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Pulse watch

A pulse watch, also known as a pulsometer or pulsograph, is a specialized chronograph timepiece featuring a graduated scale on its dial or bezel that allows for the quick and approximate measurement of a person's heart rate by timing a fixed number of pulse beats, typically 15 or 30.^[1]^[2] The origins of the pulse watch trace back to 1707, when English physician Sir John Floyer collaborated with watchmaker Samuel Watson to develop the first Physician's Pulse Watch, a pocket watch with a graduated dial designed to calculate pulse rates more efficiently than manual counting.^[3]^[2] This innovation addressed the need for precise timing in medical practice, as Floyer emphasized the importance of monitoring pulse variations in his treatise The Physician's Pulse Watch.^[3] By the early 20th century, with the advent of wrist chronographs, Swiss manufacturers like Longines (from 1913) and Breitling (from 1915) adapted the pulsometer scale for wearable formats, making it a staple for doctors during house calls and in hospitals.^[2] Notable early models include the 1928 Rolex Prince, equipped with a dedicated seconds dial for timing, and the Universal Genève Medico-Compax, which integrated the scale directly into the chronograph layout.^[3] In operation, a user starts the chronograph while feeling the patient's pulse, counts the specified number of beats (often 30 for standard scales), and stops the timer; the second hand then aligns with the scale to display the heart rate in beats per minute without further calculation—for instance, if the hand stops at the 80 mark after 30 beats, the rate is approximately 80 bpm.^[1]^[2] Variations exist, such as scales calibrated for 15 beats to expedite measurements in urgent scenarios, and some models use the main seconds hand instead of a chronograph for simpler designs.^[3] While pulse watches were essential tools for medical professionals until the mid-20th century, they have since been largely replaced by electronic heart rate monitors and smartwatches with optical sensors; however, luxury brands like Patek Philippe, Omega, and modern revivals from Delma continue to produce them as functional homages to horological history.^[2]^[3]

History

Early Inventions

A pulse watch is a specialized timepiece designed to measure heart rate by timing pulsations from the radial artery, distinguishing it from conventional watches that solely track time.^[4] The earliest known pulse watch emerged in 1707, commissioned by English physician Sir John Floyer from London watchmaker Samuel Watson to facilitate precise pulse counting for medical diagnosis. This device featured a seconds hand and a graduated scale allowing the user to count 15 beats starting from the 12 o'clock position and read the heart rate directly from the dial upon reaching the 15th beat, enabling quick assessments without complex calculations.^[4]^[5] In the 19th century, advancements in chronograph technology adapted these principles for more efficient pulse measurement, with Louis Moinet's 1816 invention of the compteur de tierces—a high-frequency chronograph capable of tracking elapsed time to 1/60th of a second—providing a foundational tool for timing medical observations, though initially developed for astronomical use. By the late 1800s, pocket chronographs like a Breguet circa 1880 model incorporated dedicated pulsometer scales, often graduated for 60 beats, where the user would start the chronograph on the first pulse and stop it after a set number of beats to read the rate directly from the scale. In the early 20th century, wristwatches with pulsometer bezels became available, with manufacturers like Longines introducing them from 1913 and Breitling from 1915; these typically used a 15-beat or 30-beat scale, where the seconds hand's position after counting the beats indicated beats per minute via proportional markings, streamlining clinical practice.^[6]^[2] Early 20th-century innovations extended these mechanical designs to specialized fields, including medicine and aviation, as exemplified by Longines' 1920s pulsometer chronographs, which used single-button operation and 30-beat scales for rapid heart rate checks by medical personnel, including those supporting pilots.^[7] These analog instruments laid the groundwork for later electronic developments in pulse monitoring.

Modern Evolution

The modern evolution of pulse watches began in 1977 with the invention of the world's first wireless heart rate monitor by Finnish innovator Seppo Säynäjäkangas, founder of Polar Electro, which utilized ECG electrodes in a chest strap to transmit digital signals to a wrist receiver for real-time monitoring during cross-country skiing.^[8] This marked the shift from mechanical analog devices to electronic digital systems, enabling precise, data-driven tracking for athletes and laying the foundation for wearable fitness technology. During the 1980s and 1990s, efforts focused on transitioning to wrist-based designs, with early optical prototypes emerging, such as Seiko's 1983 Pulsemeter, a digital chronograph that incorporated a pulse sensor with a wired chest band or fingertip contact for transmission to the wrist unit.^[9] These innovations evolved from wired ECG systems to more convenient optical methods using light-based detection, though widespread adoption was limited by accuracy challenges and bulkiness until wireless protocols improved in the late 1990s. The 2000s saw integration into dedicated fitness watches, exemplified by Garmin's Forerunner 201 in 2003, which supported external heart rate monitors via wireless chest straps to track pace, distance, and heart rate data for runners.^[10] Early smartwatches followed, with the Pebble 2 in 2016 introducing built-in optical heart rate tracking alongside notifications and fitness metrics, broadening appeal beyond elite athletes.^[11] The 2010s and early 2020s witnessed explosive growth, driven by photoplethysmography (PPG) sensors in consumer devices; Apple introduced PPG-based heart rate monitoring in the Apple Watch in 2015, enabling continuous wrist-based tracking without straps.^[12] Fitbit pioneered automatic continuous optical monitoring with PurePulse technology in 2014, integrated into bands like the Charge HR.^[13] By 2024, advancements included FDA clearance for Samsung Galaxy Watch's atrial fibrillation detection via PPG and ECG, allowing irregular rhythm notifications for users over 22.^[14] The global wearable heart rate monitor market reached approximately $15 billion by 2025, fueled by health awareness and smartphone integration.^[15]

