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Round goby

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is a small, benthic fish native to the Ponto-Caspian region of Eurasia, noted for its aggressive behavior, rapid reproduction, and invasive potential in non-native ecosystems.^[1] It features a robust, torpedo-shaped body up to 25 cm in total length, a large head with frog-like eyes and thick lips, fused pelvic fins forming a suction disk for adhering to substrates, and a characteristic black spot on the first dorsal fin.^[1] Coloration varies from yellowish-gray with dark blotches in females and immature males to nearly black in breeding males, which also develop swollen cheeks.^[1] This species thrives in shallow, rocky or gravelly bottoms in freshwater and brackish environments, tolerating temperatures from 0–30°C, low oxygen levels, and depths up to 60 m.^[1] Originally distributed across the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of Azov, and their tributaries in countries including Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, and Ukraine, the round goby was introduced to North America via ship ballast water, with the first detection in the St. Clair River (connecting Lakes Huron and Erie) in 1990.^[1] It rapidly spread to all five Great Lakes by the mid-1990s and has since established populations in connected river systems, including the lower Illinois River by 2010, the Mississippi River near St. Louis by 2018, and inland waterways like the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers with first detections in the Hudson River in 2021 and ongoing spread as of 2025.^[1]^[2] In its introduced range, populations can reach densities exceeding 20 individuals per square meter in areas like Calumet Harbor, reflecting its high adaptability and prolific establishment.^[1] Ecologically, the round goby is an opportunistic feeder, primarily consuming benthic invertebrates such as amphipods, chironomid larvae, dreissenid mussels, isopods, and crayfish, along with fish eggs and small vertebrates.^[1] Its diet shifts with habitat and season, often favoring mollusks in lentic environments, and its predation can indirectly boost algal growth by reducing grazers.^[1] Reproduction occurs from April to September in multiple spawning events per female, with males aggressively guarding nests containing up to 10,000 eggs that exhibit high fertilization rates; this strategy enables rapid population growth and colonization.^[1] The species' tolerance to varied salinities and pollutants further aids its spread.^[3] As an invasive species, the round goby poses significant ecological risks by outcompeting native benthic fishes for food and habitat, preying on eggs and fry of species like smallmouth bass, and serving as a vector for contaminants (e.g., heavy metals and PCBs) and diseases such as viral hemorrhagic septicemia and Type E botulism.^[1] These impacts have contributed to declines in native fish populations and disruptions in Great Lakes food webs, while economically, it reduces sportfishing opportunities by dominating nearshore areas and consuming bait.^[4] Overall, its high invasiveness history and climate suitability score of 0.531 classify it as a high-risk aquatic nuisance species in the United States.^[1]

Taxonomy

Classification

The round goby is scientifically classified within the domain Eukarya, kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Gobiiformes, family Gobiidae, subfamily Benthophilinae, genus Neogobius, and species Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas, 1814).^[5]^[6] This binomial nomenclature reflects its original description by Peter Simon Pallas in 1814, based on specimens from the Black Sea region.^[5] The species has accumulated several synonyms over time due to taxonomic revisions, including Apollonia melanostoma (Pallas, 1814) and Gobius cephalarges (Pallas, 1814).^[7] These alternative names stem from early classifications that placed the fish in broader goby genera before the recognition of more precise phylogenetic groupings.^[8] Within the genus Neogobius, which is endemic to the Ponto-Caspian basins, the round goby shares close relations with species such as N. fluviatilis (monkey goby) and N. pallasi (Pallas's goby).^[8] The genus itself derives from Greek (neos, meaning new) and Latin (gobius, referring to gudgeon-like fishes), highlighting its distinct evolutionary lineage among gobies.^[5] Phylogenetically, N. melanostomus belongs to the Benthophilinae subfamily, a monophyletic group within Gobiidae that originated in the Ponto-Caspian region and diversified through adaptations for benthic existence in brackish and estuarine waters, including enhanced pelvic fin fusion for substrate adhesion and tolerance to salinity fluctuations.^[8] This evolutionary context underscores the subfamily's radiation during the Miocene, with Neogobius species exhibiting specialized traits for demersal habitats.^[9]

