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Platelet transfusion

Platelet transfusion is the intravenous administration of concentrated platelets, typically derived from whole blood donations or apheresis procedures, to patients with low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) or dysfunctional platelets in order to prevent spontaneous bleeding or manage active hemorrhage.^[1] This therapy has been a cornerstone of supportive care in hematology since the 1960s, particularly for individuals undergoing chemotherapy, stem cell transplantation, or experiencing massive blood loss from trauma or surgery.^[2] Indications for platelet transfusion are guided by clinical thresholds to balance bleeding risk with transfusion-related harms, with prophylactic use recommended for stable hospitalized adults when platelet counts fall below 10 × 10⁹/L to reduce spontaneous hemorrhage, though some evidence supports a lower threshold of 5 × 10⁹/L in low-risk cases.^[3] Therapeutic transfusions are indicated for active bleeding when counts are below 50 × 10⁹/L, or below 100 × 10⁹/L in scenarios involving neurosurgery or critical sites like the eyes or spine.^[1] Specific populations, such as neonates or those with bone marrow failure from malignancy, may require transfusions at higher thresholds like 30 × 10⁹/L to mitigate risks during invasive procedures.^[1] These guidelines, informed by organizations like the AABB and reaffirmed in the 2025 international updates, emphasize individualized assessment over rigid rules due to variability in patient factors like fever or sepsis, which may necessitate earlier intervention.^[4] The procedure involves infusing one adult dose (approximately 3–4 × 10¹¹ platelets from pooled units or a single apheresis unit) over 30–60 minutes via a standard intravenous line with a filter to remove clots, aiming to increase the recipient's platelet count by 30–60 × 10⁹/L.^[1] Platelets are prepared by centrifugation of whole blood within 8 hours of collection to yield platelet-rich plasma, which is then further processed into concentrates stored at room temperature (20–24°C) with gentle agitation for up to 5–7 days to preserve function.^[2] Emerging practices include cold-stored platelets (1–6°C for up to 14 days) for urgent bleeding control and pathogen reduction technologies to mitigate bacterial contamination risks inherent to room-temperature storage.^[2] Despite its efficacy, platelet transfusion carries risks including febrile non-hemolytic reactions (up to 27% incidence), allergic responses (1–3%), bacterial contamination (approximately 1 in 3,000 units) leading to septic reactions (1 in 20,000 transfusions), and rare but serious complications like transfusion-related acute lung injury or alloimmunization leading to refractoriness in repeated recipients.^[1]^[5] Ongoing research explores alternatives such as freeze-dried or synthetic platelets to address supply shortages and reduce these hazards, particularly in trauma settings where timely access remains challenging.^[2]

Overview

Definition and purpose

Platelet transfusion is defined as the intravenous administration of concentrated platelets derived from donors to patients experiencing thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) or platelet dysfunction, with the goal of restoring normal hemostasis and preventing or controlling bleeding.^[1] This procedure is a critical supportive therapy in hematology and transfusion medicine, providing functional platelets that can aggregate at sites of vascular injury to form clots and maintain vascular integrity.^[6] The primary purposes of platelet transfusion are prophylactic—to prevent spontaneous bleeding in stable patients with critically low platelet counts—and therapeutic—to manage active hemorrhage in individuals with severe platelet deficits or dysfunction.^[1] Prophylactic use helps mitigate risks in non-bleeding scenarios, while therapeutic application addresses immediate threats like mucosal bleeding or surgical site oozing. These interventions are essential because platelets, which normally circulate in blood to initiate clotting, become insufficient in various pathological states.^[7] Common scenarios for platelet transfusion include patients undergoing chemotherapy for oncology conditions, where bone marrow suppression leads to thrombocytopenia; those with hematologic disorders such as leukemia or aplastic anemia; individuals experiencing massive trauma with significant blood loss; and patients at high bleeding risk during complex surgeries like cardiac or neurosurgical procedures.^[8]^[7]

