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Reappropriation

Reappropriation, also known as reclamation or resignification, is the sociolinguistic process whereby members of a subordinated or targeted group repurpose a pejorative slur or derogatory label—previously employed by dominant out-groups to enforce subordination—for in-group self-identification, solidarity, empowerment, or ironic subversion, aiming to invert or dilute its original stigmatizing connotations.^[1]^[2]^[3] Theoretically, this practice operates through mechanisms such as self-labeling, which reciprocally bolsters group agency and reframes the term's semantics from external derogation to internal affiliation, potentially fostering resilience against out-group hostility.^[1]^[4] Historical instances, including the in-group adoption of terms like those targeting ethnic or sexual minorities, illustrate attempts to wrest narrative control from oppressors, though success varies by context and power dynamics.^[5]^[6] Empirical studies offer limited but suggestive evidence that reappropriation enhances individual and in-group perceptions of power, reduces the emotional sting of the label for claimants, and may promote positive self-evaluations amid acknowledged discrimination, mediated by increased autonomy over linguistic identity.^[4]^[7] However, causal impacts on out-group prejudice or societal stigma remain understudied, with preliminary data indicating primarily intra-group benefits rather than widespread neutralization of the slur's derogatory potential.^[5]^[6] Defining controversies center on the inherent ambiguity of reclaimed slurs, which can lead to misinterpretation in intergroup settings—potentially reinforcing harm when out-group members invoke the term pejoratively—and challenges in distinguishing reclamation from perpetuation, as evidenced in legal and pragmatic analyses where intent proves elusive.^[8]^[9] This duality underscores reappropriation's role as a double-edged strategy: empowering for participants yet precarious in broader discourse, where entrenched power asymmetries may limit its transformative reach.^[10]^[11]

Definition and Core Concepts

Linguistic and Cultural Definition

Reappropriation, linguistically, denotes the process whereby members of a targeted group adopt a pejorative term or slur originally imposed by out-groups, repurposing it for in-group communication to diminish its derogatory force or invest it with empowering or neutral connotations.^[12] ^[13] This reclamation, sometimes termed resignification, hinges on voluntary self-application by the affected community, which can alter semantic associations over time through repeated in-group usage, though empirical linguistic shifts vary by term and context.^[2] For instance, slurs like those targeting ethnic or sexual minorities may evolve via mechanisms such as irony or solidarity signaling, but success in fully decoupling original stigma remains context-dependent and not universally achieved.^[14] Culturally, reappropriation extends beyond lexicon to encompass the reclamation of symbols, artifacts, or practices historically weaponized for oppression, enabling the originating group to redefine their intrinsic value and resist external stigmatization.^[6] This process often intersects with identity formation, where subordinated communities assert agency by integrating demeaned elements into affirmative narratives, as observed in movements repurposing traditional attire or motifs stripped of context by dominant cultures.^[8] Unlike appropriation by out-groups, which typically reinforces power asymmetries without consent, cultural reappropriation prioritizes endogenous control, though its efficacy in altering broader societal perceptions is debated, with some analyses indicating persistent external derogation despite in-group adoption.^[15] Such dynamics underscore reappropriation's role as a strategic response to historical marginalization, grounded in group-level semantic and symbolic renegotiation rather than passive acceptance of imposed meanings.

Mechanisms of Reclamation

Reappropriation, or reclamation, of derogatory terms typically occurs through a combination of linguistic, psychological, and social processes that aim to alter the term's valence within the targeted group. Linguistically, one primary mechanism is semantic reclamation, where repeated in-group usage introduces polysemy or ambiguity, allowing the term to develop a non-pejorative sense alongside its original derogatory one. This process relies on contextual cues to disambiguate meanings, such that the reclaimed sense activates primarily in supportive in-group settings, as evidenced by experimental studies showing differential cognitive processing of reclaimed slurs compared to unreclaimed ones.^[16]^[17] Pragmatically, reclamation often employs irony or echoic uses, where the slur is uttered with subversive intent to mock its oppressive history, fostering resilience by reframing the term as a badge of endurance rather than submission.^[14] Psychologically, self-labeling with a stigmatizing term activates reframing, whereby individuals reject the imposed negative connotations and attribute positive attributes—like solidarity or defiance—to the label, thereby reducing its emotional impact and enhancing perceived personal power. Empirical research demonstrates that such self-application correlates with diminished stigma perception and increased self-assurance, particularly when the term is used in ingroup contexts, as low-power groups experimentally gain a sense of empowerment through deliberate adoption. This mechanism operates via reciprocal dynamics: initial self-labeling boosts subjective power, which in turn sustains the label's positive reinterpretation.^[4]^[6]^[1] Socially, reclamation functions through ingroup boundary enforcement, where the term's use signals affiliation and excludes outgroup appropriation, thereby subverting the original power imbalance by denying oppressors control over the narrative. Studies indicate that ingroup reclamation increases solidarity and reduces the term's offensive potency within the group, though outgroup observers often perceive it as less acceptable, highlighting context-dependence. However, causal evidence suggests limited spillover: while ingroup desensitization occurs, the term retains derogatory force for external audiences, underscoring that reclamation does not universally neutralize harm but rather partitions usage pragmatically.^[18]^[9]^[19]

Historical Development

Early Historical Instances

The term "Christian" originated as an external label applied to followers of Jesus in Antioch around 40 AD, derived from Greek Christianos ("follower of Christ"), likely with mocking intent akin to "little Christ" to deride their devotion.^[20] ^[21] Early believers initially identified as disciples or by locality (e.g., "of the Way"), but by the late 2nd century, figures like Tertullian embraced the term in self-reference, transforming it into a positive identifier amid persecution.^[22] In 1650, English judge Gervase Bennet derogatorily nicknamed George Fox's followers "Quakers" after Fox urged him to "tremble at the word of God," referencing their ecstatic shaking during worship.^[23] The group, formally the Religious Society of Friends, adopted the epithet despite preferring their internal name, using it defiantly in legal defenses and publications to assert identity against mockery and imprisonment.^[24] During the mid-18th century, British forces applied "Yankee"—possibly from Dutch "Janke" (diminutive of Jan, used mockingly for New Englanders)—as a slur against American colonists, notably in military contexts like James Wolfe's 1758 taunts.^[25] ^[26] By the Revolutionary War (1775–1783), colonists reappropriated it as a symbol of defiance, evident in songs like "Yankee Doodle" (adapted from British ridicule to patriotic anthem in 1775), signaling in-group pride over out-group disdain.^[27]