Nomenclature

The scientific name of the round goby is Neogobius melanostomus. The genus name Neogobius derives from the Greek "neos," meaning new, combined with "gobius," referring to a gudgeon-like fish, indicating its status as a newly recognized genus for certain Ponto-Caspian species.^[5] The specific epithet "melanostomus" comes from the Greek "melas," meaning black, and "stoma," meaning mouth, alluding to the dark coloration inside the mouth.^[10] The species was first described scientifically by Peter Simon Pallas in 1814 as Gobius melanostomus, based on specimens from brackish waters near Sevastopol in the Crimean Peninsula.^[11] It was subsequently transferred to the genus Neogobius, which was established by B. S. Iljin in 1927 to accommodate Ponto-Caspian gobies distinct from other genera.^[12] This reclassification was later formalized by L. S. Berg in 1949, who selected Neogobius as the valid genus name among competing proposals.^[13] The common English name "round goby" reflects the species' distinctive rounded body shape and its membership in the goby family Gobiidae. In other languages, it is known regionally as "sortmundet kutling" in Danish, "Schwarzmund-Grundel" in German, and "babka bycza" in Polish.^[14]

Description

Morphology

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) exhibits a distinctive body shape characterized by an elongated, tadpole-like form, featuring a large, robust head and a body that tapers gradually toward a narrow tail, adapted for its benthic lifestyle.^[15]^[16]^[6] This fusiform structure, rounded in cross-section, facilitates maneuverability over substrates in riverine and lacustrine environments.^[17]^[6] The species lacks a gas bladder, aiding its bottom-dwelling habits.^[1] The fins are a key morphological adaptation, with the pelvic fins fused into a suctorial disc that enables the fish to cling to rocks, vegetation, and other surfaces against currents.^[15]^[18]^[17] The first dorsal fin typically bears a prominent black spot at its posterior margin, particularly evident in males, while the second dorsal and anal fins are elongated with soft rays.^[17]^[6] The head is notably broad and flattened, with prominent, bulging eyes positioned dorsally to provide a wide field of view while foraging on the bottom.^[15]^[16]^[18] The mouth is terminal and large, equipped with thick, fleshy lips, aiding in capturing small invertebrates and detritus from substrates.^[6] The body is covered in ctenoid scales, which are rough and comb-like, distributed across the back, flanks, belly, neck, and portions of the operculum, providing traction and protection; the nape and top of the head, however, bear smoother cycloid scales.^[17]^[6] The lateral line system is complex and well-developed, featuring reduced canals and a high density of superficial neuromasts that enhance mechanosensory detection of prey and predators in low-visibility conditions.^[19]^[6] Sexual dimorphism is pronounced during the breeding season, with males developing a larger head and enlarged cheeks, as well as thicker first dorsal spines, which contribute to territorial displays and nest guarding.^[18]^[6]

Size and coloration

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) typically attains an average total length of 10–25 cm, with a maximum recorded length of 24.6 cm.^[20] Weights generally range from 5 to 80 g, though males average larger than females due to sexual dimorphism.^[21] Growth is rapid in the early stages, allowing individuals to reach sexual maturity at 6–8 cm total length.^[22] In terms of coloration, the round goby exhibits a mottled pattern of brown to gray with darker spots across the body, while the ventral side remains pale.^[20] During the breeding season, males intensify to a blackish hue, with brighter, white-edged median fins.^[1]

Native range and habitat

Geographic distribution

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is native to the Ponto-Caspian region of Eurasia, encompassing the basins of the Black Sea, Sea of Azov, Sea of Marmara, and Caspian Sea, as well as their associated freshwater tributaries.^[1]^[14] This distribution spans coastal and inland waters across parts of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, including countries such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine, where the species has been established for centuries.^[23]^[24] Within this native range, the round goby is widespread in the coastal zones of the Ponto-Caspian seas, particularly in brackish and freshwater interfaces. It occurs extensively in major river drainages, including the Danube (flowing into the Black Sea), Dnieper (also Black Sea basin), and Volga (Caspian Sea basin), where populations thrive in lower reaches and connected waterways.^[14]^[6] Historically, the species extended into the Aral Sea drainage in Central Asia, though this range has been influenced by environmental changes in the region.^[14] Population densities are notably high in estuaries and river mouths throughout the native basins, where the fish often dominates benthic assemblages in these productive zones.^[25]^[1] These areas support large numbers due to favorable conditions for feeding and reproduction, contributing to the species' abundance in the overall native distribution. Historical records of the round goby in its native waters date back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with the species first formally described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1814 based on specimens from the Caspian Sea basin.^[1]^[14] Documentation from this period confirms its presence in key Ponto-Caspian drainages, establishing a long-term native footprint prior to any recorded expansions.^[23]