Platelet physiology

Platelets are small, anucleate cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow, where they are produced through a process of cytoplasmic fragmentation from proplatelets extended by mature megakaryocytes.^[9] These disc-shaped structures, approximately 2–4 μm in diameter, lack a nucleus but contain organelles such as mitochondria, glycogen granules, and two main types of secretory granules: alpha granules (rich in proteins like von Willebrand factor and clotting factors) and dense granules (containing ADP, ATP, calcium, and serotonin).^[9] In healthy individuals, the normal circulating platelet count ranges from 150–450 × 10⁹/L, with a lifespan of 7–10 days before being cleared primarily by the spleen and liver.^[10]^[11] The primary physiological role of platelets is in hemostasis, where they initiate primary clot formation at sites of vascular injury. Upon endothelial damage, platelets adhere to the exposed subendothelium via the glycoprotein Ib-IX-V (GPIb-IX-V) receptor complex binding to von Willebrand factor (vWF), which bridges platelets to collagen fibers.^[11] This adhesion triggers platelet activation through signaling pathways involving calcium release and granule secretion, leading to shape change from discoid to spherical with pseudopod extension. Activated platelets then aggregate via the activated glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa) receptor binding fibrinogen, forming stable platelet plugs that seal the injury site.^[11] Additionally, platelets support the coagulation cascade by providing a phospholipid surface (platelet factor 3) for the assembly of clotting factor complexes and releasing procoagulant factors such as factor V from alpha granules, thereby amplifying thrombin generation and fibrin formation.^[9] Platelet production, or thrombopoiesis, is tightly regulated by thrombopoietin (TPO), a cytokine primarily produced in the liver and kidneys that binds to the c-Mpl receptor on megakaryocyte progenitors, stimulating their proliferation, maturation, and proplatelet formation.^[12] Under steady-state conditions, approximately 10% of the total platelet pool turns over daily, with about 10¹¹ new platelets entering circulation to maintain homeostasis.^[13] Thrombocytopenia, defined as a platelet count below 150 × 10⁹/L, impairs these hemostatic functions, resulting in defective clot formation; counts between 30–50 × 10⁹/L often manifest as petechiae or purpura due to minor capillary fragility, while levels below 50 × 10⁹/L increase the risk of spontaneous or trauma-induced severe bleeding from impaired primary hemostasis.^[14]^[15]

Clinical use

Prophylactic transfusion

Prophylactic platelet transfusion refers to the routine administration of platelet concentrates to non-bleeding patients with severe thrombocytopenia, primarily to maintain platelet counts above predefined thresholds and thereby reduce the risk of spontaneous hemorrhage.^[16] This approach contrasts with therapeutic transfusion by focusing on prevention rather than correction of active bleeding, and it is guided by evidence showing that such interventions can lower bleeding incidence without eliminating it entirely.^[17] The primary patient groups benefiting from prophylactic platelet transfusion include those with hematologic malignancies, such as acute leukemia, undergoing myelosuppressive chemotherapy; recipients of autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplants during the aplastic phase; and stable critically ill patients with thrombocytopenia unrelated to disseminated intravascular coagulation.^[18] In these populations, thrombocytopenia often results from bone marrow suppression, and prophylactic transfusions help mitigate the risk of clinically significant bleeding events, such as WHO grade 2 or higher hemorrhage.^[19] Randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews provide the foundational evidence supporting prophylactic strategies. For instance, a 2012 Cochrane review of trials in patients with hematological malignancies after chemotherapy or stem cell transplantation found that prophylactic transfusions significantly decreased the risk of significant bleeding (relative risk 0.47, 95% CI 0.23-0.95) compared to therapeutic-only approaches.^[20] Building on this, the 2025 AABB and ICTMG international clinical practice guidelines recommend a transfusion threshold of 10 × 10⁹/L for stable adult patients without additional risk factors, based on moderate-quality evidence from multiple trials demonstrating reduced spontaneous bleeding rates at this level.^[21] Special considerations apply to patient-specific factors that elevate bleeding risk. Higher thresholds, typically 20 × 10⁹/L for fever or infection and up to 50 × 10⁹/L for those on anticoagulants or undergoing invasive procedures, are advised to account for compounded hemostatic challenges.^[16] Conversely, in chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), prophylactic transfusions are generally avoided due to rapid immune-mediated platelet destruction, with management prioritizing splenectomy, corticosteroids, or rituximab over transfusion support.^[22]

