptionally high oil yield of 20-27% of fruit weight, which surpassed many traditional cultivars and supported its widespread adoption for commercial production.^[10] This efficiency contributed to a significant expansion of olive acreage in Spain during the first half of the century, as growers sought to replace animal fats with olive oil amid dietary shifts and economic needs.^[11] By the 2020s, Picual accounted for approximately 25-30% of global olive oil production, solidifying its status as the world's most cultivated variety.^[2] In the mid-20th century, post-Spanish Civil War replanting programs in Jaén province accelerated Picual's dominance due to its productivity and adaptability to the region's dry conditions.^[12] These efforts, spanning the 1950s to 1970s, rebuilt and modernized olive landscapes devastated by conflict, focusing on high-yield varieties like Picual to revive rural economies.^[13] Further growth occurred in the 1980s through European Union subsidies, which provided substantial grants following Spain's accession to the Common Market in 1986, expanding national olive acreage by over 27% to more than 2 million hectares and prioritizing Picual for its economic viability.^[14] Picual cultivation spread internationally from the 1990s onward, with introductions in Australia leading to rapid commercialization and production reaching 12,000 tonnes by 2008, as the variety proved suitable for super-high-density systems.^[15] Similar expansions occurred in Argentina, Chile, and California, where Picual was planted alongside local cultivars for its high oil content and resilience, contributing to South American and U.S. olive industries that now cover thousands of hectares.^[16] By 2019, these global adoptions helped maintain Picual's 30% share of worldwide production.^[2] The economic impact of Picual's expansion is evident in Spain's olive oil sector, where exports reached €4.56 billion in 2022, with the variety's prevalence driving over half of the output. As of the 2023/24 crop year, exports exceeded €6 billion, supporting annual values well above previous levels into 2025.^[17]^[18] This growth has bolstered rural employment and positioned Spain as the top global exporter, with Picual's high yields enabling competitive pricing and market dominance.^[18]

Botanical Description

Tree Morphology

The Picual olive tree (Olea europaea 'Picual') typically reaches a mature height of 6 to 10 meters, though it can exceed 10 meters under optimal conditions, with a spreading canopy that forms an open, expansive structure often measuring 3 to 4 meters in diameter.^[19]^[20] The trunk is sturdy and often develops a gnarled appearance with age, characteristic of vigorous olive cultivars, while young trees exhibit a slow to moderate growth rate of approximately 30 to 60 cm per year in height during the first decade.^[21]^[22] Leaves of the Picual tree are elliptic-lanceolate in shape, measuring 3 to 7 cm in length and about 1 cm in width, with a dense arrangement that contributes to the canopy's thickness, averaging high foliage density along branches, and incurved curvature.^[23]^[24] The upper surface is dark green, while the underside displays a silvery-gray sheen due to fine pubescence, enhancing the tree's evergreen aesthetic and photosynthetic efficiency.^[23]^[25] The root system features a deep taproot that can extend up to 6 meters in porous soils, complemented by extensive lateral roots spreading 8 to 10 meters or more, which supports the tree's renowned drought tolerance by accessing subsurface moisture during dry periods.^[21] This architecture allows Picual trees to thrive in arid Mediterranean environments with minimal irrigation once established.^[25]^[26] Picual olive trees produce hermaphroditic flowers with partial self-compatibility that bloom in spring, typically from April to May in their native regions, with shoots bearing 20 to 30 inflorescences, each containing 10 to 30 small white flowers clustered in panicles; cross-pollination with compatible cultivars can enhance yields.^[27]^[3]^[28]