Habitat preferences

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is euryhaline, tolerating salinities from 0 to 30 ppt across freshwater, brackish, and marine environments, though it prefers brackish conditions over purely freshwater or fully marine habitats. Optimal growth and performance occur at salinities of 1–15 ppt, with reduced survival and increased stress behaviors evident at levels exceeding 21–24 ppt, particularly under warmer temperatures.^[26] As a primarily benthic species, the round goby occupies depths from 0 to 30 m, favoring shallow nearshore zones for most activities. It selects substrates offering structural cover, such as rocky bottoms with interstitial spaces, but also inhabits vegetated areas, sandy, or muddy sediments; adults preferentially use rock, while juveniles favor sand.^[27] The round goby performs optimally in water temperatures of 15–25°C but demonstrates broad thermal tolerance, surviving from -1°C to 30°C. It exhibits physiological adaptations enabling persistence in hypoxic conditions, thriving at dissolved oxygen levels as low as 0.4–1.3 mg/L and vacating areas only when levels drop below approximately 4 mg/L due to elevated metabolic costs.

Invasive spread

Introduction pathways

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus), native to the Ponto-Caspian region including the Black and Caspian Seas, was primarily introduced to non-native areas through ballast water discharge from transoceanic ships. This vector facilitated long-distance transport of larvae and juveniles, with ships taking on ballast in native waters and releasing it in distant ports. The species' first documented introduction to North America occurred via this mechanism, leading to its detection in the Laurentian Great Lakes.^[1]^[28] In the Great Lakes, round gobies were first detected in 1990 in the St. Clair River, between Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair, marking the initial incursion into the region. This event stemmed from shipping routes connecting the Ponto-Caspian area to North American ports, where untreated ballast water served as the conduit. Concurrently, European introductions began in the early 1990s, with the species appearing in the Baltic Sea around 1990, specifically in the Gulf of Gdańsk, likely via similar maritime ballast transport from native basins. Further spread in Europe was enabled by the opening of the Danube-Main-Rhine canal system in 1992, which provided an inland waterway corridor linking the Black Sea drainage to the Rhine River basin and facilitating secondary dispersal.^[29]^[30]^[31] Secondary pathways have contributed to the round goby's subsequent spread within invaded regions. In North America, canals such as the Erie Canal have allowed upstream and downstream migration, connecting the Great Lakes to inland waterways like the Hudson River. Additionally, human-mediated overland transport via recreational boats has been implicated, with larvae surviving in bilge water or residual hull compartments during trailer-based movement between water bodies. Angler activities, including the use of round gobies as live bait and inadvertent releases of unused baitfish, represent another dispersal route, enabling short- to medium-distance introductions.^[32]^[33]^[34]

Current invasive range

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) has established invasive populations across much of the Laurentian Great Lakes basin in North America since its initial detection in the St. Clair River in 1990, spreading to all five Great Lakes and numerous connected waterways by the early 2000s.^[35] In recent years, the species has continued to expand into additional systems, including the Hudson River estuary, where it was first documented in 2021 near Troy, New York, with detections extending southward to near Newburgh (river kilometer 92) as of 2025 and potential for further expansion into more brackish areas like the Harlem River based on salinity tolerance studies.^[36]^[37] Further westward, populations have reached the Mississippi River drainage via connections from the Great Lakes, with detections in the Illinois River as early as the 1990s and a confirmed specimen in Pool 26 of the Mississippi River near Grafton, Illinois, in 2018.^[38] In 2025, new detections highlight ongoing range expansion in the upper Midwest, including the first confirmed presence in Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin, discovered in June near the Bowen Street fishing pier in Oshkosh.^[39] This follows earlier incursions into the adjacent Lower Fox River system, where round gobies were identified in Little Lake Butte des Morts above Rapide Croche in 2015, prompting intensified monitoring efforts in 2025 to track spread from urban fishing hotspots.^[40] Similarly, in Pennsylvania, established populations in Lake Erie and its lower tributaries, such as those in Erie County, have shown signs of upstream movement into inland waterways like the Allegheny River tributaries (e.g., LeBoeuf and French Creeks) by the mid-2020s, with anglers urged to report sightings to prevent further dispersal.^[4] In Europe, the round goby is widespread in the Baltic Sea, where it became dominant in coastal and estuarine habitats by the early 2000s following introductions via shipping, and continues to expand through maritime traffic as of 2025.^[41] The species has also colonized major river systems, including the Rhine, where genetic analyses confirm established populations spanning much of the river's length—over 1,000 km from the delta in the Netherlands upstream into Germany—since the mid-2000s, with the species dominant in catches exceeding 90% in the Lower Rhine; recent genetic studies support invasion via two distinct routes (Danube corridor and direct maritime).^[42]^[43]