Therapeutic transfusion

Therapeutic platelet transfusion refers to the administration of platelet concentrates to patients experiencing clinically evident bleeding attributable to thrombocytopenia or platelet dysfunction, aiming to restore hemostasis and control hemorrhage. This approach is distinct from prophylactic transfusion, which targets prevention of bleeding in non-bleeding patients below specific platelet count thresholds, such as 10 × 10^9/L in stable hospitalized adults.^[1]^[23]^[17] Key clinical scenarios for therapeutic platelet transfusion include post-surgical hemorrhage, where bleeding persists despite surgical control due to low platelet counts or impaired function, often necessitating transfusion to stabilize patients undergoing procedures like cardiac surgery or intracranial hemorrhage evacuation. In trauma-induced coagulopathy, characterized by early hypocoagulability from tissue injury and hypoperfusion, platelet transfusion addresses platelet consumption and dysfunction to mitigate ongoing blood loss in severely injured individuals. Additionally, in dengue fever with associated platelet dysfunction and severe thrombocytopenia, therapeutic transfusion is considered for patients with active mucosal or gastrointestinal bleeding, particularly when counts fall below 20 × 10^9/L in high-risk cases, though its use remains guided by bleeding severity rather than count alone.^[24] Evidence supports the efficacy of prompt therapeutic platelet transfusion in massive hemorrhage protocols, with studies demonstrating a 20-50% relative reduction in mortality when platelets are administered early, such as within 6 hours of severe trauma-related bleeding, by improving hemostasis and limiting exsanguination. The 2025 American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST) guidelines endorse immediate platelet transfusion for life-threatening bleeds in critically ill patients with thrombocytopenia, regardless of exact count, particularly when below 50 × 10^9/L in active serious bleeding, to optimize outcomes in settings like trauma or postoperative hemorrhage.^[25]^[26]^[27] Adjunctive measures enhance the effectiveness of therapeutic platelet transfusion in trauma, including combination with fibrinogen concentrates to bolster clot stability or tranexamic acid as an antifibrinolytic to reduce fibrinolysis, often within balanced 1:1:1 ratios of red blood cells, plasma, and platelets during resuscitation. Monitoring with rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) enables targeted therapy by assessing platelet contribution to clot firmness (e.g., via EXTEM or FIBTEM assays), allowing viscoelastic-guided adjustments to transfusion to address specific coagulopathy components and minimize unnecessary products.^[28]^[29]

Administration

Dosing and thresholds

Platelet transfusion thresholds are determined based on the clinical context, including the risk of bleeding, patient stability, and underlying condition. For prophylactic transfusion in stable adults with hypoproliferative thrombocytopenia, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, the recommended threshold is a platelet count below 10 × 10⁹/L to minimize spontaneous bleeding risk.^[21] In contrast, therapeutic transfusions for active major bleeding are indicated regardless of platelet count, though counts below 50 × 10⁹/L often prompt intervention in severe cases like disseminated intravascular coagulation or trauma.^[1] Procedure-specific thresholds vary; for example, major nonneuraxial surgery requires a count above 50 × 10⁹/L, with transfusion recommended if below this level according to 2025 AABB guidelines.^[21] Standard dosing aims to achieve a predictable rise in platelet count while avoiding over-transfusion. In adults, a single dose typically consists of one apheresis unit (containing approximately 3–4 × 10¹¹ platelets) or 4–6 pooled units of whole blood-derived platelets, which is expected to increase the count by 20–40 × 10⁹/L in a 70-kg patient without complicating factors.^[6]^[1] For pediatric patients, dosing is weight-based at 10–15 mL/kg, providing an equivalent platelet load adjusted for body size and generally raising the count by 50–100 × 10⁹/L.^[30]^[31] Adjustments to dosing are necessary in certain conditions to account for reduced platelet recovery or increased consumption. Patients with splenomegaly or ongoing platelet destruction (e.g., due to sepsis or disseminated intravascular coagulation) may require higher doses—up to 1.5–2 times the standard—to achieve adequate increments, as splenic sequestration can lower post-transfusion counts.^[32]^[1] To evaluate transfusion efficacy and detect refractoriness, platelet counts are measured before transfusion and 10–60 minutes after completion. The response is assessed using the simplified increment formula: (post-transfusion count – pre-transfusion count) / number of units transfused, with an adequate response indicated by an increment greater than 5 × 10⁹/L per unit; values below this on multiple occasions suggest refractoriness requiring further investigation.^[33]^[6]