Modern Evolution in Identity Politics

In the mid-20th century, reappropriation emerged as a strategic tool in identity politics during the U.S. Civil Rights Movement and the subsequent Black Power era of the 1960s and 1970s. Activists deliberately shifted from terms like "Negro," which carried connotations of deference imposed by dominant society, to "Black" as a marker of self-determination and cultural pride, exemplified by organizations such as the Black Panther Party founded in 1966. This linguistic pivot aimed to neutralize external derogation by internalizing and revaluing the term, fostering group cohesion amid systemic oppression, though it did not eliminate out-group hostility toward the label.^[28] The LGBTQ rights movement paralleled this development, accelerating after the Stonewall Riots on June 28, 1969, which catalyzed widespread activism. Early reclamation focused on "gay," repurposed from a slur implying deviance to a positive self-identifier by groups like the Gay Liberation Front established in 1969, emphasizing visibility and resistance. By the 1980s, amid the AIDS crisis and academic queer theory's rise—pioneered by scholars like Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick in works from 1990—"queer" was reappropriated as a broad, defiant term rejecting assimilationist norms, though intra-community debates persisted over its universal acceptability.^[29] Extending into intersectional identity politics from the 1990s onward, reappropriation incorporated multiple axes of marginalization, such as in feminist reclamation of "bitch" to subvert misogynistic control, as analyzed in historical linguistic studies tracing its evolution from medieval insults to modern empowerment rhetoric. Disability rights advocates similarly repurposed terms like "crip" in the 1990s through groups like the Disabled People's International, founded in 1981, to challenge medicalized stigma. Empirical research, including experiments on self-labeling, shows reappropriation can enhance perceived in-group power and reduce internalized negativity, with one 2009 study finding stigmatized groups reporting higher self-esteem after adopting reclaimed labels in controlled scenarios. However, the same evidence reveals limited diffusion to out-groups, often provoking backlash or reinforcing divisions rather than broader neutralization.^[2]^[7]

Theoretical Frameworks

Social Identity Theory (SIT), developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, posits that individuals derive part of their self-concept from group memberships, leading to in-group favoritism and efforts to achieve positive distinctiveness. In the context of reappropriation, SIT frames the practice as a mechanism for stigmatized groups to redefine slurs, converting external derogations into internal symbols that bolster group cohesion and self-esteem. By in-group usage, the term's indexical meaning—its interpretation tied to the speaker's social identity—shifts from pejorative to affiliative, reducing its harmful potency when deployed by out-groups while reinforcing solidarity among members.^[30] Empowerment theories complement SIT by emphasizing reappropriation's role in psychological and social agency reclamation. These frameworks argue that self-labeling with formerly oppressive terms disrupts power imbalances, as marginalized groups seize narrative control, transforming stigma into a source of pride and resilience. For instance, a reciprocal model links self-labeling to elevated perceived power: initial acts of reclamation signal internal strength, which in turn facilitates broader adoption and norm challenges, as evidenced in experimental findings where participants using reclaimed labels reported higher group status.^[6]^[2] Drawing on speech act theory, empowerment via reappropriation alters the felicity conditions of slurs—prerequisites for their derogatory force—allowing in-group speakers to perform assertive, non-subordinating uses that foster identity reconstruction. This process, observed in movements since the 1960s, requires underlying group power to propagate from individual to collective levels, ultimately aiming to reshape out-group perceptions. However, theories acknowledge complexities, such as risks of misinterpretation or incomplete semantic shifts, underscoring reappropriation's context-dependent efficacy.^[2]^[31]

Linguistic and Causal Realist Critiques

Linguists and philosophers of language contend that slurs possess a robust derogatory semantics or pragmatics that reappropriation fails to fully expunge, as the terms conventionally presuppose negative stereotypes about the target group, independent of speaker intent or context. Under presuppositional theories, slurs like "wop" for Italians trigger a non-cancellable inference of group-based despicability (e.g., "Italians are despicable because of being Italian"), which projects even under negation or embedding, rendering reclamation—typically limited to in-group ironic or solidarity uses—ineffective at altering the term's core linguistic force in broader discourse.^[32] This persistence arises because presuppositions operate as background assumptions required for felicitous utterance, not merely as cancellable implicatures, so subgroup redefinition does not overwrite communal conventions.^[32] Such accounts highlight reclamation's contextual fragility: while in-group uses may subvert derogation via irony or identity signaling, the slur's expressive profile retains potential for reactivation by out-group speakers, perpetuating ambiguity and risk of misappropriation.^[33] Philosophers further argue that even non-derogatory or reclaimed deployments endorse defective attitudes toward the group, such as contempt rooted in historical subordination, making the act pro tanto wrong irrespective of observable harms or psychological effects on hearers.^[34] This effect-independent moral defect stems from the slur's role in manifesting speaker endorsement of pejorative ideologies, not just descriptive reference, undermining claims that reappropriation neutralizes inherent offensiveness.^[34] From a causal realist standpoint, reappropriation overlooks the entrenched causal pathways linking slurs to tangible social harms, as the terms' potency derives from historical patterns of oppression—such as enforced subordination or violence—rather than mutable linguistic conventions alone. Symbolic reclamation does not interrupt these causal chains, which operate through reinforced stereotypes and power asymmetries persisting beyond verbal resignification. Empirical investigations into cognitive processing of reclaimed slurs, including LGBTQ+ terms, reveal no consistent reduction in taboo status or neural activation patterns associated with offense, suggesting limited causal efficacy in diminishing discriminatory impacts. Critics note the absence of rigorous longitudinal data demonstrating that in-group adoption causally lowers out-group aggression or systemic bias, positing instead that it may inadvertently sustain the slur's cultural salience, facilitating inadvertent or opportunistic harmful uses without addressing root causal factors like institutional inequities.^[33] This view prioritizes interventions targeting verifiable causal mechanisms—economic, legal, or behavioral—over performative linguistic shifts that risk performative failure without structural alteration.^[35]