Technology and Operation

While traditional pulse watches rely on mechanical chronographs with graduated scales for manual pulse timing, modern electronic pulse watches—often integrated into smartwatches and fitness trackers—employ advanced sensors and algorithms for automated heart rate detection.

Sensing Methods

Photoplethysmography (PPG) is the most widely adopted sensing method in modern electronic pulse watches, utilizing light-emitting diodes (LEDs), typically green, and photodiodes to detect changes in blood volume in the microvascular tissue of the wrist. Green light is particularly effective because it is absorbed by hemoglobin in the blood, allowing the photodetector to capture pulsatile variations in light transmission or reflection as the heart beats cause arterial blood volume to expand and contract.^[16]^[17] This optical technique produces a waveform whose peaks correspond to heartbeats, from which the pulse rate can be derived using the formula:

\text{BPM} = \frac{60}{\text{average inter-beat interval (in seconds)}}

where the inter-beat interval is the time between consecutive waveform peaks.^[18] PPG sensors in modern electronic pulse watches typically operate at sampling rates around 100 Hz to capture the pulsatile signal adequately, though optimal rates for heart rate monitoring can range from 21 to 64 Hz depending on the device and activity level.^[19] To enhance accuracy during motion, many modern PPG implementations incorporate multi-wavelength LEDs, such as combinations of green, red, and infrared, which help mitigate motion artifacts by providing multiple signal channels for differential analysis.^[20] Electrocardiography (ECG)-based sensing offers an alternative hardware approach in some modern electronic pulse watches, employing single-lead ECG through electrodes integrated into the wrist device to detect the heart's electrical activity. In devices like the Apple Watch Series 4 and later models, one electrode is located on the back of the watch in contact with the skin, while the other is at the digital crown, forming a circuit when the user touches it with a finger to record the electrical potential difference generated by cardiac depolarization.^[21] This method captures the QRS complex and other features of the ECG waveform directly from bioelectric signals propagating through the body.^[22] Less common in commercial modern electronic pulse watches are methods like bioimpedance analysis, which measures changes in electrical resistance across body tissues due to blood volume fluctuations during the cardiac cycle, and ballistocardiography (BCG), which detects subtle mechanical motions or vibrations induced by heartbeats using accelerometers or force sensors. Bioimpedance typically involves applying a low-amplitude alternating current via electrodes and monitoring impedance variations, offering a non-optical means to infer pulse waveforms.^[23] BCG, meanwhile, captures recoil forces from blood ejection, though its integration into wrist-worn devices remains experimental and less prevalent compared to PPG or ECG.^[24]

Data Processing

The data processing in modern electronic pulse watches involves algorithms that transform raw signals, primarily from photoplethysmography (PPG), into meaningful heart rate metrics such as beats per minute and heart rate variability (HRV).^[25] These processes occur on-device or via connected systems to enable real-time analysis while minimizing computational load. Signal filtering is a foundational step to isolate the pulsatile component of the PPG waveform from noise sources like motion artifacts. Bandpass filters, typically set between 0.5 and 4 Hz to capture adult heart rates ranging from 30 to 240 beats per minute, attenuate low-frequency baseline wander and high-frequency interference.^[25] This preprocessing enhances signal quality before further analysis. Peak detection algorithms then identify individual heartbeat peaks within the filtered signal to compute interbeat intervals. Techniques such as autocorrelation detect periodic patterns in the waveform, while Fourier transforms analyze the frequency spectrum to pinpoint the dominant heartbeat frequency.^[25] From these intervals, HRV metrics are derived; for instance, the standard deviation of normal-to-normal (NN) intervals, denoted as SDNN, quantifies overall variability as \text{SDNN} = \sqrt{\frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^{N} (NN_i - \overline{NN})^2 }, where NN_i are the NN intervals and \overline{NN} is their mean.^[26] In devices from the 2020s, machine learning enhancements improve robustness, particularly in dynamic conditions. Adaptive filters dynamically adjust to signal variations, and Kalman filters provide real-time state estimation for correcting artifacts by fusing PPG data with accelerometer inputs.^[27] Artificial intelligence models, including neural networks, enable anomaly detection, such as identifying irregular rhythms indicative of atrial fibrillation through pattern recognition in PPG waveforms.^[28] Processed metrics are transmitted via Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) protocols to companion smartphone applications for logging, visualization, and long-term storage.^[25] This low-power standard ensures efficient, intermittent data syncing without draining device batteries.