Infusion procedure

Prior to administering a platelet transfusion, compatibility considerations are essential. ABO-compatible platelets are preferred to optimize post-transfusion platelet increments and reduce the risk of hemolytic reactions, though ABO-incompatible transfusions may be used when compatible units are unavailable, particularly in urgent situations.^[1] For RhD compatibility, RhD-negative platelets are prioritized for RhD-negative females of childbearing potential to prevent alloimmunization and hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn; if RhD-positive platelets must be given to these patients, prophylactic Rh immune globulin is recommended.^[34] Serologic crossmatching is generally unnecessary for platelet transfusions due to the low red blood cell content in platelet concentrates, except in patients with a history of platelet refractoriness or significant alloantibodies.^[1] The infusion is performed through a dedicated intravenous line to avoid interactions with other medications or fluids. A standard blood administration set with an inline filter of 170-260 μm pore size is used to remove any clots or debris while allowing platelets to pass through.^[35] Platelets are typically infused at a rate of one unit over 30 to 60 minutes for adults, beginning slowly (e.g., 50 mL/hour for the first 15 minutes) to assess for immediate reactions before increasing to the full rate; pediatric dosing follows a similar timeframe adjusted for body weight.^[1]^[35] Warming of platelets is not routinely required, as they are stored at room temperature, but may be considered in massive transfusion scenarios to mitigate hypothermia risks associated with rapid volume replacement.^[36] During the infusion, patient monitoring is critical to ensure safety. Baseline vital signs, including temperature, pulse, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, should be recorded within 30 minutes prior to starting the transfusion.^[35] Vital signs are then checked every 15 minutes throughout the procedure, with the infusion paused if any abnormalities suggestive of a reaction occur.^[1] Post-infusion observation for at least one hour is recommended to detect delayed immediate reactions, during which the patient remains under close supervision.^[35] In massive transfusion protocols, platelets are integrated into a balanced resuscitation strategy, typically administered in a 1:1:1 ratio with red blood cells and plasma to approximate whole blood composition and support hemostasis in hemorrhagic shock.^[37] This approach involves rapid, simultaneous delivery of components, often via a dedicated massive transfusion pack, to address coagulopathy early in trauma or major surgical bleeding.^[38]

Adverse effects

Immediate reactions

Immediate adverse reactions to platelet transfusions encompass a range of acute events that occur during or shortly after infusion, typically within 4 to 24 hours, and require prompt recognition to mitigate potential harm. These reactions are generally noninfectious or infectious in nature and can range from mild to life-threatening, with platelets carrying a higher risk compared to other blood components due to their room-temperature storage, which promotes cytokine accumulation and bacterial growth. Common manifestations include fever, chills, urticaria, or hemodynamic instability, necessitating immediate transfusion cessation and supportive care while investigating the underlying cause.^[39]^[40] Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTRs) represent the most frequent immediate complication, occurring in approximately 1-2% of platelet transfusions. These reactions arise primarily from the release of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, accumulated during platelet storage, or from recipient antibodies reacting against donor leukocytes or platelets. Symptoms typically include a fever (increase of ≥1°C to ≥38°C) and chills or rigors within 4 hours of transfusion onset, without evidence of hemolysis. Recognition involves monitoring vital signs during infusion and excluding other causes like infection; management entails immediately stopping the transfusion, administering antipyretics such as acetaminophen, and providing meperidine for severe rigors if needed, with most cases resolving within hours. Premedication with antipyretics is not routinely recommended due to limited efficacy evidence.^[41]^[39]^[42] Allergic and urticarial reactions affect 1-3% of platelet transfusions and stem from recipient hypersensitivity to donor plasma proteins or other soluble allergens in the unit. These type I hypersensitivity responses involve IgE-mediated mast cell degranulation, leading to histamine release. Clinical signs, appearing within minutes to 4 hours, range from mild localized urticaria and pruritus to severe anaphylaxis with angioedema, bronchospasm, hypotension, and respiratory distress. Initial management requires halting the transfusion and administering antihistamines like diphenhydramine for mild cases; severe anaphylactic reactions demand epinephrine, corticosteroids, and airway support, with subsequent use of washed platelets or plasma-reduced products to prevent recurrence. In patients with IgA deficiency, anti-IgA antibodies may exacerbate severity, warranting IgA-deficient donor units.^[41]^[40]^[42] Bacterial contamination is a rare but serious infectious immediate reaction, with an incidence of about 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 2,500 platelet units transfused, elevated due to the 20-24°C storage conditions that facilitate bacterial proliferation from skin flora like Staphylococcus or Gram-negative organisms. Pathogen reduction technologies and cold storage (1–6°C) have further reduced these risks in recent years. Symptoms manifest rapidly as high fever, rigors, hypotension, tachycardia, and signs of sepsis within 4 hours, often mimicking severe FNHTR but distinguished by profound hemodynamic instability. Recognition involves immediate vital sign assessment and transfusion halt; management includes broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin plus a beta-lactam), aggressive fluid resuscitation, and culturing of the patient’s blood and the implicated unit to confirm the pathogen and trace the source. Routine bacterial screening and diversion pouches have reduced but not eliminated this risk.^[39]^[41]^[42]^[1] Acute hemolytic transfusion reactions are uncommon in platelet transfusions, occurring rarely due to ABO incompatibility between donor plasma antibodies and recipient red blood cells, with an estimated incidence below 1 in 10,000 units. The mechanism involves immune-mediated hemolysis from anti-A or anti-B antibodies in non-ABO-identical platelets, leading to intravascular red cell destruction. Symptoms include fever, chills, flank pain, hemoglobinuria, and potential renal failure or disseminated intravascular coagulation within 24 hours. Monitoring for dark urine and laboratory confirmation of hemolysis (e.g., decreased haptoglobin, elevated LDH) is essential for recognition; initial management consists of stopping the transfusion, intravenous hydration to maintain urine output, and notifying the blood bank for compatibility testing, with supportive care for organ dysfunction. ABO-identical platelets are preferred to minimize this risk.^[40]^[41]^[42]