Fruit and Inflorescence

The inflorescence of the Picual olive is a paniculate structure, typically comprising 10 to 20 small, white flowers arranged in compound racemes emerging from the axils of leaves on new shoots.^[29] These flowers are andromonoecious, featuring a mix of perfect (hermaphroditic) and staminate types, with perfect flowers averaging around 7 to 11 per inflorescence in Picual trees.^[30] Under optimal environmental and nutritional conditions, the fruit set rate—defined as the proportion of pollinated flowers developing into mature drupes—typically reaches 1-2% overall, though initial set can be 10-30% before significant fruit drop.^[27] The Picual fruit is a single-seeded drupe characterized by an elongated, asymmetrical shape, with a pointed apex that inspired its Spanish name, "picual," meaning "pointed," and absent or weak nipple.^[3] The fruit exhibits moderate elongation (length-to-width ratio greater than 1.5) and strong asymmetry in longitudinal section, with a rounded apex and truncate base.^[3] Medium in size, individual fruits typically measure 1.5-2.5 cm in length and weigh 2-4 grams, contributing to the variety's suitability for high-density oil production.^[31] During maturation, which spans approximately 5-6 months from fruit set to harvest, the thin skin transitions from vibrant green in early stages to purple hues during veraison and finally to black at full ripeness, accompanied by progressive softening and oil accumulation in the mesocarp.^[32] The fruit's high drupelet density refers to the compact mesocarp tissue surrounding the stone, which supports efficient oil extraction. The single seed, or pit, is elongated and occupies 20-25% of the total fruit weight, featuring an acute apex, strong surface rugosity, and 7-10 evenly distributed grooves at the base, with strong asymmetry.^[3]^[33]

Cultivation

Growing Regions

The Picual olive variety is predominantly grown in Spain's Jaén province, where it occupies over 550,000 hectares and constitutes more than 95% of the region's olive groves. This area accounts for approximately 40% of Spain's total olive oil production, underscoring Jaén's central role in the variety's cultivation. Cultivation extends into adjacent provinces of Córdoba and Granada, where Picual similarly dominates local olive landscapes and contributes to Andalusia's overall output.^[34]^[1] Beyond its core Andalusian base, Picual is cultivated in secondary Spanish regions including Castilla-La Mancha and Extremadura, reflecting the variety's adaptability within the country's diverse olive-growing zones. As of 2023, the total Spanish acreage under Picual exceeds 900,000 hectares, representing nearly half of the nation's olive cultivation dedicated to oil production.^[35]^[1] Internationally, Picual has expanded into Australia, particularly in New South Wales and South Australia, where it forms a key component of the country's approximately 10,000-15,000 hectares of olive groves; in Argentina, it is established in Mendoza province alongside local varieties; in the United States, it thrives in California's Central Valley; in Egypt, it is grown in various regions; and in New Zealand, plantings are increasing. Emerging plantings are also noted in Tunisia and Portugal, capitalizing on the variety's resilience. Picual performs best in Mediterranean climates characterized by 400-700 mm of annual rainfall and elevations typically ranging from 200 to 600 meters, conditions that mirror its native Spanish habitats.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[4]^[1]^[39]^[40]

Agronomic Requirements

Picual olive trees thrive in Mediterranean-type climates characterized by mild winters and hot, dry summers. They tolerate minimum temperatures down to -7°C, though substantial leaf damage occurs below this threshold, and require a period of chilling below 11-12°C for about one month to support proper bud development and flowering. The variety exhibits strong drought resistance, enabling survival in arid conditions, but optimal yields are achieved with annual rainfall of 400-600 mm or equivalent supplemental irrigation to mitigate water stress effects on fruit quality. High summer temperatures exceeding 35°C are well-tolerated and can naturally suppress populations of certain pests like the olive fruit fly.^[41]^[42] Suitable soils for Picual cultivation are well-drained calcareous loams with a balanced texture, typically comprising 20-75% sand, 5-35% silt, and 5-35% clay, and a depth of at least 60-80 cm to accommodate the root system. The optimal soil pH ranges from 7 to 8, with tolerance up to 8.3 in the presence of calcium carbonate, though the variety adapts to nutritionally poor soils while remaining highly sensitive to waterlogging, which can lead to root rot. Planting in sites prone to stagnation should be avoided, and measures like double basins may be employed to enhance drainage in heavier soils.^[41]^[42] In traditional orchards, Picual trees are planted at densities of 200-400 trees per hectare, commonly spaced at 6 m × 6 m (approximately 278 trees/ha) or 7 m × 7 m to facilitate mechanical harvesting with trunk shakers while allowing for canopy development up to 4.7 m in diameter. Pruning is essential every 1-2 years to maintain an open vase-shaped canopy with 3-4 main branches starting from a trunk height of 1-1.2 m, promoting aeration, light penetration, and balance between vegetative growth and fruit production; light annual pruning or medium pruning every 2-3 years removes drooping limbs and stiffens branches, ideally performed in winter using disinfected tools to prevent disease spread.^[41] Picual demonstrates resistance to olive knot (caused by Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae) but is susceptible to the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) and highly susceptible to Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae), with field trials confirming significant defoliation and mortality in infected groves. Integrated pest management is the standard approach, incorporating cultural practices such as pruning for better canopy access, soil turning to disrupt pest cycles, and monitoring with McPhail or pheromone traps; biological controls like Bacillus thuringiensis or Spinosad are preferred, supplemented by targeted chemical applications (e.g., dimethoate for mites or deltamethrin for moths) only when infestation thresholds are exceeded to minimize environmental impact.^[41]^[42]^[43]^[3]