Empirical Evidence

In-Group Solidarity and Psychological Effects

Reappropriation of slurs by targeted in-groups has been empirically linked to enhanced perceptions of personal power and reduced negativity toward the label itself. A 2023 study replicating and extending Galinsky et al.'s (2013) model examined self-labeling and in-group labeling of homophobic epithets among gay men across two experiments (N=158 in Study 1; N=99 in Study 2). Both self- and in-group uses increased participants' sense of self-power and diminished the perceived negativity of the epithet compared to out-group uses, suggesting reappropriation serves as a collective strategy to counteract stigmatization and foster psychological resilience.^[4] Similar dynamics appear in racial contexts, where in-group reappropriation of slurs or jokes promotes intra-group solidarity and elevates positive ingroup affect. For instance, minority groups' humorous intra-group use of racial slurs has been shown to strengthen bonds and emotional ties within the group, aligning with broader patterns of empowerment through linguistic control.^[4] However, empirical support is not uniform. A 2021 dissertation study exposed Black American participants (N=118) to appropriated slurs and measured stereotype threat via activation and academic performance tasks, finding no significant reduction in threat or empowerment effects, indicating that reappropriation may not consistently mitigate psychological burdens like stereotype endorsement.^[36] Among LGBT+ individuals, exposure to reclaimed slurs in supportive contexts can boost self-assurance by framing the term as an exclusive marker of shared minority experience, though it often evokes ambivalence due to lingering shock or fears of normalizing out-group offensiveness. Qualitative interviews (N=12) revealed reclaimed hate speech as a non-offensive coping mechanism in homophobic environments, yet participants noted mixed emotional responses, highlighting potential limits to unalloyed psychological benefits.^[9]

Out-Group Responses and Measurable Outcomes

Out-group members, defined as individuals not belonging to the targeted group, typically perceive reclaimed slurs used by in-group members as less offensive than the same terms deployed derogatorily by out-group speakers. A 2023 experimental study on homophobic epithets found that observers rated in-group reclamation—whereby targeted individuals voluntarily apply the term to themselves or fellow members—as significantly lower in offensiveness compared to out-group usage, attributing this to contextual cues of solidarity rather than hostility.^[4] This pattern holds across slur types, including racial and sexist variants, with ratings reflecting an "offensiveness gap" influenced by speaker-group alignment.^[37] However, reclamation does not eliminate offensiveness for out-group perceivers, often eliciting ambivalence or heightened vigilance. In a 2025 study examining perceptions of reclaimed hate speech among heterosexual participants exposed to in-group (gay men) usage of terms like "fag" in supportive contexts, responses indicated a "red alert" effect: unlike neutral insults, such exposure amplified prejudice and threat perception, suggesting reclamation signals underlying group tensions rather than neutralization.^[9] This contrasts with mere insults, where no such escalation occurred, implying causal reinforcement of intergroup boundaries.^[9] Measurable outcomes for out-group attitudes remain limited and mixed, with short-term lab effects dominating over longitudinal data. Galinsky et al.'s 2013 experiments across 10 studies established that witnessing or engaging in reappropriation boosts the in-group's self-perceived power (e.g., via scales measuring influence and control, with effect sizes around d=0.5-0.8), potentially leading out-group observers to recalibrate the group's status upward and adjust behaviors accordingly—such as reduced paternalism but sustained avoidance of the term to evade backlash.^[1] No robust evidence links reappropriation to broad reductions in out-group prejudice or discrimination rates; instead, it may entrench norms prohibiting out-group adoption, as evidenced by persistent higher offensiveness ratings (e.g., means 4-5 on 7-point scales for out-group attempts) and cultural prohibitions observed in media and policy.^[6] These findings, drawn from social psychology experiments, warrant caution due to the field's documented replicability issues and potential overemphasis on empowerment narratives.^[4]

Key Examples

Racial and Ethnic Reappropriations

Reappropriation of racial and ethnic slurs typically involves members of the targeted group adopting the terms internally to signify solidarity, subvert derogatory intent, and assert control over stigmatizing language, though such efforts often remain confined to in-group contexts and provoke debate over reinforcement of stereotypes.^[7] Empirical studies indicate that in-group use of slurs can reduce perceived offensiveness among observers familiar with the context, potentially fostering empowerment by reframing the term as affiliative rather than pejorative.^[38] However, out-group application retains derogatory force, highlighting the conditional nature of reclamation.^[39] A prominent example is the African American community's partial reappropriation of the "N-word," evolving from its origins as a dehumanizing slur during the transatlantic slave trade, where it denoted enslaved Black people as property.^[40] By the mid-20th century, particularly amid civil rights struggles and the rise of hip-hop in the 1980s, a phonetic variant—"nigga"—emerged in in-group speech and music to convey camaraderie, resilience, or shared experience, as documented in cultural analyses of rap lyrics from groups like N.W.A. in their 1988 album Straight Outta Compton.^[41] This usage peaked in popular media; for instance, a 2007 Pew Research Center survey found 70% of Black Americans viewed the term as offensive when used by non-Blacks but acceptable in some intra-community contexts. Psychological research supports that such reappropriation can enhance in-group control and reduce emotional harm from the slur's historical weight, though critics argue it perpetuates intra-group divisiveness without altering broader power dynamics.^[41] In the ethnic domain, Mexican Americans reappropriated "Chicano" during the 1960s Chicano Movement, transforming a term rooted in early 20th-century Southwestern U.S. slang—derived from "Mexicano" and used pejoratively to denote lower-class immigrants of Indigenous-Mexican descent—into a badge of political and cultural pride.^[42] Sparked by events like the 1968 East Los Angeles walkouts involving 10,000 students protesting educational inequities and César Chávez's United Farm Workers strikes beginning in 1962, which mobilized over 17,000 workers by 1970, the term symbolized resistance to assimilation and Anglo dominance.^[43] This reclamation fueled chicanismo, a nationalist ideology emphasizing mestizo heritage and self-determination, evident in literature, art, and organizations like the National Chicano Moratorium against the Vietnam War in 1970, which drew 30,000 participants.^[42] While empowering for participants—evidenced by sustained use in academic fields like Chicano studies, with over 50 U.S. programs by the 1980s—its adoption waned post-1970s amid generational shifts, though revivals occur in youth activism.^[44] Unlike the N-word, Chicano's reappropriation achieved broader institutional recognition without equivalent intra-group controversy over normalization.^[42]