Types of Devices

Wrist-Based Monitors

Wrist-based monitors are dedicated wearable devices positioned on the wrist, engineered specifically for continuous heart rate tracking to support athletic performance and exercise monitoring. These devices, while successors to traditional pulse watches, employ optical photoplethysmography (PPG) sensors embedded in the watch case or strap to detect blood flow changes via light reflection, providing real-time beats per minute (BPM) data without the need for external attachments.^[29] Unlike multifunctional smartwatches, they prioritize simplicity and reliability for focused use during physical activities such as running or cycling.^[30] Design features of wrist-based monitors emphasize durability and comfort for extended wear, including lightweight casings constructed from polymer or resin materials, adjustable silicone or resin straps for secure fit across various wrist sizes, and dedicated LCD or AMOLED displays optimized for quick BPM readouts even in motion. For instance, the Polar Vantage series incorporates a slim, lightweight casing weighing about 57 grams with a hypoallergenic adjustable strap and a high-contrast display that prominently shows heart rate zones and current BPM values.^[31] Similarly, Timex Ironman models feature resin casings under 50 grams, flexible straps with multiple adjustment holes, and straightforward digital screens for immediate heart rate visibility during workouts.^[32] These monitors operate independently with robust standalone functionality, offering battery life up to 7 days in standard monitoring mode and no reliance on smartphone pairing for core heart rate tracking, allowing athletes to focus on real-time data capture during exercise sessions. The Polar Vantage V3, for example, delivers up to 10 days in smartwatch mode, supporting uninterrupted monitoring without external devices, though continuous optical heart rate tracking reduces this duration.^[33] Timex Ironman heart rate variants provide comparable longevity through replaceable coin cell batteries, enabling chronograph timing and BPM alerts solely from the wrist unit.^[34] Early examples trace back to the Timex Ironman series in the 1990s, which laid the groundwork for wrist-based tracking with basic digital interfaces that later integrated heart rate capabilities in subsequent iterations. Contemporary models, such as the 2025 Polar Vantage lineup, enhance this legacy with ANT+ connectivity for broadcasting heart rate data to compatible gym equipment or bikes, maintaining a dedicated focus on exercise-oriented monitoring.^[35] The portability of these devices—compact form factors under 60 grams—and their intuitive one-button access to heart rate functions make them particularly advantageous for athletes, facilitating seamless integration into training routines without added bulk or complexity.^[36]

Mechanical Pulsometers

Traditional pulse watches, or mechanical pulsometers, are chronograph timepieces featuring a graduated scale on the dial or bezel for measuring heart rate by manually timing a fixed number of pulse beats, typically 15 or 30. These originated as pocket watches in the early 18th century and evolved into wrist-based models by the early 20th century.^[2] Early wrist examples include the Longines pulsometer chronograph from 1913 and Breitling's 1915 model, designed for medical professionals. The 1928 Rolex Prince featured a dedicated seconds dial for timing, while the Universal Genève Medico-Compax integrated the scale into the chronograph layout.^[3] These devices required the user to start the chronograph, count beats while palpating the pulse, and stop at the specified count, with the second hand indicating BPM directly on the scale.^[1] Modern mechanical pulsometers continue as luxury homages, such as Patek Philippe's Reference 5170 with a 15-beat scale, Omega's Seamaster with pulsometer bezel, and Delma's revivals incorporating the feature for functional appeal. These maintain the analog precision and horological craftsmanship, appealing to collectors and professionals valuing traditional methods over electronic alternatives.^[2]

Advanced Integrated Systems

Advanced integrated systems represent evolutions of pulse monitoring in multifunctional smartwatches and hybrid devices that combine heart rate tracking—often via optical sensors—with other features, though distinct from traditional pulsometer scales. These systems utilize wrist-based optical sensors to track heart rate alongside global positioning system (GPS) for location-based activity mapping, smartphone notifications for real-time alerts, and ecosystem integrations such as Google Wear OS or Apple's watchOS for synchronized data across devices.^[37]^[38] This integration enables users to receive comprehensive health insights without compromising on smart functionalities like app access and voice assistance, distinguishing them from simpler trackers or mechanical pulse watches. Prominent examples include the Apple Watch Ultra series, which from its 2022 launch has incorporated pulse oximetry for blood oxygen levels alongside heart rate monitoring, with 2025 updates via watchOS 11.6.1 restoring full blood oxygen functionality for U.S. users through redesigned sensor data collection.^[39] Similarly, the Garmin Vivosmart 5 fitness tracker integrates pulse tracking with notifications and basic ecosystem connectivity via the Garmin Connect app, while the Huawei Watch GT series, such as the GT 5 Pro, combines heart rate monitoring with SpO2 measurements, GPS navigation, and HarmonyOS integration for extended feature sets.^[40] These devices exemplify how pulse data is fused with multi-sensor arrays to support broader wellness tracking. Power management in these systems balances continuous monitoring needs with battery efficiency, employing always-on pulse detection for real-time alerts versus on-demand sampling to conserve energy. AI-optimized algorithms adjust sampling rates based on activity levels, extending battery life to 24-48 hours in models like the Apple Watch Ultra and Samsung Galaxy Watch series, where adaptive heart rate acquisition reduces power draw during low-intensity periods.^[41]^[42] In the market landscape, smartwatch hybrids dominate wrist-worn wearables, reflecting their appeal through integrated pulse and smart features over basic bands.^[43] This dominance underscores the shift toward devices that prioritize holistic user experiences in health and connectivity.