Long-term complications

One of the primary long-term complications of repeated platelet transfusions is alloimmunization, where recipients develop antibodies against donor human leukocyte antigens (HLA) or human platelet antigens (HPA), leading to platelet refractoriness. This occurs in approximately 15-30% of multi-transfused patients, particularly those with hematologic malignancies undergoing intensive chemotherapy or stem cell transplantation, as the immune response targets incompatible antigens on transfused platelets, resulting in rapid clearance and poor post-transfusion platelet increments.^[43]^[44] HLA class I antibodies are the most common culprits, accounting for the majority of immune-mediated refractoriness cases, while HPA antibodies contribute in a smaller subset. Management typically involves providing HLA-matched or cross-matched platelets to improve response rates, though this requires specialized donor selection and increases logistical challenges.^[45] Transfusion-transmitted infections represent another delayed risk, though stringent screening since the 1980s has dramatically reduced viral transmission rates; for example, the risk of HIV transmission via screened platelets is less than 1 in 2 million units in high-resource settings. Bacterial contamination remains a concern due to platelets' room-temperature storage, which promotes proliferation of skin flora like Staphylococcus or environmental bacteria, with reported septic transfusion reaction rates of about 1 in 10,000-50,000 platelet units despite culture-based screening. Parasitic infections, such as those from Trypanosoma cruzi or Babesia, pose emerging risks in endemic areas, with transmission probabilities varying by pathogen prevalence and donor screening protocols, though overall incidence remains low at under 1 in 100,000 for most screened products.^[46]^[47] Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI), while often manifesting within 1-6 hours post-transfusion, can contribute to long-term pulmonary sequelae in survivors of severe cases or repeated exposures. It occurs at an incidence of approximately 1 in 5,000 platelet transfusions, primarily triggered by donor-derived anti-HLA or anti-human neutrophil antigen (HNA) antibodies that activate recipient neutrophils, leading to pulmonary capillary leak and non-cardiogenic edema. In multi-transfused patients, cumulative antibody exposures may exacerbate susceptibility, though mitigation strategies like donor risk factor exclusion have reduced overall rates.^[48]^[49] Chronic recipients of multiple platelet transfusions, often alongside red blood cell units for conditions like thalassemia or aplastic anemia, face risks of volume overload and secondary iron accumulation. Repeated infusions can lead to cumulative fluid volume expansion, straining cardiac function in patients with underlying comorbidities and potentially contributing to heart failure over time. Iron overload, primarily from concurrent red cell transfusions but compounded by overall transfusion burden, results in tissue deposition and secondary hemochromatosis, affecting the liver, heart, and endocrine organs, with chelation therapy recommended to prevent organ damage.^[50]^[51]

Production

Collection methods

Platelet collection primarily occurs through two methods: apheresis, which obtains platelets from a single donor, and whole blood donation, from which platelets are derived and pooled from multiple donors. Apheresis is the preferred technique in many settings due to its efficiency in yielding a full therapeutic dose from one donor, thereby minimizing the recipient's exposure to multiple donors and reducing the risk of infectious complications.^[52] In contrast, whole blood-derived platelets are more cost-effective in resource-limited regions but require pooling to achieve a therapeutic dose.^[53] Apheresis, also known as plateletpheresis, involves drawing blood from a donor's arm via a sterile needle and routing it through an automated cell separator machine.^[54] The machine uses centrifugation to separate platelets from other blood components, such as red blood cells and plasma, which are returned to the donor along with saline to maintain volume.^[55] This process typically lasts 1-2 hours and collects platelets suspended in 200-400 mL of plasma, targeting a yield of 3-5 × 10^{11} platelets per unit to provide one adult therapeutic dose. The method ensures high purity and leukoreduction during collection, enhancing product safety.^[56] Whole blood-derived platelets are obtained by first collecting whole blood units from random donors, followed by laboratory separation of platelets using either the platelet-rich plasma (PRP) method or the buffy coat method.^[53] In the PRP method, whole blood is centrifuged at low speed to isolate platelet-rich plasma, which is then recentrifuged to concentrate the platelets.^[57] The buffy coat method, more commonly used in Europe, involves high-speed centrifugation to form a buffy coat layer containing platelets and leukocytes, which is resuspended and pooled.^[58] To form one therapeutic dose equivalent to an apheresis unit, platelets from 4-6 whole blood donations are typically pooled, providing a similar total platelet count but with greater donor variability.^[59] This approach is favored in some areas for its lower equipment costs and ability to maximize whole blood utilization.^[60] Donors for both methods must meet stringent eligibility criteria to ensure safety and product quality, as outlined by regulatory bodies like the FDA and AABB.^[61] Eligible donors are generally aged 17-65 years, weigh at least 50 kg (110 pounds), and have adequate hemoglobin levels of at least 12.5 g/dL for females and 13.0 g/dL for males.^[62] Deferrals apply for recent aspirin use (within 48 hours), as it irreversibly inhibits platelet function, and for active infections or other conditions that could compromise donor health or transmit pathogens.^[63] These criteria are assessed via health screening questionnaires and physical checks prior to donation.^[64]