Sexual Orientation and Gender Terms

The term "queer," historically denoting peculiarity or strangeness since the 16th century, evolved into a derogatory slur against perceived homosexuals by the 1890s in English-speaking contexts, often implying deviance or criminality.^[45] Reclamation efforts intensified in the late 1980s during the HIV/AIDS epidemic, as activists in groups like ACT UP adopted it to challenge assimilationist tendencies within the gay rights movement and assert a more radical, inclusive identity encompassing non-normative sexual orientations and gender expressions.^[46] In 1990, the activist collective Queer Nation explicitly reclaimed "queer" through public chants and demonstrations in New York City, framing it as an umbrella term for anyone opposing heteronormativity, which broadened its application beyond homosexuality to include bisexual, transgender, and fluid identities.^[47] By the early 1990s, queer theory formalized this reappropriation in academia, with scholars analyzing it as a tool for deconstructing binary categories of sex, gender, and sexuality, though this intellectual shift drew criticism for prioritizing abstraction over concrete political gains. Surveys indicate that between 5% and 20% of non-heterosexual individuals now self-identify as queer, reflecting its mainstreaming as a positive, non-specific label, particularly among younger cohorts who view it as flexible and anti-essentialist.^[48] Empirical research on linguistic reclamation suggests that in-group use of "queer" can enhance self-assurance and reduce the sting of its historical negativity by fostering a sense of agency and collective power, as demonstrated in studies linking self-labeling with reclaimed slurs to improved psychological empowerment among stigmatized groups.^[49] Other sexual orientation terms have seen partial reappropriation within specific subcommunities. "Dyke," a slur targeting lesbians since the mid-20th century, gained traction as a badge of pride in feminist and lesbian circles from the 1970s onward, often paired with "bull dyke" to signify toughness and resistance to patriarchal norms; in-group adoption has been linked to heightened perceptions of control and efficacy in experimental settings.^[50] Similarly, "faggot" or "fag," historically a violent epithet evoking burning at the stake, is occasionally reclaimed in campy or ironic contexts within gay male subcultures, such as drag performance, though studies show its use can diminish perceived agency compared to neutral labels like "gay."^[50] For gender-related terms, "sissy"—once a mocking label for effeminate boys—has niche reclamation among some gender-nonconforming individuals as a playful embrace of femininity, but remains highly divisive and less widespread than "queer."^[51] Reappropriation of these terms remains contentious, with older generations within the LGBTQ community often rejecting "queer" due to its traumatic associations as a slur, as evidenced by listener backlash to media normalization in 2019 surveys.^[52] Cognitive studies further reveal that reclamation alters slur processing speeds and emotional valence in reclaimed users, reducing taboo inhibition, yet out-group exposure can reinforce stigma if context is ambiguous. Overall, while these efforts have neutralized derogatory force for in-group solidarity, they have not universally eliminated offense, with semantic analyses highlighting persistent affective complexity tied to historical power imbalances.^[53]

Disability and Other Marginalized Identities

In disability activism, reappropriation involves disabled individuals and communities adopting historically derogatory terms as affirmations of identity, solidarity, and resistance to stigma, often emphasizing identity-first language such as "disabled person" over euphemistic alternatives like "person with a disability."^[54] This practice, which gained traction in the late 20th century amid broader disability rights movements, aims to subvert ableist power structures by transforming slurs into markers of pride and shared experience, though acceptance varies widely within communities and can provoke backlash from those preferring avoidance of such language.^[55] For instance, self-identification as "disabled" has become prevalent in advocacy circles, with surveys of disability activists showing higher rates of this preference compared to the general public, reflecting a deliberate reclamation to highlight systemic barriers rather than individual deficits.^[56] A prominent example is the reclamation of "crip," a shortening of "cripple," which originated as a slur but has been repurposed since the 1990s in academic and activist contexts like crip theory, a framework developed by scholars such as Robert McRuer to critique normative embodiment and advocate for disability pride across fluid abilities.^[57] In crip theory, the term fosters disidentification with ableist norms, acknowledging bodily variability as politically salient rather than tragic, and has been adopted in queer-disability intersections where "queer crip" denotes reclaimed dual marginalization.^[58] Usage remains in-group specific; for example, disabled scholars argue it signals resilience and insider status, but external application risks perpetuating harm, as evidenced by ongoing debates in disability studies journals where not all physically disabled individuals endorse it due to personal trauma associations.^[59] Parallel efforts appear in mental health advocacy through the Mad Pride movement, which emerged in the 1990s and explicitly reclaims "mad" and "crazy" to challenge psychiatric pathologization and celebrate neurodivergence as cultural variation rather than illness.^[60] Participants, including those with lived experience of psychosis or institutionalization, use these terms in events like Mad Pride parades—first held in Toronto in 1993 and expanding globally—to build community and critique coercive treatment models, though critics within psychiatry contend such reclamation may downplay severe impairments requiring medical intervention.^[60] Similar in-group dynamics apply to sporadic reclamations of terms like "spaz" among friends with mobility impairments, framing them as affectionate camaraderie rather than insult, underscoring reappropriation's context-dependence and potential for empowerment without universal endorsement.^[61] For other marginalized identities intersecting with disability, such as neurodivergence, reappropriation manifests in embracing labels like "autistic" or "neurodivergent" to reject deficit models, though this often involves paradigm shifts more than slur inversion, with autistic self-advocates since the early 2000s promoting these as neutral descriptors of innate wiring amid debates over whether they obscure high-support needs.^[62] Empirical studies indicate that while these terms enhance in-group solidarity—e.g., via online communities fostering pride—they elicit mixed out-group responses, including resistance from clinicians prioritizing functional impairments over celebratory framing.^[63] Overall, these practices highlight reappropriation's role in fostering resilience but reveal tensions between empowerment and the risk of alienating allies or minimizing empirical challenges like access barriers.