Accuracy and Reliability

Influencing Factors

Motion artifacts represent a primary environmental factor impacting the accuracy of pulse watches, which typically rely on photoplethysmography (PPG) to detect blood volume changes through light absorption. Arm movements during daily activities or exercise introduce signal noise by shifting the sensor relative to the skin, often manifesting as false or missing beats that distort heart rate calculations.^[44] While accelerometers in modern devices help mitigate these artifacts by filtering motion-correlated noise, accuracy still declines during high-intensity exercise, with mean absolute errors (MAE) of up to 14 bpm (approximately 10-15% at typical heart rates) due to persistent signal interference.^[44]^[45] Skin tone and device fit further influence PPG signal quality, as darker skin tones absorb more light, thereby reducing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and potentially leading to underestimated heart rates.^[46] This effect arises because higher melanin concentrations in darker skin reflect less incident light back to the sensor, weakening the pulsatile component of the PPG waveform.^[47] Similarly, a loose wrist strap exacerbates errors by creating gaps between the sensor and skin, which diminish contact pressure and introduce additional motion-induced noise; studies indicate that suboptimal fit can significantly increase measurement errors compared to a snug placement.^[48] Physiological states such as arrhythmias and cold temperatures also alter pulse measurement reliability by affecting peripheral perfusion and signal regularity. Arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation, disrupt the rhythmic blood flow detected by PPG, leading to irregular pulse waveforms that challenge accurate beat-to-beat interval estimation and can result in erroneous average heart rates.^[49] Cold temperatures induce vasoconstriction, reducing blood volume in peripheral tissues and thereby attenuating the PPG signal amplitude, which compromises detection in low-perfusion conditions.^[50] Device-specific factors, including sensor quality and calibration, contribute to variability in pulse watch performance, particularly in budget models where lower-grade photodiodes and less sophisticated algorithms yield higher resting heart rate variance of approximately ±5 beats per minute (BPM) relative to reference standards.^[51] Premium devices often incorporate better calibration protocols and multi-wavelength LEDs to enhance signal stability, minimizing such discrepancies under controlled conditions.^[52]

Validation Studies

Validation studies for pulse watches primarily evaluate their accuracy against electrocardiography (ECG), the gold standard for heart rate and rhythm measurement, often employing Bland-Altman analyses to quantify agreement through metrics like mean absolute error (MAE). For instance, assessments of the Apple Watch have demonstrated MAEs ranging from 2 to 5 beats per minute (BPM) at rest, indicating strong concordance with ECG under controlled conditions.^[53]^[44] These comparisons highlight the reliability of photoplethysmography-based sensors in static scenarios but underscore the need for rigorous benchmarking across activities. Key clinical trials have further validated pulse watch capabilities for detecting arrhythmias. Apple's internal validation study for the ECG app on the Apple Watch Series 4 reported a sensitivity of 98.3% and specificity of 99.6% for atrial fibrillation (AFib) detection compared to a clinical 12-lead ECG reference.^[54] Complementing this, the 2019 Apple Heart Study, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, assessed irregular pulse notifications in over 400,000 participants, confirming high positive predictive value (84%) for AFib in a subset validated with ECG patches, though full sensitivity was not directly measured in the large cohort.^[55] For exercise heart rate monitoring, recent validations of Fitbit devices, such as a 2022 comparative analysis, showed strong correlation (r=0.95) with ECG during dynamic conditions, supporting their utility in fitness contexts. Regulatory bodies have endorsed certain pulse watch features based on these validations. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted De Novo Class II clearance to the Apple Watch's Irregular Rhythm Notification Feature in 2018 for alerting users to potential AFib, classifying it as a moderate-risk device with demonstrated safety and effectiveness.^[56] Similarly, the ECG app received FDA clearance under the same pathway.^[57] For pulse oximetry components in wearables, compliance with ISO 80601-2-61:2017 ensures accuracy within specified limits (e.g., root mean square error ≤3% for SpO2), as verified in studies of devices like finger-worn and wrist-based oximeters.^[58]^[59] Despite these advancements, validation studies reveal limitations in diverse populations. Research indicates that pulse watches are understudied in individuals from varied ethnic backgrounds, with photoplethysmography sensors showing reduced accuracy—up to 20% higher error rates—in darker skin tones due to light absorption differences.^[60]^[61] Reviews indicate elevated errors of 10-20% during high-intensity activities due to motion artifacts, though overall trends remain reliable for general use. Motion remains a common error source in dynamic settings, as briefly evidenced across multiple device validations. As of 2025, studies continue to show greater errors in darker skin tones during moderate-to-high intensity (mean error up to 7.6 bpm at 40-60% HRR), though overall skin tone effects remain inconclusive.^[53]^[62]^[63]