Production

Yield and Harvesting

Picual olive trees are characterized by alternate bearing, a common trait in many olive cultivars where high-yield "on" years alternate with low-yield "off" years, resulting in average fruit yields of 3 to 5 tons per hectare under traditional rain-fed conditions.^[44] This variability is influenced by environmental factors, but irrigation can mitigate the cycle and boost output by up to 100%, particularly in deficit irrigation systems that maintain productivity without excessive water use.^[45] The cultivar's high oil content in the fruit, typically 20-27% by weight, allows for efficient extraction rates approaching these levels in modern mills, making Picual a favored choice for commercial production.^[46] Harvesting of Picual olives generally occurs between October and December in the Northern Hemisphere, timed to coincide with optimal fruit maturity for oil quality, with early harvesting preferred to minimize oxidation and preserve sensory attributes.^[47] Common methods include mechanical shaking using trunk shakers or canopy harvesters for large-scale operations, which efficiently collect the fruit onto tarps or conveyors, or hand-picking with combs for smaller groves or premium quality lots to reduce bruising.^[48] Early harvest, often starting in late October, targets firmer green olives that yield higher-polyphenol oils, though it may slightly lower overall fruit volume compared to later picks.^[2] Post-harvest handling is critical to prevent quality degradation, with olives transported immediately to mills—ideally within 24 hours—to avoid fermentation and rancidity from microbial activity or heat.^[49] Fruits are stored in ventilated crates or bins that promote airflow and prevent piling, reducing moisture buildup and ethylene accumulation that could accelerate spoilage.^[50] Proper management at this stage ensures the integrity of the subsequent oil extraction process.

Oil Extraction Methods

The extraction of oil from Picual olives traditionally involves stone mills to crush the fruit into a paste, followed by pressing with hydraulic or screw presses to separate the oil from the solids and water. This labor-intensive method, still employed in small-scale operations in regions like Andalusia for its authenticity and minimal mechanical intervention, allows for slower processing that can enhance flavor complexity but typically results in lower efficiency and higher labor costs.^[51] In contrast, the modern continuous system begins with hammer mills to grind the olives into a fine paste, followed by malaxation—a kneading process conducted at 25-27°C for 30-60 minutes to coalesce oil droplets and facilitate release—before separation via centrifugation. This approach, widely adopted in large Picual plantations in Spain, yields approximately 18-22% oil by weight from the fruit, depending on maturity and processing efficiency, and enables higher throughput while maintaining quality standards. Centrifugation replaces traditional pressing, using horizontal decanters to spin out the oil without excessive heat or additives.^[52] Cold extraction, a subset of both traditional and modern methods, keeps all processing temperatures below 27°C to qualify the resulting oil as extra virgin and preserve heat-sensitive polyphenols, which contribute to Picual oil's stability and health benefits. Within modern setups, this often employs two-phase decanters that separate oil and wet pomace without added water, reducing environmental impact and retaining more hydrophilic compounds compared to three-phase systems, which produce separate oil, vegetation water, and drier pomace but consume more water during dilution. Two-phase processing is particularly suited to Picual's high oil content, minimizing wastewater while yielding comparable extraction rates.^[53] Byproduct management in Picual oil production has evolved with these methods; the remaining pomace from centrifugation is repurposed for secondary oil extraction via solvent methods or as animal feed, while modern two-phase systems significantly reduce water usage—often by up to 80% compared to three-phase—lowering effluent pollution in olive-growing areas.^[54]