Political and Artistic Contexts

In political movements, reappropriation of derogatory labels has frequently functioned to neutralize insults, foster group cohesion, and advance collective action. The term "suffragette," introduced by the Daily Mail in 1906 as a mocking diminutive for militant members of the British Women's Social and Political Union, was rapidly adopted by Emmeline Pankhurst and her followers, who repurposed it as a symbol of defiant activism in their campaign for women's voting rights.^[64]^[65] During the 2013 Gezi Park protests in Istanbul, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan derided demonstrators as çapulcu (looters or marauders) on June 2, 2013, prompting protesters to reclaim the word—coining the verb "chapulling" to denote nonviolent resistance—which unified a heterogeneous coalition and amplified their message through social media and street actions.^[66]^[67] In the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton's September 9 speech categorizing half of Donald Trump's supporters as a "basket of deplorables"—implying traits like racism and xenophobia—led many adherents to embrace the epithet defiantly, with Trump affirming in a December 13, 2017, speech, "We're proud to be the deplorables," thereby converting the slur into a rallying identity.^[68]^[69]^[70] Such tactics in politics often leverage the original slur's specificity to a perceived adversary, enabling rapid identity formation without requiring new terminology. Empirical analysis of the Gezi events indicates that reappropriating çapulcu enhanced protesters' sense of agency and collective efficacy, as participants reported diminished emotional impact from the insult and increased motivation for sustained engagement.^[71] In the deplorables case, surveys post-2016 election showed the label's uptake correlated with heightened voter turnout among affected demographics, suggesting reappropriation mitigated alienation and reinforced partisan solidarity.^[68] In artistic domains, reappropriation manifests through subversive reuse of symbols and terms in creative works, aiming to dismantle their oppressive associations from within cultural production. African American fashion designer Patrick Kelly, whose career peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s, integrated stereotypical racist imagery—such as grinning mammy dolls, watermelon prints, and Aunt Jemima references—into high-fashion garments, explicitly framing these as acts of reclamation to confront and invert their historical degradation of Black identity.^[72] Kelly's collections, showcased in Paris from 1985 onward, drew on personal heritage while challenging white audiences' comfort, with pieces like his 1988 "Mammy" skirt suit using bold colors and exaggeration to assert empowerment over caricature.^[72] Hip-hop artists have similarly repurposed racial slurs like the n-word in lyrics and performances since the genre's emergence in the 1970s Bronx scene, evolving it into a vernacular marker of intra-community resilience and critique of systemic racism, as evidenced in tracks by groups like N.W.A. from 1988's Straight Outta Compton, where the term underscores defiance against external derogation.^[73] This linguistic shift, documented in analyses of rap's lexical patterns, reflects a causal mechanism where in-group usage dilutes out-group weaponization, though it remains contested for potential commodification in commercial contexts.^[73] In both Kelly's visual provocations and hip-hop's auditory reclamations, the process hinges on artists' insider status to redefine meanings, often yielding measurable cultural diffusion—such as Kelly's designs entering museum collections by 1990—while exposing tensions in broader societal acceptance.^[72]

Controversies and Objections

Risks of Reinforcement and Backlash

Reappropriation of slurs risks reinforcing their derogatory force rather than fully neutralizing it, as in-group self-labeling often fails to diminish the term's stigmatizing impact for out-group audiences or in broader cultural contexts. Empirical analyses show that highly charged labels like the N-word or F-word retain significant offensiveness despite reclamation efforts, potentially perpetuating negative stereotypes tied to historical oppression.^[74] This incomplete decoupling can lead to cognitive reinforcement of harm, where the term's original pejorative associations linger, undermining the intended empowerment and risking inadvertent normalization for misuse.^[75] Backlash frequently arises from out-group attempts to invoke reclaimed terms, interpreted as overstepping boundaries and evoking prejudice. In July 2018, at a Kendrick Lamar concert in Hungary, a white audience member was halted mid-performance and publicly shamed by Lamar for rapping the N-word from the artist's lyrics, illustrating strict in-group exclusivity and immediate social repercussions.^[76] Similarly, the BBC received over 18,600 complaints in June 2020 after publishing the full N-word in a news article about its usage, reflecting widespread outrage over perceived insensitivity even in journalistic contexts.^[77] Within reappropriating groups, ambivalence can foster internal reinforcement of vulnerability, with users expressing shock or fear that reclamation normalizes slurs for out-group deployment in hostile environments. Qualitative interviews with LGBT+ individuals in homophobic settings reveal that while self-use provides agency, it triggers concerns over desensitization and heightened exposure to traditional hate speech. Perceptions of reclaimed derogatory labels, such as "fag" for gay men, also correlate with reduced attributions of agency compared to neutral descriptors, potentially amplifying psychological costs. These dynamics highlight causal limitations in reappropriation's transformative potential, where group-specific reclamation does not erase out-group offense triggers, often escalating polarization instead of resolution.^[75]

Critiques from Power Dynamics and Victimhood Perspectives

Critics contend that reappropriation does not fundamentally dismantle the power asymmetries embedded in slurs, as reclaimed terms often retain their derogatory connotations and offensive impact when used by out-groups, thereby preserving the original linguistic mechanisms of dominance and exclusion.^[78] This persistent asymmetry means that marginalized groups gain limited in-group utility while dominant groups hold onto the capacity to weaponize the word, failing to shift broader relational power dynamics.^[79] Philosophical analyses further argue that reclamation projects can backfire, reinforcing oppressive ideologies when they fail to be recognized as subversive or when ambiguity allows unintended derogatory interpretations, thus strengthening rather than eroding the structures of historical subjugation.^[78] For example, equating the polysemy of reclaimed slurs with everyday linguistic ambiguity overlooks the unique, enduring harms tied to their oppressive origins, such as associations with violence or dehumanization, potentially normalizing derogation in uncontrolled contexts.^[79] Such failures impose ongoing burdens on target communities to police usage and context, entrenching reactive strategies that accommodate rather than transcend power imbalances.^[78] From victimhood perspectives, these limitations suggest reappropriation may perpetuate a grievance-oriented identity, as the positive revaluation depends on continual reference to past oppression, keeping groups psychologically anchored to trauma narratives rather than fostering detachment or self-definition independent of slurs.^[79] By minimizing the gravity of derogatory histories in pursuit of pride-based uses, reclamation risks internalizing stigma without eliminating it, which critics liken to a form of symbolic accommodation that sustains victim signaling over empirical empowerment.^[78] Empirical studies on stigma reduction remain inconclusive, with some reclamation efforts showing no broad attenuation of negative associations beyond insular settings.^[78]