Applications

Fitness and Wellness

Pulse watches play a key role in fitness and wellness by enabling users to monitor heart rate in real time during exercise, allowing them to target specific training zones for optimized performance and fat utilization. Heart rate zones are typically divided based on percentages of maximum heart rate, with the fat-burning zone often falling between 60% and 70% of maximum heart rate, where the body relies more heavily on fat as an energy source compared to higher-intensity efforts. For example, during moderate aerobic activities like jogging, users can maintain this zone to promote endurance and weight management, with pulse watches providing vibrational or visual alerts to stay within the desired range and adjust intensity accordingly.^[64]^[65] Key features of pulse watches for fitness include calorie estimation derived from heart rate data and recovery tracking through heart rate variability (HRV). Calorie burn is approximated using formulas that incorporate heart rate, age, weight, and gender, providing users with an estimate of energy expenditure during workouts by accounting for individual physiological responses. This method, while approximate, helps track progress in activities like cycling or weight training. Additionally, HRV measurements, captured during rest or sleep, indicate autonomic nervous system balance and recovery status; higher HRV values suggest better adaptation to training stress, guiding users to adjust workout loads to prevent overtraining.^[66]^[67] User adoption of pulse watches in fitness settings has surged, with wearable technology ranked as the top global fitness trend in 2025 surveys, reflecting widespread reliance among gym-goers for motivation and performance insights. These devices often integrate seamlessly with apps like Strava, automatically syncing heart rate data from workouts to enable detailed analysis of routes, efforts, and social sharing within fitness communities.^[68]^[69]^[70] In wellness applications, pulse watches track resting heart rate trends to detect stress levels, as elevations in baseline heart rate over time can signal accumulated physiological stress from daily life or intense training. By monitoring overnight or morning readings, users receive insights into recovery needs, prompting lifestyle adjustments like additional rest or mindfulness practices to maintain overall well-being.^[71]

Healthcare Monitoring

Historically, mechanical pulse watches were essential for physicians to quickly assess patient heart rates during examinations. Pulse watches play a significant role in clinical diagnostics through arrhythmia detection capabilities, where built-in algorithms analyze photoplethysmography (PPG) signals to flag irregular heart rhythms such as atrial fibrillation (AFib). In the Apple Heart Study, involving 419,297 participants, an irregular pulse notification feature demonstrated a positive predictive value of 84% for identifying AFib, with 0.52% of users receiving alerts that prompted further evaluation via ECG patches, confirming AFib in 34% of cases among those tested.^[55] These notifications have facilitated early interventions, as 57% of notified participants contacted healthcare providers within 90 days, potentially averting complications like stroke through timely medical follow-up, including emergency room visits for confirmation and treatment.^[55] In remote patient monitoring, pulse watches integrate with telehealth platforms to track vital signs for managing chronic conditions such as hypertension, enabling proactive adjustments to treatment plans. A prospective cohort study of high-risk postdischarge patients using home telemonitoring devices, including those measuring heart rate and blood pressure, reported a 57.8% reduction in hospitalizations and a 19.4% decrease in hospital days at six months, attributed to early detection of physiological deviations.^[72] Similarly, remote monitoring programs for heart failure patients, often comorbid with hypertension, have achieved up to 50% reductions in 30-day readmissions by continuously monitoring heart rate trends and alerting providers to anomalies.^[73] These systems ensure data security and compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), as wearable-derived health information is transmitted via encrypted channels to authorized clinicians.^[74] Continuous heart rate tracking via pulse watches supports vital signs monitoring in post-operative recovery and elderly care, providing real-time data to detect tachycardia or bradycardia that could signal infections or decompensation. In post-surgical settings, wearable sensors have been shown to identify early physiological changes, such as elevated heart rates, allowing for remote oversight that reduces the need for frequent in-person visits.^[75] For elderly patients, these devices facilitate aging-in-place programs by monitoring heart rate variability alongside activity levels, with HIPAA-compliant platforms ensuring protected health information remains secure during transmission to caregivers.^[74] Validation studies confirm high accuracy for such heart rate measurements in clinical contexts, supporting their reliability for medical decision-making.^[55] Case studies from the COVID-19 pandemic highlight pulse watches' utility in early disease detection through elevated resting heart rates. A systematic review of wearable sensors from 2020-2022 found that devices like the Apple Watch and Fitbit detected changes in heart rate, identifying up to 88% of infections up to four days before symptom onset in presymptomatic individuals.^[76] These findings, drawn from studies involving thousands of participants, underscored the potential for population-level surveillance, where sustained elevations in resting heart rate served as a non-invasive biomarker for viral onset during the 2020-2022 outbreak waves.^[76]