Processing and storage

After collection, platelet concentrates undergo processing to enhance safety and functionality. Leukoreduction, typically achieved through filtration, removes white blood cells to a level below 5 × 10^6 per unit, which significantly reduces the incidence of febrile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions.^[65]^[66]^[67] This process is standard for apheresis-derived or pooled platelets to minimize immunologic complications. Additionally, gamma or X-ray irradiation of platelets is performed for recipients at risk of transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD), such as immunocompromised patients, by inactivating donor lymphocytes and preventing their proliferation in the host.^[68]^[69]^[70] To optimize storage and reduce allergic risks, platelet additive solutions (PAS) are incorporated, replacing a portion of the plasma (typically 65-80%) with crystalloid nutrient media that support platelet metabolism.^[71] PAS formulations, such as PAS-III or PAS-E, help extend shelf life beyond traditional plasma-only storage and lower the volume of donor plasma, thereby decreasing transfusion-related hypersensitivity reactions.^[72]^[73] Pathogen reduction technologies (PRT), such as the INTERCEPT or Mirasol systems, may also be applied during processing to inactivate bacteria, viruses, and parasites in the platelet concentrate, improving safety by mitigating transfusion-transmitted infection risks and allowing extended storage durations in approved settings.^[2] Platelets are stored under controlled conditions to preserve viability and function. Standard room-temperature storage involves continuous gentle agitation at 20-24°C for up to 5-7 days, depending on the bacterial risk control measures and additive used.^[74]^[75] This temperature range facilitates gas exchange through the storage container's permeable walls, while agitation prevents settling and maintains pH above 6.2 to avoid premature platelet activation and metabolic decline.^[75]^[76] As an alternative, cold-stored platelets, approved by the FDA as of 2023 for therapeutic use in patients with active bleeding when conventional platelets are unavailable, are maintained at 1-6°C with agitation for up to 14 days to address urgent needs in settings like trauma.^[77] Quality control includes bacterial testing to mitigate contamination risks, aligned with AABB and FDA standards as of 2025, which endorse culture-based methods (incubating samples in aerobic and anaerobic media for at least 12-24 hours) or rapid detection assays performed shortly after collection or before release.^[78]^[79]^[80] Units testing positive for bacteria are discarded, and all platelets must be transfused or discarded if they exceed the approved storage duration to ensure patient safety.^[81]