Biology

Feeding ecology

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) is an opportunistic benthic feeder with a diverse diet dominated by sessile and mobile invertebrates, supplemented by fish and their eggs. In invaded North American waters such as the Great Lakes, its primary prey includes mollusks like zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) and native snails. Crustaceans, particularly amphipods (Gammarus spp.), and insect larvae such as chironomids are also key components, especially for smaller gobies, while small fish (e.g., darters and sculpins) and fish eggs contribute to piscivory in adults. This generalist diet reflects high dietary plasticity, allowing adaptation to local prey availability across habitats.^[44] As a bottom-dwelling predator, the round goby employs an ambush foraging strategy, using its fused pelvic fins—modified into a powerful suction disc—to anchor firmly to rocks, mussels, or other substrates while scanning for prey. It detects prey primarily through vision and chemosensory cues, remaining stationary before lunging with a highly protractile upper jaw to generate suction for capturing items from the benthos. This method enables efficient predation on attached or slow-moving organisms like bivalves, which are crushed using robust pharyngeal teeth, and is effective both diurnally and nocturnally, with peak feeding activity often at dusk or night. The suction disc not only facilitates precise positioning but also allows the goby to exploit interstitial spaces in rocky or mussel-covered bottoms, enhancing its competitive edge over native species.^[1]^[45]^[46] Dietary composition exhibits seasonal shifts tied to prey phenology and goby life stage, underscoring its opportunistic omnivory. In summer months, mollusks and amphipods dominate as they peak in abundance, while winter diets incorporate more fish and eggs when invertebrate availability declines. Juveniles, in particular, display rapid growth supported by high consumption rates through frequent small meals of planktonic and larval prey like cladocerans and chironomids. Overall, this feeding ecology positions the round goby as a versatile mid-level trophic predator, exerting pressure on benthic communities while integrating into food webs as prey for piscivores.^[47]^[48]^[49]

Reproduction

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) exhibits a protracted spawning season from April to September in its native Ponto-Caspian range, with activity extending into November in warmer invasive habitats such as the Laurentian Great Lakes due to elevated water temperatures.^[6] Females are batch spawners capable of producing multiple clutches per season, up to six times between water temperatures of 10–11°C and 26°C, with intervals of approximately 3–4 weeks between spawnings.^[50] This iteroparous strategy enhances reproductive output in favorable conditions.^[51] Fecundity varies with female size, ranging from 100 to 5,000 eggs per clutch, with means around 200–300 eggs in invasive populations and higher values (up to 5,221) reported in native ranges.^[6]^[51] Fertilization rates can reach 95%, and hatching success is high at 80–95% under guarded conditions, contributing to the species' rapid population establishment.^[51] Sexual maturity is attained earlier in invasive ranges than in native habitats. Females typically mature at 1–2 years of age and approximately 6 cm in total length, while males reach maturity at 2–3 years; in native populations, these ages are delayed by about one year.^[1]^[51] Semelparity has been suggested for males in some populations, as nest-guarding individuals may cease feeding and exhibit high post-spawning mortality, though this remains unconfirmed across all contexts.^[1] Following spawning, adhesive eggs are deposited in single layers within sheltered nests, such as under rocks or in artificial structures. Parental care is provided exclusively by males, who guard the clutch, fan the eggs to oxygenate them, and defend against predators, often without feeding for the duration.^[6] Incubation duration is temperature-dependent, lasting 11–18 days at 20–25°C and up to 36 days at lower temperatures around 12°C, with no viable hatching below 12°C.^[52]^[53] Upon hatching, larvae measure about 5 mm and enter a brief planktonic stage, undergoing diel vertical migrations—ascending to surface waters at night for zooplankton feeding and descending during the day—which facilitates passive dispersal via currents before benthic settlement within weeks.^[6]^[54] This larval dispersal contrasts with the adults' predominantly benthic lifestyle, aiding the species' invasive spread.^[55]