Future Developments

Technological Innovations

Advancements in multi-modal sensor technologies are revolutionizing pulse watches by combining traditional photoplethysmography (PPG) with radar and ultrasound for non-contact heart rate monitoring, addressing current PPG limitations such as motion artifacts that can degrade accuracy during physical activity. Google's 2025 research on consumer ultra-wideband (UWB) radar, integrated into mobile devices, enables contactless heart rate detection using deep learning models, achieving a mean absolute error of 4.1 beats per minute and a mean absolute percentage error of 6.3%, which meets Consumer Technology Association standards for wearable monitors.^[77] Complementary ultrasound-based systems, such as multi-channel prototypes, capture subtle vibrations for vital sign tracking without skin contact, with ongoing multi-modal fusions of radar, acoustic, and thermal sensors showing promise for robust performance in dynamic environments.^[78]^[79] By 2030, these integrations are projected to enable seamless, interference-free monitoring in everyday wearables. AI enhancements in pulse watches are introducing sophisticated predictive analytics for health risk assessment, leveraging machine learning to analyze continuous data streams for early intervention. Research from the SCAI 2025 Scientific Sessions demonstrates that AI-paired wearables can detect cardiovascular events up to one hour in advance, with over 90% sensitivity for atrial fibrillation detection comparable to hospital-grade equipment.^[80] Similarly, transformer-based AI models processing heart rate and activity data from devices like Fitbit have achieved 91% accuracy in predicting hospitalization risks, enabling proactive alerts for cardiac decompensation.^[81] These capabilities, expected to mature in 2026 consumer models, prioritize pattern recognition from multi-source inputs to forecast events like arrhythmias with high specificity, reducing false positives through refined algorithms.^[82] Battery and miniaturization innovations are extending operational longevity and improving user comfort in pulse watches. Solid-state batteries, such as Samsung's oxide-based variants with 200 watt-hours per liter energy density, are set for mass production in 2026, potentially delivering multi-week battery life under moderate usage while enhancing safety and flexibility for slimmer designs.^[83] Parallel developments in flexible displays, including curved OLED panels, allow devices to conform ergonomically to the wrist, reducing bulk and improving fit for prolonged wear without compromising visibility or durability.^[84] These advancements facilitate smaller form factors that maintain sensor precision, with prototypes already demonstrating bendable substrates resilient to daily strains. Integration trends are fostering seamless connectivity between pulse watches, AR glasses, and implants to enable holistic monitoring ecosystems. AI-powered smart glasses are incorporating biosensors for real-time vital tracking, syncing with wrist devices to aggregate data on heart rate, oxygenation, and activity for comprehensive profiles.^[85] Implantable BioMEMS technologies, such as wireless sensors for continuous glucose and cardiac monitoring, are advancing interoperability with wearables via low-power networks, allowing unified dashboards for multi-device insights.^[86] By 2030, these mergers will support predictive health platforms that correlate external and internal metrics, optimizing interventions through shared AI analytics.