Guidelines and recommendations

Current international guidelines

Current international guidelines for platelet transfusion emphasize restrictive strategies to minimize risks, conserve resources, and align with patient blood management principles, reflecting evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrating no increased bleeding or mortality with lower thresholds compared to historical liberal approaches.^[21] Prior to the 2010s, prophylactic thresholds often targeted platelet counts above 20 × 10^9/L in stable adults with hypoproliferative thrombocytopenia, but RCTs such as the 1997 multicenter trial in acute leukemia patients showed that a 10 × 10^9/L threshold reduced transfusion needs by 21.5% without elevating bleeding risk, prompting a global shift to restrictive practices.^[82] Subsequent trials, including those in autologous stem cell transplant recipients, reinforced this by finding equivalent safety at lower doses and thresholds.^[83] The 2025 AABB and ICTMG International Clinical Practice Guidelines, developed using GRADE methodology and informed by 21 RCTs and 13 observational studies, recommend prophylactic platelet transfusion for stable, nonbleeding adults with hypoproliferative thrombocytopenia (e.g., from chemotherapy or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation) only when the count falls below 10 × 10^9/L (strong recommendation, high to moderate certainty evidence).^[21] For major nonneuraxial surgery, transfusion is advised if the count is below 50 × 10^9/L (conditional recommendation, low to very low certainty), prioritizing restrictive over liberal strategies to reduce adverse events, inventory strain, and costs while supporting comprehensive patient blood management.^[21] These guidelines do not endorse prophylactic transfusion for autologous stem cell transplant or aplastic anemia patients absent bleeding (conditional, low to very low certainty).^[21] The 2025 CHEST guideline on platelet and plasma transfusion in critically ill adults provides seven conditional recommendations (very low certainty evidence) favoring restrictive approaches, including transfusion for stable nonbleeding patients at low spontaneous bleeding risk only below 10 × 10^9/L, and below 30-50 × 10^9/L for those at high risk.^[27] For serious active bleeding, a threshold of below 50 × 10^9/L is suggested, while routine prophylactic transfusion is discouraged before central venous catheter insertion, routine flexible bronchoscopy without biopsy, or gastrointestinal endoscopy in suspected portal hypertension-related bleeding with thrombocytopenia.^[27] In cardiac surgery contexts, transfusion is not routinely recommended unless active bleeding occurs.^[27] The International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) and World Health Organization (WHO) advocate for rational platelet use to optimize supply conservation and patient safety, aligning with restrictive thresholds such as below 10 × 10^9/L for prophylactic transfusion in stable hypoproliferative thrombocytopenia and below 50 × 10^9/L for major surgery or therapeutic needs in bleeding.^[6] ISBT specifically promotes universal leukoreduction of platelet components for patients requiring frequent transfusions, such as those with hematological malignancies or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, to mitigate HLA alloimmunization and transfusion refractoriness.^[6] WHO reinforces these through broader blood safety initiatives, urging evidence-based practices to prevent overuse in nonbleeding scenarios and ensure equitable access.^[84]

Special populations

In neonates and preterm infants, platelet transfusion practices emphasize conservative thresholds to minimize risks such as intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), which is heightened by liberal transfusion strategies. According to the 2025 Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) guidelines, a prophylactic threshold of 25 × 10⁹/L is recommended for preterm neonates, supported by evidence from the PlaNet-2 trial showing reduced mortality and bleeding with this lower limit compared to 50 × 10⁹/L. Higher thresholds have been associated with increased IVH incidence and overall mortality in vulnerable preterm populations. To mitigate transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GVHD), irradiated platelet units are standard for neonates, particularly those at high risk such as preterm infants or those receiving intrauterine transfusions. Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seronegative or leukoreduced platelets are preferred to reduce CMV transmission risk in CMV-naive neonates, though leukoreduction alone is often deemed sufficient in modern practice. For obstetric patients, platelet transfusions are tailored to prevent bleeding during procedures like cesarean sections while avoiding maternal alloimmunization. A platelet count threshold of less than 50 × 10⁹/L is commonly used for prophylactic transfusion prior to neuraxial anesthesia in thrombocytopenic pregnant women, balancing hemostasis needs with the low overall transfusion requirements in this group. RhD-compatible platelets are recommended for RhD-negative women of childbearing potential to prevent anti-D alloimmunization, which could complicate future pregnancies, although the risk from platelet products is low due to minimal red cell contamination. In elderly and critically ill patients, platelet transfusion thresholds are generally lower than in other populations to avoid unnecessary exposures that could exacerbate comorbidities, with close monitoring for complications like sepsis. A threshold of less than 10 × 10⁹/L is often applied for non-bleeding prophylaxis in stable critically ill individuals, though in high-risk cases such as sepsis-associated thrombocytopenia, a higher threshold of 30–50 × 10⁹/L may be considered unless active bleeding occurs.^[27] In cases of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), platelet transfusions are avoided due to the risk of promoting thrombosis; instead, direct thrombin inhibitors like argatroban are used for anticoagulation in critically ill patients with confirmed or suspected HIT. Patients with autoimmune disorders, such as immune thrombocytopenia (ITP), require cautious approaches to platelet transfusion, as it may worsen platelet destruction by providing additional targets for autoantibodies. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), typically at 1 g/kg, is preferred as first-line therapy for rapid platelet count elevation in acute ITP with bleeding, per American Society of Hematology (ASH) 2019 guidelines, outperforming transfusion in efficacy and safety by blocking splenic sequestration without exacerbation risks. Transfusions are reserved for life-threatening hemorrhage in ITP, combined with IVIG and corticosteroids, to achieve temporary hemostasis.