Oil Characteristics

Chemical Composition

Picual olive oil exhibits a fatty acid profile dominated by monounsaturated fatty acids, with oleic acid comprising 70-80% of the total fatty acids, contributing to its high oxidative stability. Linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is present at lower levels of 3-10%, which further enhances resistance to oxidation. This composition results in high oxidative stability, with induction times often exceeding 60 hours at 100°C, as determined by the Rancimat method.^[55] Polyphenols in Picual olive oil range from 300 to 800 mg/kg and include prominent antioxidants such as hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein, which play a crucial role in protecting against oxidative degradation. These compounds support a shelf life exceeding 18 months when the oil is stored in cool, dark conditions away from oxygen exposure.^[56]^[57] Other notable minor compounds include tocopherols at 200-300 mg/kg, primarily α-tocopherol, which act as additional antioxidants, and squalene at 0.3-0.5% of the total composition, known for its potential health benefits. Extra virgin Picual olive oil maintains low peroxide values below 20 meq O₂/kg, ensuring high initial quality and minimal early oxidation.^[58]^[59]^[56] Harvest timing significantly influences composition, particularly polyphenols; early harvesting increases their concentration by 20-50% relative to late-harvest oils, due to reduced fruit maturation and lower enzymatic degradation.^[60]

Sensory Profile

Picual extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) typically exhibits a greenish-gold color, appearing clear with subtle golden reflections that reflect its early harvest and high chlorophyll content. This visual profile is characteristic of oils produced from unripe olives, distinguishing it from more golden hues in riper varieties.^[61]^[62] The aroma of Picual EVOO is distinctly fruity, dominated by green herbaceous notes reminiscent of tomato leaf, artichoke, and almond, often accompanied by subtle undertones of grass and olive leaf. These volatile compounds arise from the enzymatic breakdown of lipids during milling, creating a complex, fresh profile that evokes the Mediterranean olive grove. Sensory panels consistently identify these green, vegetal aromas as prominent in early-season extractions, with intensities rated medium to high on standardized scales.^[63]^[64] In terms of taste, Picual EVOO delivers a balanced profile with medium fruitiness, complemented by moderate bitterness and pungency that manifests as a peppery, throat-tingling sensation akin to a mild Scoville effect. This pungency stems from elevated polyphenol levels, which enhance the oil's intensity without overpowering the overall harmony. Early-harvest examples rarely exhibit defects such as rancidity or fustiness, maintaining a clean, vibrant mouthfeel. On International Olive Council (IOC) panel tests, Picual oils frequently classify as intense extra virgin, achieving fruitiness medians exceeding 6 out of 10, alongside zero median defects.^[64]^[65]^[66]

Uses

Culinary Applications

Picual olive oil is highly versatile in culinary applications due to its robust flavor and stability, making it suitable for both raw and cooked preparations. With a smoke point of approximately 210°C, it excels in high-heat methods such as sautéing, frying, and roasting, where it imparts a crisp texture and enhances browning without breaking down quickly.^[67] It is particularly effective for frying vegetables or proteins, and for grilling meats and seafood, adding depth to dishes like roasted potatoes or seared fish.^[46] In raw uses, Picual oil serves as an ideal base for salad dressings and vinaigrettes, often combined with citrus or vinegar to complement its peppery notes, and it finishes soups, stews, and grain salads effectively.^[46] As table olives, Picual varieties are processed through brining or curing to mitigate their natural bitterness, resulting in black olives with a milder flavor profile compared to the oil. These cured olives are commonly used in tapas platters, salads, or as stuffings for poultry and fish, providing a subtle olive essence that pairs well with cheeses, cured meats, and crusty bread.^[68] Picual oil complements robust ingredients like garlic, herbs such as rosemary and thyme, and strong cheeses, enhancing their intensity without overpowering. In regional Spanish cuisine, it is a staple in cold soups like gazpacho, where it emulsifies the mixture for a silky texture, and in alioli, a garlic-based emulsion that accompanies grilled meats and vegetables.^[46]^[69] Its bold, peppery sensory profile makes it a natural match for tomato-based dishes and hearty marinades.^[46] To achieve balanced flavors, Picual is frequently blended with milder varieties like Arbequina or Hojiblanca, creating oils suitable for broader palates while retaining stability and fruitiness for everyday cooking.^[70] These blends are ideal for dressings, sauces, casseroles, and marinades, offering versatility in both traditional and modern recipes.^[70]