Regulatory and Ethical Considerations

Pulse watches, when marketed with medical claims such as diagnosing arrhythmias or monitoring cardiovascular conditions, are subject to stringent regulatory oversight by bodies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Union's Medical Device Regulation (MDR). Under FDA guidelines, devices making diagnostic or therapeutic claims must undergo premarket clearance or approval, classifying them as Class II medical devices requiring 510(k) submission to demonstrate substantial equivalence to predicate devices. Similarly, the EU MDR (Regulation 2017/745) mandates CE marking for wearables intended for medical purposes, categorizing pulse watches as Class IIa or higher based on risk, with requirements for clinical evaluation, post-market surveillance, and conformity assessment by notified bodies. In 2025, both FDA and EU regulators updated frameworks to emphasize cybersecurity, mandating secure data transmission protocols in premarket submissions to mitigate risks from connected devices, as outlined in FDA's final guidance on cybersecurity for medical devices.^[87]^[88] Privacy concerns surrounding pulse watches center on the handling of sensitive heart rate (HR) data, which qualifies as personal health information under regulations like the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Manufacturers must ensure GDPR compliance through explicit user consent for data collection and sharing, data minimization principles, and robust encryption to protect HR metrics transmitted to apps or cloud services. Non-compliance can result in fines up to 4% of global annual turnover. Risks of hacking are amplified in connected ecosystems; for instance, a 2023 breach at Zoll Medical Corporation exposed personal data of over 1 million users of their wearable cardioverter defibrillators, highlighting vulnerabilities in device-app integrations that could extend to pulse monitoring wearables.^[89]^[90] Ethical challenges include the potential for over-reliance on pulse watches, which may exacerbate health anxiety or cyberchondria—a condition where constant monitoring of HR fluctuations leads users to misinterpret normal variations as serious issues, prompting unnecessary medical consultations. Studies indicate this effect is particularly pronounced in individuals predisposed to anxiety, with wearable alerts sometimes amplifying perceived symptoms without clinical context. Additionally, equity issues persist, as access to pulse watches remains limited for low-income groups due to high costs (often $100–$500 per device) and lack of insurance coverage, widening health disparities; for example, ownership rates drop to about 12% among households earning below $30,000 annually compared to over 50% in higher-income brackets. Brief clinical validation studies underscore the need for diverse participant pools to address these biases, ensuring reliable HR readings across demographics.^[91]^[92] Looking ahead, proposed policies for 2026 aim to regulate AI-driven diagnostics in pulse watches more rigorously to prevent misdiagnosis. The FDA's Fiscal Year 2026 guidance agenda includes lifecycle management for AI-enabled devices, requiring transparency in algorithms and bias mitigation to ensure accurate HR-based predictions. In the EU, the AI Act's 2026 timeline for high-risk systems will impose conformity assessments on AI features in wearables, mandating human oversight and risk management plans to safeguard against erroneous health alerts. These standards build on existing validation needs to foster safer integration of AI in consumer health monitoring.^[93]^[94]