History

Early developments

The initial attempts at platelet transfusion occurred in the early 20th century, building on growing recognition of platelets' role in hemostasis. In 1906, preliminary experiments explored platelet function and enumeration in relation to disease states, though practical transfusion remained elusive. By 1910, William H. Duke achieved the first documented successful human platelet transfusion, administering whole blood directly from a donor to a thrombocytopenic patient with severe bleeding; this intervention temporarily halted hemorrhage and provided the earliest in vivo evidence of platelets' hemostatic efficacy.^[85]^[86] From the 1930s through the 1950s, platelet transfusion faced substantial challenges that restricted its clinical application. Early preparations relied on glass containers for storage, which activated platelets, leading to rapid aggregation, clumping, and loss of function; survival times were limited to mere hours even under refrigeration at 4°C. These issues resulted in frequent transfusion failures, with platelets exhibiting poor post-transfusion recovery and inability to sustain hemostasis, confining use to immediate, direct arm-to-arm transfers in select cases of acute bleeding.^[87]^[88] The 1960s brought pivotal breakthroughs that transformed platelet transfusion into a viable therapy. The shift to plastic bags, pioneered by W. P. Murphy Jr. and Carl Walter in the early 1950s for blood components, enabled gentler handling and reduced activation during collection and storage. In 1969, Scott Murphy and Frank H. Gardner demonstrated that platelet concentrates stored in these plastic containers at room temperature (22°C) with gentle agitation maintained viability for up to three days, markedly improving recovery and survival compared to cold storage.^[88]^[89] This innovation facilitated the first large-scale prophylactic use of platelet transfusions in leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy, where studies showed significant reductions in hemorrhagic mortality when counts were maintained above 20,000/μL. In the early 1970s, apheresis techniques were advanced, allowing collection of concentrated platelets from single donors and minimizing donor exposure risks for recipients requiring multiple units.^[88]

Modern era

The HIV crisis in the 1970s and 1980s profoundly impacted platelet transfusion safety, as the virus spread through contaminated blood products, including platelets, leading to numerous transfusion-acquired infections. In response, routine donor screening for HIV antibodies was implemented in 1985, dramatically reducing the risk of transmission and marking a pivotal shift toward proactive pathogen mitigation in transfusion medicine.^[90] During the same period, leukoreduction filters were introduced in the 1980s to remove white blood cells from platelet components, addressing issues like febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions and HLA alloimmunization. These filters achieved up to a 50% reduction in transfusion-related reactions and complications, as demonstrated in large-scale studies of surgical patients, thereby improving overall safety and efficacy of prophylactic transfusions.^[91] In the 1990s and 2000s, pathogen inactivation technologies emerged to further enhance safety by targeting a broader range of contaminants. The INTERCEPT Blood System, utilizing amotosalen and ultraviolet A light, received CE marking in Europe in 2002 for platelets, with U.S. FDA approval following in 2014; it inactivates bacteria, viruses, and parasites while preserving platelet function. Seminal randomized controlled trials, such as the Trial to Reduce Alloimmunization to Platelets (TRAP) published in 1997, established the efficacy of leukoreduced platelets in prophylactic settings by significantly lowering alloimmunization rates (from 45% to 21%), supporting their routine use to maintain transfusion responsiveness.^[92] Additionally, a 2004 randomized trial on low-dose prophylactic transfusions confirmed their safety and effectiveness in reducing bleeding risks while conserving resources. Regulatory advancements included FDA clearance in 2004 for bacterial detection systems like the BacT/ALERT, which enabled culture-based screening of platelet units to mitigate septic transfusion risks.^[93]^[94] The 2010s to 2025 saw a paradigm shift toward restrictive transfusion practices, driven by evidence from systematic reviews and updated guidelines. The AABB's 2010 systematic review of clinical evidence supported lower platelet count thresholds (e.g., 10 × 10^9/L) for prophylactic transfusions in hospitalized adults, reducing unnecessary exposures; this informed the 2015 AABB guideline recommending such thresholds to minimize bleeding risks without increasing harm. Recent 2025 AABB revisions further emphasize restrictive strategies, tailoring recommendations to patient-specific criteria like procedure type and bleeding risk, while promoting alternatives to extend platelet supply. Concurrently, thrombopoietin receptor agonists (TPO mimetics) like eltrombopag gained prominence as non-transfusion options, stimulating endogenous platelet production in conditions such as immune thrombocytopenia and chronic liver disease, thereby reducing transfusion dependence by up to 50% in select trials. Global platelet shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 prompted widespread conservation measures, including enhanced inventory triage, extended storage protocols, and prioritized allocation to critical cases, as nearly all (98%) surveyed U.S. hospitals reported blood product shortages, including platelets, and implemented adaptive strategies.^[17]^[4]^[95]^[96]

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