Free Speech and Normalization Concerns

Reappropriation of slurs has been upheld as a form of protected speech under the First Amendment, as demonstrated in the 2017 Supreme Court case Matal v. Tam, where the band The Slants successfully challenged the denial of a trademark for their name—a term historically used as an anti-Asian slur—on grounds that the Lanham Act's prohibition of disparaging marks constituted viewpoint discrimination.^[80] The ruling emphasized that even offensive or reclaimed language cannot be censored by government action, affirming reappropriation's role in countering derogatory uses through expressive reclamation. However, critics argue that selective permissions for in-group use, as in social media policies allowing "self-referential" slurs but prohibiting out-group deployment, risk inconsistent enforcement and de facto censorship, potentially chilling broader discourse by prioritizing group identity over neutral speech protections.^[81] ^[82] Normalization concerns arise from the potential for in-group reclamation to erode a slur's perceived offensiveness, facilitating unauthorized out-group adoption and diluting its reclaimed empowering function. For instance, widespread in-group use of terms like the N-word in music has been cited by out-group members as justification for their own usage, as seen in incidents where non-Black individuals invoked cultural examples to defend deployment, provoking backlash and undermining anti-prejudice efforts.^[75] Empirical studies on appropriated slurs indicate that ingroup adaptation can heighten stereotype threat when out-groups mimic the practice, as the term's refurbished ingroup solidarity fails to transfer across boundaries, leading to misinterpretation and harm.^[36] This diffusion risks transforming reappropriation from a targeted act of resistance into generalized normalization, where the slur loses specificity to the group's experience and regains derogatory traction in mixed contexts.^[75] When reclamation falters due to ambiguous context or incomplete uptake, it can reinforce rather than subvert oppressive norms, with hearers defaulting to the slur's historical derogatory force and entrenching stigma.^[33] Linguistic analyses highlight this precariousness: failed performative reclamation distorts intent, validating traditional harms and amplifying backlash against the targeted group, as conventions prioritize entrenched meanings over novel reframings.^[33] Such outcomes underscore causal risks where partial normalization invites misuse without achieving full neutralization, perpetuating cycles of offense despite initial empowering aims.^[83]