Health and Nutritional Benefits

Picual extra virgin olive oil offers a favorable nutritional profile, delivering about 120 calories per tablespoon, with the majority derived from approximately 10 grams of monounsaturated fats that promote cardiovascular health by improving lipid profiles and reducing low-density lipoprotein oxidation.^[71] It is also a good source of vitamin E, providing approximately 1.9 milligrams per tablespoon, which acts as a lipid-soluble antioxidant to safeguard cell membranes against free radical damage.^[72] The oil's elevated levels of polyphenols, such as hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein, provide strong antioxidant effects that mitigate oxidative stress by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and protecting against cellular damage.^[58] These properties contribute to reduced cardiovascular risk, as evidenced by the PREDIMED trial, where a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra virgin olive oil (such as those produced in Spain, including from Picual varieties) resulted in a 30% lower incidence of major cardiovascular events compared to a low-fat control diet.^[73] Oleuropein, a key phenolic compound abundant in Picual olive oil, demonstrates anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzymes, thereby suppressing pro-inflammatory mediators like prostaglandins.^[74] This mechanism may benefit conditions such as arthritis, where it reduces joint inflammation, and metabolic syndrome, by alleviating systemic inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity.^[75]^[76] Research from the 2020s underscores the neuroprotective role of hydroxytyrosol, which is particularly concentrated in Picual olive oil, in countering Alzheimer's disease pathology.^[77] A 2022 study showed that an olive-derived extract rich in hydroxytyrosol prevented β-amyloid aggregation and oxidative stress in neuronal models, key factors in Alzheimer's progression, suggesting potential for cognitive preservation through regular consumption.^[78]

Nomenclature

Synonyms

The Picual olive cultivar, predominant in Spain, is referred to by a variety of regional synonyms that highlight its widespread cultivation across Andalusia and beyond. Primary among these are Marteña, a name derived from the town of Martos in Jaén province where the variety has deep historical roots, Lopereña associated with the Lopera region in Jaén, and Nevadillo Blanco used in parts of Córdoba.^[79]^[34]^[80] The term "Picual" originates from the Spanish word pico, meaning "beak" or "point," alluding to the distinctive pointed tip of the fruit that sets it apart morphologically.^[81] Regional synonyms often stem from local dialects, geographic origins, or descriptive traits, such as Marteño (a variant of Marteña) tied to Jaén's olive heritage.^[3] The International Olive Council (IOC) database catalogs 19 synonyms for Picual, encompassing both historical and vernacular names used in olive-growing provinces like Jaén, Córdoba, and Seville. Notable examples include Andaluza, Blanca, Corriente, Fina, Picúa, Sevillano, Albaideño, Grosal, Jabata, Morcona, Nevado, Redondilla, Salgar, and Temprana.^[3]^[82] These names reflect adaptations to local farming contexts, where formal designations like Aceituna Picual prevail in commercial and scientific settings, while colloquial terms like Marteño persist in provincial usage.^[3] Picual is often compared to the Arbequina cultivar, another prominent Spanish olive variety, due to their widespread cultivation and contrasting traits. Picual exhibits a higher oil yield, typically around 22%, compared to Arbequina's approximately 18-20%, making it more efficient for large-scale oil production. However, Picual oil tends to have a more bitter and robust flavor profile, while Arbequina produces a milder, fruitier oil that is less pungent. Additionally, Arbequina olives ripen earlier, often harvested from October to November, whereas Picual ripens later, extending into December or January, which influences harvest timing and oil characteristics. In relation to Hojiblanca, another Andalusian variety, Picual shares regional origins but Hojiblanca demonstrates greater drought tolerance, enabling it to thrive in arid conditions with minimal irrigation. Picual is moderately tolerant to drought but shows sensitivity relative to Hojiblanca. Picual is primarily cultivated for oil production, yielding high-quality extra virgin olive oil with elevated polyphenol levels, whereas Hojiblanca serves a dual purpose, being used both for oil and as table olives due to its larger fruit size and balanced flesh-to-pit ratio. Compared to the Greek Koroneiki cultivar, Picual offers comparable or higher polyphenol content in its oil, typically ranging from 300-800 mg/kg versus Koroneiki's 400-800 mg/kg, contributing to enhanced stability and health benefits in both. Koroneiki produces smaller fruit, which can complicate harvesting but supports high-density planting, while both varieties are renowned for their substantial yields and suitability for intensive orchards. Breeding efforts have led to hybrids such as Sikitita, a cross between Picual (as the female parent) and Arbequina (as the male parent), aimed at combining Picual's high oil yield and disease resistance with Arbequina's compact growth and early bearing. These hybrids, selected for improved traits like higher oleic acid content and better adaptability to super-high-density systems, have been registered in EU variety catalogs since the 2010s, facilitating their commercial adoption across Europe.