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We determine the optimal sampling rate of wrist-worn optical sensors for heart rate and heart rate variability monitoring to be 21–64 Hz, depending on the ...
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Motion Artifact Reduction in Wearable Photoplethysmography ... - NIH
Mar 9, 2020 · In this paper, we develop a PPG measuring system based on multi-channel sensors with multiple wavelengths and propose a motion artifact reduction algorithm.
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Using the Apple Watch to Record Multiple-Lead Electrocardiograms ...
The Apple Watch uses one positive electrode (on the back of the watch) and one negative electrode (at the digital crown) to record a single-lead ECG. In this ...
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A single-lead ECG is able to provide information about heart rate and heart rhythm and enables classification of AFib. However, a single-lead ECG cannot be used ...About ECG app version... · Monitor your heart rate with... · Regulatory Information
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A Robust Bioimpedance Structure for Smartwatch-Based Blood ...
Jun 29, 2018 · To obtain the pulse waveform, bioimpedance (BI) measurement is a promising approach because it continuously reflects the change in BP through ...
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A Wearable Ballistocardiography Device for Estimating Heart Rate ...
This study aims to develop a simple, low-cost device to monitor the HR of people with OSA during PAP therapy.
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Heart Rate Variability | Circulation
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An Adaptive Heart Rate Monitoring Algorithm for Wearable ... - MDPI
This paper focuses on developing an adaptive heart rate monitoring algorithm for wrist-based rehabilitation systems.
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Heart Rate Monitors: How to Choose & Use | REI Expert Advice
Wrist-based HRMs: An optical sensor built into the wrist unit's watchband or case back detects your pulse. Though heart rate monitor watches are slightly less ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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What is the battery life of my Vantage V3? ; Performance training mode: Up to 43 hours. OHR tracking: ON; Connected BLE HR: OFF ; Eco training mode: Up to 140 ...
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Timex Ironman Triathlon Transit+ Watch with Activity Tracking ...
Easy-touch heart rate monitor; 7-day activity tracker measures calories, steps & distance; 100-hour chronograph with 10-lap memory; 24-hour countdown timer ...
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An update on Blood Oxygen for Apple Watch in the U.S.
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Garmin vivosmart® 5 | Fitness Activity Tracker
In stock Rating 4.2 2,154 vivosmart 5 is a fitness tracker with features that include sleep score, long battery life, step tracking, and more.
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Determinants of photoplethysmography signal quality at the wrist - NIH
Jun 27, 2025 · PPG signal quality is lower in darker skin tones [30]. This may affect the reliability of pulse oximeters [40]. Static and variable levels of ...
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Demographic bias in public remote photoplethysmography datasets
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[PDF] Movement, sweating, and contact pressure as sources of heart rate ...
PPG device coupled with a force sensor, which reported that accuracy in heart rate monitoring decreased for reduced contact pressure during low, moderate and.<|separator|>
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Impact of recording length and other arrhythmias on atrial fibrillation ...
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Photoplethysmogram Analysis and Applications: An Integrative ...
Cold site temperature causes vasoconstriction of the measurement site and reduces perfusion, thereby degrading the quality of the measured signal (Khan et ...
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ECG app and irregular heart rhythm notification available ... - Apple
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Large-Scale Assessment of a Smartwatch to Identify Atrial Fibrillation
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[PDF] DEN180042.pdf - accessdata.fda.gov
The Irregular Rhythm Notification Feature is a software-only mobile medical application that is intended to be used with the Apple Watch.
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[PDF] ECG APP FDA identifies this generic type of device as
The ECG app creates, analyzes, and displays ECG data, identifying AFib or sinus rhythm, but not other arrhythmias or heart attacks. It is for informational use ...
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ISO/FDIS 80601-2-61 - Medical electrical equipment
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Jul 24, 2019 · Nearly all of the largest manufacturers of wearable heart rate trackers rely on technology that could be less reliable for consumers who have darker skin.Missing: understudied | Show results with:understudied
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Fat-Burning Heart Rate: Calculation and Chart By Age
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Heart Rate Based Calorie Burn Calculator - SHAPESENSE.COM
Formulas for Determination of Calorie Burn if VO2max is Unknown · Male: ((-55.0969 + (0.6309 x HR) + (0.1988 x W) + (0.2017 x A))/4.184) x 60 x T · Female: ((- ...
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Aug 22, 2023 · Heart rate variability shows you how well your body is recovered, if you're overtraining, and if you need to improve how you handle stress.
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ACSM Announces Top Fitness Trends for 2025
Wearable technology takes #1 spot · New to the survey this year was Influencer/Ambassador-led Fitness Programs, which debuted at #12 and also has ties to digital ...
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Pairing Sensors with the Strava app
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The Use of Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability to Detect Stress: A ...
Dec 27, 2021 · This study aimed to determine if the change in heart rate variability could predict, in two different cohorts, the quality of response to acute stress.
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Remote Monitoring Program Cuts Heart Failure Readmissions in Half
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HIPAA compliance in wearable devices - Paubox
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AI-driven wearable sensors for postoperative monitoring in surgical ...
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The performance of wearable sensors in the detection of SARS-CoV ...
Eight articles examining data from more than three wearable devices collectively showed a positive association between SARS-CoV-2 infection and elevated heart ...
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Measuring heart rate with consumer ultra-wideband radar
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Acoustic Sensing for Contactless Health Monitoring - IEEE Xplore
Sep 23, 2025 · The proposed method advances multi-modal ... Multimodal systems that combine acoustic sensing with radar and thermal imaging have been deployed.
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A Multi-Channel Ultrasound System for Non-Contact Heart Rate ...
They aim to capture vibration signals at a lower cost using low complexity algorithms, in turn broadening its application with the possibility of integrating ...
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May 3, 2025 · Wearables, When Paired with AI, Detect a Cardiovascular Event an Hour Before it Occurs, Similar to Hospital-Grade Monitors.Missing: analytics | Show results with:analytics
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AI predicts hospitalizations with 91% accuracy using Fitbit data
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Unlocking Tomorrow's Health Care: Expanding the Clinical Scope of ...
This study is aimed to determine whether continuous data gathered by the smartwatch paired with a transformer AI model can predict acute decompensation.
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Samsung is poised to revolutionize smartwatch battery life in 2026
Jan 15, 2025 · A new battery technology from Samsung could completely change your relationship with wearable technology and offer multiday charge capacity.
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What Will Shape the Future Development of Smart Watches? | ActLight
Jun 13, 2024 · We may see smartwatches with flexible, curved displays that conform to the wrist for a more comfortable fit. ActLight's DPD technology can ...
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A systematic literature review on integrating AI-powered smart ...
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Advancements in Wearable and Implantable BioMEMS Devices
BioMEMS devices enable personalized diagnostics, targeted therapy, minimally invasive interventions, and real-time monitoring—driving better patient outcomes ...
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Quality System Considerations and Content of Premarket Submissions
Jun 26, 2025 · This document provides FDA's recommendations to industry regarding cybersecurity device design, labeling, and the documentation that FDA recommends be included ...
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Smart Wearables Regulations in the EU - OMC Medical
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GDPR Compliance for Medical Wearables - CCNet GmbH
Jun 20, 2025 · The GDPR sets high standards for the protection of health data in medical wearables. Manufacturers are obligated to fully comply with legal ...1. Why Does The Gdpr Apply... · Faq About Wearables · Wearables And Ai: How...
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Zoll Suffers Massive Data Breach
Hackers accessed personal data on more than 1 million patients who use Zoll's wearable cardioverter defibrillator in a recent cybersecurity breach.
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How Wearable Technology Can Worsen Health Anxiety
Sep 19, 2024 · Devices can cause us to lose touch with the present moment and can contribute to anxiety about our health. Wearable technology affords the ...
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EquityWare: Co-Designing Wearables With And For Low Income ...
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FDA Device Guidance Agenda: What to Watch in 2026
Oct 15, 2025 · The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has published its guidance agenda for Fiscal Year 2026, announcing plans for eight guidance ...
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As per the AI Act's transition timeline, key milestones are set for August 2026 and August 2027, when notified bodies will begin assessing high-risk AI systems.