References

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the reciprocal relationship between power and self-labeling - PubMed
We present a theoretical model of reappropriation--taking possession of a slur previously used exclusively by dominant groups to reinforce another group's ...
[2]
[PDF] Reclamation: Taking Back Control of Words - PhilArchive
Reclamation is when an oppressed group repurposes language, taking back control of words used to attack them, often slurs, to reshape oppressive practices.
[3]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/lpp-2024-0029/html
[4]
From self to ingroup reclaiming of homophobic epithets: A ...
Reappropriation involves revaluing a negative label by attributing it to the ingroup, which can increase self-power and reduce the label's negativity.Case Report · Keywords · 2. Study 1
[5]
The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: Implications for social ...
We provide a discussion of two historical cases of reappropriation and some preliminary empirical evidence concerning the consequences of self-labeling and ...
[6]
(PDF) The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · We provide a discussion of two historical cases of reappropriation and some preliminary empirical evidence concerning the consequences of ...
[7]
The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: Implications for social ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... A few papers have empirically captured how reappropriation can benefit a targeted social group or person.
[8]
[PDF] The language of hate and its reappropriation
Mar 25, 2023 · This means that slurs, besides the plain offensive meaning, bring with them stereotypes that are linked to the minority that are addressed with ...
[9]
“A Red Alert Appears”. Ambivalence of the Reclaimed Hate Speech in a Hate-Saturated Environment
### Summary of Findings on Psychological Effects of Reclaimed Slurs Among LGBT+ Individuals
[10]
Wear it like armor and it can never be used to hurt you ...
Aug 28, 2024 · The reappropriation of slurs and derogatory language emerges as a potent strategy, transforming these negative expressions into badges of honor.
[11]
Slurs and appropriation: An echoic account - ScienceDirect.com
Slurs are derogatory terms. Appropriation is when targeted groups use their own slurs for non-derogatory purposes, like 'nigger' by African-Americans.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[12]
[PDF] A Queer Revolution: Reconceptualizing the Debate Over Linguistic ...
Linguistic reclamation, also known as linguistic resignification or reappropriation, refers to the appropriation of a pejorative epithet by its target(s).
[13]
Linguistic reappropriation: a battle of wills over meaning
Jul 5, 2022 · Linguistic reappropriation is when a word intended as a pejorative is redefined by the group at which the term was originally directed.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[14]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/lpp-2024-0029/html?lang=en
[15]
The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels - jstor
Feb 26, 2013 · label's stigmatizing force. Keywords reappropriation, self-labeling, stigma, slurs, power, status, hierarchy, language, social perception.
[16]
[PDF] Slur Reclamation – Polysemy, Echo, or Both? - PhilArchive
Slur reclamation is viewed as either polysemy (semantic ambiguity) or echoic (pragmatic mechanisms), with a combined view proposed.
[17]
[PDF] The Impact of Linguistic Reclamation on the Cognitive Processing of ...
Regarding slurs and linguistic reclamation, my review led me to conclude that slurs are a class of taboo language widely used by members of more powerful ...
[18]
(PDF) The Moral Status of the Reclamation of Slurs - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · In this paper we distinguish two dimensions in which the reclamation of slurs can succeed (or fail). By reclamation we refer to the linguistic ...
[19]
When is Self-Labeling Seen as Reclaiming? The Role of User and ...
May 2, 2023 · Reclaiming involves self-labeling with derogatory labels. This behavior can be processed differently depending on contextual factors: Type of label, user, and ...<|separator|>
[20]
Christians were known by how they acted, not what they said
Feb 17, 2024 · The disciples were called Christians first at Antioch.” The term “Christian” is used only twice more in Scripture. ... So many scholars believe ...
[21]
Etymology of “Christian” - Precepts - WordPress.com
Aug 24, 2012 · There can be no doubt from examining the three uses of the word in the Scriptures that it was a derogatory term first used by the enemies of the ...
[22]
When did Christians begin referring to themselves as Christians?
Mar 21, 2023 · By the late second and early third century, Tertullian and the Martyrdom of Polycarp both use "Christian" as a self-designation, and from there ...When was the term "Christianity" first used? : r/AcademicBiblicalr/Baptist on Reddit: Did you know early Christians weren't called ...More results from www.reddit.comMissing: reappropriate | Show results with:reappropriate
[23]
The Religious Society of Friends | Quaker Studies Working Group
Referring to members of the Society of Friends as “Quakers” is a very old practice. The term arose in connection with the ways that Quakers' bodies moved ...
[24]
Our Understanding of Disownment - Quaker.org
Misapplied censures have attached to the Society of Friends, called Quakers, in consequence of their practice of this nature, being (but not by themselves) ...
[25]
Yankee | Meaning, Slang, Origin, Definition, & American - Britannica
Aug 29, 2025 · The origin of the term Yankee is unknown, but it is possibly derived from the Dutch Janke, a diminutive of Jan (John). It was used by the ...
[26]
Why are Yankees Called Yankees? - MassLive.com
Jul 22, 2017 · Insult to the Troops - Many historians believe that a British general named James Wolfe used the term “Yankee” first in 1758, when he was comm ...
[27]
Opinion | Yankees is just as bad as Redskins - The Washington Post
Sep 20, 2013 · The term "yankee" was created by the British to mock the American colonists during the Revolutionary War. It was an insult.
[28]
Different fight, 'same goal': How the Black freedom movement ...
Feb 28, 2021 · The civil rights and early “homophile” movements shared leaders, ideas and, ultimately, the same goal, according to historians.
[29]
Is “Queer” OK To Say? Here's Why We Use It | Learning for Justice
Feb 11, 2019 · Its reclamation dates back to at least the catalyzed LGBTQ rights movement after the Stonewall Riots in 1969, after which people began to ...
[30]
Social identity, indexicality, and the appropriation of slurs
Aug 5, 2025 · Bianchi (2014) explains appropriated slurs in terms of echoic uses. Ritchie (2017) submits that the lexical entry of an appropriated slur comes ...
[31]
Slur reclamation: an empowering linguistic practice? - HAL
Dec 22, 2023 · This community-driven practice, intent on transforming social norms through transforming discursive conventions, is pervasive yet complex and ...
[32]
[PDF] In defense of a presuppositional account of slurs - PhilPapers
Nevertheless, slurs' offensiveness hardly depends on context. Almost3 every occurrence of a slur conveys an offense. The link between the slurring word and the ...
[33]
Precarious projects: the performative structure of reclamation
I argue that projects seeking to reclaim slurs have a performative structure that raises particular hazards. Whereas more familiar forms of protest may fail to ...
[34]
No Harm, Still Foul: On the Effect-Independent Wrongness of Slurring
Mar 22, 2023 · A speaker who uses slurs to refer to people is doing something morally objectionable even if no one is measurably affected by their speech.
[35]
(PDF) Slur reclamation, irony, and resilience - ResearchGate
Dec 4, 2024 · This paper seeks to elucidate the semantic mechanisms of slur reclamation without recourse to AT. To do this, an imperative account of slurs is ...
[36]
The Effects of Exposure to Appropriated Slurs on Stereotype Threat
Within the Black American community, one side of the argument views appropriated slurs as empowering while the other side holds that the underlying slur in its ...
[37]
The influence of target group status on the perception of the ...
These examples point to an “offensiveness gap” when determining the offensiveness of slurs across different groups. What makes one group-based slur offensive ...
[38]
Perceptions of Racial Slurs Used by Black Individuals Toward White ...
Feb 11, 2020 · Research suggests that racial slurs may be “reclaimed” by the targeted group to convey affiliation rather than derogation.
[39]
Perceptions of racial slurs used by Black individuals toward White ...
Research suggests that racial slurs may be “reclaimed” by the targeted group to convey affiliation rather than derogation.Missing: scholarly sources
[40]
N-word: The troubled history of the racial slur - BBC
Oct 4, 2020 · The term can be traced back to slavery and to many it's one of the most offensive words out there.