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May 11, 2022 · We evaluated the principal morphological flower-quality components in the olive cultivars, 'Arbequina' and 'Picual', and in the progenies of their crosses.Missing: shape maturation
[31]
NPK nano-fertilizers enhance growth, oil quality, and yield regularity ...
Sep 12, 2025 · Twelve healthy 'Picual' olive trees, uniform in shape, size, and ... (Leaf length × Leaf width) + 1.66. Leaf and flesh mineral contents.
[32]
Picual olive tree - Aceites García Morón - Garcia Moron
The name picual is due to the shape of the olive, which has a small pointed end. This variety of olive tree is the most widely used in Spain, ...
[33]
Insights Into Olive Fruit Surface Functions - Frontiers
The wax to cutin ratio generally decreased along fruit maturation, with the exception of “Marfil” and “Picual. ... Blue and black areas represent background noise ...
[34]
Sustainable valorization of olive stone by-products - ScienceDirect
2.1. The olive stone, also known as the olive kernel or pit, represents approximately 20.2–38.2 % of the total weight of olive and is composed of two main ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[35]
Picual variety - Sierra las Villas
It is dominant in the province of Jaén, with more than 95% of the olive-growing area and some 600,000 hectares cultivated. In the rest of Spain it extends ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary<|separator|>
[36]
Picual olive oil - Gastronomía Vasca: Escuela de Hostelería Leioa
... Spanish olive-growing area and about 600.000 cultivated Hectares. In Spain ... Cordoba, Granada and Ciudad Real, which are neightbouring areas from Jaen.
[37]
Olive Cultivars - Olives Australia
General - Picual is the most common oil cultivar in Spain. The major zones are as follows (1984): Jaen = 422,000 ha (90% of total olive orchards), Cordoba = ...<|separator|>
[38]
Mendozan Producer Zuccardi Champions Local Arauco Variety on ...
Nov 13, 2024 · Over the past 20 years, Familia Zuccardi has planted 60 hectares of Auraco and 260 hectares of Picual, Coratina, Genovesa, Arbosa and Korneiki; ...
[39]
Olive Groves | 43 Ranch Olive Oil | San Ardo, CA
At 43 Ranch we grow four varieties cultivated exclusively to produce extra virgin olive oil: Picual, Leccino, Lucca and Pendolino. Our groves were planted ...<|separator|>
[40]
[PDF] climate change mitigation through a sustainable - olive4climate
Tolerance to water stress. The annual rainfall of 400-700 mm is suitable for growing olive without irrigation, but supplementary water inputs during the ...
[41]
[PDF] Production techniques in olive growing
The root system of the olive is concentrated in the top 50-70 cm of the soil ... root system to make it spread to new, deeper soil zones to guarantee ...
[42]
Definition - Olivaterm - Universidad de Jaén
... resistance to drought, olive knot and black spot, but sensitivity to olive fly and high sensitivity to olive leave spot and verticillium wilt ... Picual olives ...
[43]
Field Resistance to Verticillium Wilt in Selected Olive Cultivars ...
Apr 5, 2013 · The resistance of 11 olive cultivars to Verticillium dahliae was assessed in two experimental field trials. One-year-old rooted olive ...
[44]
Olive Actual “on Year” Yield Forecast Tool Based on the Tree ... - MDPI
Yield levels did not vary between orchard categories; however, it did between irrigated orchards (7000–17,000 kg ha−1) and rainfed ones (4000–7000 kg ha−1).
[45]
Effects of regulated, precision and continuous deficit irrigation on the ...
Aug 1, 2023 · For example, in olives, a moderate water deficit after pit hardening does not seem to affect fruit growth compared to trees without water ...
[46]
Picual Olive Oil Guide
Oct 1, 2019 · Picual olives, from Spain, are pointed, medium-to-large, with high oil content, high stability, and a fruity, peppery, slightly bitter flavor.
[47]
When are olives harvested? - Olivarte
Aug 22, 2024 · In general, during the months from October to February is when the olive is harvested in Spain, and the month in question will depend, as we ...
[48]
How to Harvest Olives - Olives Unlimited
Nov 11, 2021 · Six to eight months after the flowers bloomed, the fruit will reach its greatest weight; and 20-30% of that weight (excluding the pit) is oil.
[49]
(PDF) The postharvest of mill olives - ResearchGate
The greatest deterioration of olive oil is due to poor handling of the olives during the time between harvesting and processing. Storage of olive fruits is ...
[50]
Cold Storage and Temperature Management of Olive Fruit - MDPI
The suggestion that olives can be stored for 15 days when placed in one layer at 10 °C, does not offer a workable solution but instead, underline one of the ...
[51]
The History of Olive Oil Production in Spain
Spain's olive oil production has moved from traditional olive oil mills to modern technology. Long ago, olives were pressed in simple stone mills. The heavy ...
[52]
Application of Low Temperature during the Malaxation Phase of ...
Jul 7, 2021 · Low temperature was used during the full olive paste kneading process and also for half of this process, which showed that there was a significant impact on ...
[53]
Natural antioxidants and volatile compounds of virgin olive oils ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Tests were performed in an olive oil mill equipped with centrifugal decanters at two or three-phases. Results show that oil yields were similar ...
[54]
Refrigeration in oil extraction - INTARCON
Jun 26, 2023 · The designation 'cold extraction' requires a centrifugation temperature below 27 °C (EC Regulation 1019/2002), while temperatures above 30 °C ...
[55]
[PDF] 2 Phase & 3 Phase Decanters - Australian Olive Association
What is best, 2 or 3 phase decanters? o 2 or 3 phase have very similar extraction. o More water is used in a 3 phase decanter. o The pomace is drier from 3 ...
[56]
Influence of harvest date and crop yield on the fatty acid composition ...
The mean fatty acid composition of Picual oils was determined. The oils contained palmitic acid (11.9%), oleic acid (79.3%), and linoleic acid (2.95%).
[57]
Fatty Acid and Phenolic Compound Concentrations in Eight Different ...
Nov 23, 2016 · The OS was found to depend upon both the variety and the date of harvesting. It was higher in the Cornicabra and Picual oils (>55 h), and lower ...
[58]
Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil - PMC
Regarding sensory aspects, EVOO must show a fruity note higher than 0 and, more importantly, a median of zero defects [18]. In addition, and to offer the most ...
[59]
Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil - MDPI
The oxidative stability of EVOO depends not only on the olive variety and quality but also on the harvesting time; cultivation area; the degree of unsaturation ...2.1. 1. Lipids · 2.2. 1. Phenolic Compounds · 4. Evoo Quality Regarding...
[60]
Maximizing Antioxidant Potential in Picual Virgin Olive Oil
Jul 1, 2024 · The total carotenoid content in Spanish virgin olive oils typically ranges from 3 to 20 mg/kg, with lutein and β-carotene being the predominant ...
[61]
Changes in squalene and sterols associated with olive maturation
Squalene content in virgin olive oil typically ranges from 200 to 7500 mg kg− 1 (Boskou, 2009) though values up to 12,000 mg kg− 1 have been reported in ...
[62]
Maximizing Antioxidant Potential in Picual Virgin Olive Oil - MDPI
Jul 1, 2024 · Rate of degradation of α-tocopherol, squalene, phenolics, and polyunsaturated fatty acids in olive oil during different storage conditions.Missing: peroxides | Show results with:peroxides
[63]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7404457/
[64]
https://www.fstjournal.com.br/revista/article/download/215/187
[65]
Eleven Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oils from Olives Grown and ...