[41]
The N Word: Its History and Use in the African American Community
For them, the racist meaning obliterates and disallows the legitimacy of any positive meanings that African Americans may claim for the term (Kennedy 2002; Asim ...
[42]
https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-219
[43]
How the Chicano Movement Championed Mexican-American ...
Sep 18, 2020 · The Chicano Movement, aka El Movimiento, advocated social and political empowerment through a chicanismo or cultural nationalism.
[44]
A Chicano renaissance? A new Mexican-American generation ...
Jul 15, 2018 · The term Chicano has its origins in the 1960s farm worker and civil rights movement, but it's now experiencing a revival as a young ...
[45]
Evolution of 'Queer' | Rhetorically Speaking - Sites at Penn State
Nov 28, 2023 · This shift in how queer is used, started as early as 1940s. ... To this day many people reclaim queer due to labels not fitting them. So, they use ...
[46]
[PDF] an Intersectional Historical Look at the Reclamation of a Taboo Word
Jul 11, 2024 · The Ballroom community has historically used words that are derogatory against women and female genitalia as beautiful and aspirational ...
[47]
Language and Labels: A Sexual Evolution
Reclamation of "Queer" through the Establishment of Queer Theory. The 1990s. The term "queer" has been utilized throughout history as a synonym for strange ...
[48]
Review Queer identities in the 21st century: Reclamation and stigma
“Queer” has gained popularity as a reclaimed identity in the 21st century. · Recent studies find that between 5 and 20% of non-heterosexuals identify as queer.
[49]
Development and Validation of the Motivation for Language ...
Oct 6, 2025 · Reclaiming derogatory language functions as such a symbolic act: by using slurs, minority members assert authorship over words and, in doing ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
(PDF) The Use and Perception of Reclaimed Group Labels for ...
Mar 4, 2024 · For gay men, using a derogatory label compared to other labels decreased perceived agency, but did not influence control/influence and efficacy.
[51]
5 slurs that are being reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community
Jul 3, 2024 · Let's take a look at five anti-gay and anti-queer slurs that are being reclaimed today. Queer. Casimiro PT/Shutterstock. For many of us, " ...
[52]
A Former Slur Is Reclaimed, And Listeners Have Mixed Feelings
Aug 21, 2019 · Originally a pejorative term for gay, now being reclaimed by some gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people as a self-affirming umbrella ...
[53]
Queering Language: Tracing the Evolving Significance of “Queer” In ...
Sep 24, 2025 · Our findings highlight the semantic and affective complexity surrounding the reappropriation of queer. Rather than functioning within a clear ...
[54]
Language matters! The long-standing debate between identity-first ...
Apr 25, 2022 · Reclaiming the word disability (and related terms) cultivates reappropriation for the disabled community, such that the word disability, at one ...
[55]
Language and disability rights: an evolving relationship | Shape Arts
Nov 30, 2020 · Reappropriation of language Identifying as 'disabled' is an example of the reappropriation of divisive language, but there are many disabled ...
[56]
Unpacking “Disabled,” Reclaiming Disability - CommunicateHealth
Apr 6, 2023 · People involved in disability activism, self-advocacy, or online disability communities are more likely to self-identify as disabled. So if you' ...
[57]
Crip Theory and the Subject of Abledness
Apr 8, 2024 · As Kafer (2013: 13) argues, claiming crip allows all of us, abled and disabled, to 'acknowledg[e] that we all have bodies and minds with ...
[58]
Coming to Claim Crip: Disidentification with/in Disability Studies
Claiming crip can be a way of acknowledging that we all have bodies and minds with shifting abilities, and that such shifts have political and social meanings ...
[59]
CRIP as Disability Terminology - Calling Up Justice!
Mar 16, 2023 · Disabled people have been reclaiming the word “crip” as a way of expressing pride in their identities, resilience in their struggles for rights and equity.
[60]
[PDF] Disability Language Guide | The Independence Center
Similarly, groups including the Mad Pride Movement have reclaimed the words “Mad” and “Crazy.” Be aware that individuals who reclaim these words do not ...
[61]
Reclaiming Disability Language: Empowerment, Humor, and ...
Jan 7, 2025 · Cracks radiate outward from the center of the glass, emphasizing the fragility and breaking of outdated, offensive terms. The background is a ...
[62]
On the Misuses of Neurodiversity: Critical Approaches and Counter ...
Dec 5, 2024 · For example, neurodivergent activists coined the term to explain that all brains are wired differently and that not one brain functions better ...
[63]
Neurodiversity Movement Identification and Perceived ...
Apr 22, 2025 · The present study explores views on different terms commonly used to describe autism, such as “disorder,” “disability,” and “difference.”Missing: reappropriation | Show results with:reappropriation
[64]
What was the difference between the suffragists and the suffragettes?
Jun 13, 2024 · The term 'suffragettes' was coined by the Daily Mail in 1906. Intended as a derogatory term – with the suffix '-ette' denoting something small ...
[65]
How the Term 'Suffragette' Evolved from Its Sexist Roots
Aug 18, 2020 · The term suffragette was the early-20th-century version of nasty woman. Now widely used to define a woman who fought for her right to vote.Missing: reappropriation | Show results with:reappropriation
[66]
Why people reclaim words meant to insult them - The Conversation
Aug 12, 2025 · To answer this, we looked at two powerful case studies: the 2013 Gezi Park protests in Turkey, where protesters embraced the term çapulcu, and ...
[67]
Turkish protesters embrace Erdoğan insult and start 'capuling' craze
Jun 10, 2013 · "Erdoğan called us çapulcu. It's an insult. It means you're a useless person, without a job, nobody," Kiraz Deniz Gurel, 30, a local ...
[68]
Is Insulting Your Rival's Supporters Ever a Good Idea?
Oct 7, 2016 · ... deplorables.” Her ... In the “deplorable” case, many Trump supporters quickly exhibited what behavioral scientists call reappropriation.
[69]
'Les Deplorables': why some Trump supporters have embraced the ...
Sep 15, 2016 · Hillary Clinton has apologized for remarks last week in which she called half of Donald Trump's supporters a 'basket of deplorables.
[70]
Trump: 'We're proud to be the deplorables' - The Washington Post
Dec 13, 2017 · We're proud to be the deplorables and we're doing well. We're going to make our tax system work for you again.
[71]
Reappropriation, identity change, and collective action
There are, however, numerous examples of reappropriation of stigmatizing labels as connected to political movements. This research examines whether.
[72]
Trigger Figure: Patrick Kelly's Reclamation of Racist Iconography
Dec 6, 2021 · Consider Patrick Kelly's use of racist iconography in his designs.Missing: derogatory | Show results with:derogatory
[73]
The Reclamation and Commodification of the N-word
Oct 2, 2020 · Abstract. By Julius Freeman, Psychology and Communication; Marcus Brooks, University of Cincinnati. Advisor: Marcus Brooks. Abstract: This ...Missing: artistic | Show results with:artistic
[74]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2014.09.005
[75]
From Derogation to Reclamation: How Does Language Change?
, reclaiming consists of two distinct processes: reframing and reappropriation. ... Slurs and appropriation: An echoic account. Journal of Pragmatics, 66, 35-44 ...
[76]
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-44209141
[77]
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-53676557
[78]
The harms of non-derogatory uses of slurs and the Potential ... - EHU
Jun 5, 2025 · Yet it can also be worthwhile: even when reclamation projects fail as reclamation, they still may accomplish good. ... Slur reclamation – Polysemy ...
[79]
None
Summary of each segment:
[80]
Victory! The Slants Are Officially Rock Stars of the First Amendment
Jun 19, 2017 · The Slants chose their name to reclaim and redeem a racial slur often used against Asians and Asian-Americans. Years ago, The Slants applied ...
[81]
Reclaimed Words and a Meta Oversight Board Decision Reveal ...
Jun 5, 2025 · Meta's hateful conduct policy includes a reclamation exception that permits slurs when “used self-referentially or in an empowering way” so long ...
[82]
What's to ban: social media policies on hate speech and reclamation
Aug 24, 2020 · We know for instance that hate speech and discriminatory language have negative effects not only on their direct targets but also on bystanders: ...
[83]
“A Red Alert Appears”. Ambivalence of the Reclaimed Hate Speech ...
Mar 3, 2025 · Gaucher et al. (Citation2015), in turn, proved that, unlike exposure to mere insults, exposure to a slur in a supportive context increases ...