Jul 9, 2020 · Secondary descriptors (olive leaf, grass, artichoke, tomato, almond, apple, ripely fruity) were occasionally perceived but at low ...
[66]
[PDF] Sensory and physicochemical characteristics of Uruguayan picual ...
They were sensory characterized as oils with fruity medium, bitter medium, and pungent medium and green, tomato, banana, and dry fruit aromatic notes. When ...
[67]
[PDF] The Aroma and Taste Characteristics of Different Cultivars of Olea ...
The aroma and taste profiles of olive oils made from three different cultivars (Arbequina,. Coratina, and Picual) grown at Roseworthy, South Australia and ...
[68]
[PDF] INTERNATIONAL OLIVE COUNCIL
The International Olive Council provides a method for assessing virgin olive oil's organoleptic characteristics and classification. Contact: iooc@ ...Missing: Picual | Show results with:Picual
[69]
Picual Olive Oil: Discover its Health Benefits and Culinary Versatilit
### Culinary Uses of Picual Olive Oil
[70]
About Picual Olives
### Summary of Picual Olives from https://olivoamigo.com/blogs/recipes/about-picual-olives
[71]
Gazpacho made with Picual Traditional EVOO - Vezorla
Jun 6, 2025 · 50ML Vezorla Picual Traditional extra virgin olive oil. 30ml Sherry Vinegar. 250ml water. Salt and pepper to taste. Chill it in the fridge for ...Missing: alioli | Show results with:alioli
[72]
Picual olive oil, one of the finest varieties. - Carbonell
As a result, Carbonell chooses to blend it with other varieties, transforming it into an oil that is well-suited to all palates. Carbonell Special Selection ...
[73]
Picual Extra Virgin Olive Oil - The Olive Crush
Nutrition Facts. Serving Size 1 Tbsp (15ml). Servings Per Container 25. Amount Per Serving. Calories 120 Calories from Fat 126. % Daily Value*. Total Fat 14g 22 ...Missing: profile | Show results with:profile
[74]
[PDF] Effects of Minor Components of Olive Oil on Health
Jan 31, 2018 · One tablespoon of olive oil contains 1.9 milligrams of vitamin E, which is 10 percent of the daily value of this nutrient based on a 2,000- ...
[75]
Effects of the Olive-Derived Polyphenol Oleuropein on Human Health
demonstrated that oleuropein treatment significantly attenuates the expression of TNF-α and IL-1β, and, consequently, the expression of iNOS and COX-2 [43].
[76]
Biological activities of the natural antioxidant oleuropein
Inhibition of p38/CREB phosphorylation and COX-2 expression by olive oil polyphenols underlies their anti-proliferative effects. Biochemical and Biophysical ...
[77]
Which Olive Oils Have the Highest Polyphenol Content? - Oleaphen
Feb 11, 2025 · Picual – Spain's High-Antioxidant Olive. Polyphenol Range: 400 – 800 mg/kg. Key Polyphenols: Oleuropein, Hydroxytyrosol. Picual olives ...
[78]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9025619/
[79]
An Olive-Derived Extract 20% Rich in Hydroxytyrosol Prevents β ...
Mar 25, 2022 · An Olive-Derived Extract 20% Rich in Hydroxytyrosol Prevents β-Amyloid Aggregation and Oxidative Stress, Two Features of Alzheimer Disease, via ...Missing: Picual 2020s
[80]
The olive trees of Jaén-Denominations of origin-EXPOLIVA 2019
The olive trees of Jaén are a green sea with more than 580000 hectares. More than 40% of oil of the total of Spain. This year EXPOLIVA fair.Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[81]
Nevadillo Negro - [Material vegetal] - Ministerio - mapa.gob.es
En el caso de esta variedad, los árboles presentan un follaje más oscuro que "Picual" variedad con la que convive y que es conocida en la zona con la sinonimia ...
[82]
El Aceite Picual: Características, Propiedades y Usos - Olivarte
Mar 22, 2023 · El nombre de picual procede de la forma de su fruto, el cual acaba en pico. Este tiene un peso de unos tres gramos y un olivo puede llegar a ...Missing: etimología | Show results with:etimología
[83]
Searches - Olea DB
Synonym: ALBAIDEÑO. Cultivation Area(2). PICUAL - Córdoba (Spain) (Autochthonous) - 00633: Tratado de Olivicoltura. PICUAL - Córdoba (Spain) (Autochthonous) ...