Behavior and physiology

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) exhibits highly aggressive and territorial behavior, particularly among males, which facilitates interference competition and displacement of native species. In laboratory observations, resident round gobies displayed significantly more approaches, chases, and bites toward native mottled sculpins (Cottus bairdi) than vice versa, with no aggressive responses from sculpin intruders, indicating the gobies' dominance in resource contests.^[56] This territoriality extends to shelter and optimal sites, where round gobies aggressively defend areas, often evicting smaller or less aggressive natives through direct confrontations.^[57] Such behaviors contribute to their invasive success by reducing habitat availability for sympatric species. Diel activity patterns in round gobies show peaks in nocturnal foraging and movement, allowing exploitation of resources under low-light conditions while minimizing predation risk during daylight. Juveniles often aggregate in loose schools near substrates, enhancing protection and facilitating initial habitat exploration before adopting more solitary benthic lifestyles.^[58] Migration is generally limited in adults due to their lack of a swim bladder and preference for stable benthic habitats, with dispersal primarily occurring through larval stages via diel vertical migrations. Larvae rise to surface waters at night, promoting passive advection by currents and ballast water transport, as observed in Great Lakes collections where no daytime surface captures occurred.^[59] Sensory adaptations in round gobies emphasize olfaction for detecting food and mates, supported by 112 olfactory receptor genes with expansions in the 7tm1 subfamily, enabling sensitive responses to prey odors and male urinary pheromones that attract females during non-reproductive contexts.^[60] They also possess visual acuity suited to low-light environments, with a single RH1 rod opsin gene for dim-light sensitivity and the ability to distinguish light intensity differences even under cataract-induced impairments, aiding benthic navigation at night.^[61] Weak red fluorescence above the eyes, visible under green excitation, may further enhance intraspecific signaling in turbid or low-light waters.^[60] Physiological tolerances underpin the round goby's adaptability to varied environments, including high hypoxia resistance that allows persistence in oxygen-depleted benthic zones, with critical oxygen levels lower than many natives due to efficient oxygen extraction mechanisms.^[62] Salinity acclimation is robust, with survival and optimal growth at 0–15 ppt over months, ventilation rates minimized near isotonic levels (10–15 ppt), and no long-term viability above 25 ppt, limiting oceanic spread but favoring estuarine invasions.^[63] A rapid metabolism, evidenced by elevated resting metabolic rates at invasion fronts (up to higher Q10 values across 15–28°C), supports fast somatic growth and energy allocation for competitive behaviors.^[64] This metabolic flexibility maintains a broad aerobic scope, enabling thermal compensation from 15–28°C without performance decline.^[65]

Ecological impacts

Effects on native species

The round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) exerts significant predatory pressure on native fish species, particularly by consuming eggs and interfering with nesting behaviors. In laboratory experiments simulating stream conditions, round gobies rapidly invaded and seized spawning shelters of mottled sculpins (Cottus bairdii), consuming nearly all eggs within 4–7 days, resulting in egg masses of 0–0.056 g in goby-occupied sections compared to 1.31–4.39 g in control sections without gobies. This predation has led to near-complete recruitment failure for mottled sculpins in affected areas, with no young-of-year observed after the round goby's arrival in Calumet Harbor, southern Lake Michigan, in 1994, and adult populations declining to near extirpation by 1999. Similar effects have been documented across the Great Lakes, where round goby predation on eggs contributes to reduced survival of native benthic fishes, with recruitment reductions approaching 90–100% in localized populations. Competition from round gobies further disadvantages native species through aggressive territorial behavior and resource overlap. In experimental trials, round gobies displayed significantly higher aggression levels than logperch (Percina caprodes), winning shelter contests in 17 of 24 mixed-species interactions and spending more time in refuges post-intrusion. This aggression enables round gobies to outcompete logperch for benthic habitats and food resources like arthropods, with field observations in Hamilton Harbour showing logperch abundance dropping from 40 individuals per 10 transects in 1995 to 26 in 2001 as round goby numbers surged to 501. Such competitive exclusion has broader implications for native darters and sculpins, which share similar microhabitats and diets, leading to displacement and heightened vulnerability to predation. Round gobies also impact native bivalves by preying on unionid mussels, potentially altering benthic habitats through direct consumption and associated physical damage. Laboratory studies demonstrate that round gobies readily consume juvenile unionids, such as plain pocketbook mussels (Lampsilis cardium), with mortality rates of 9.5–12.1% in goby treatments versus 2.1% in controls, and DNA analysis confirming predation on endangered species like the rayed bean (Popenaias popeii) in wild-caught gobies from French Creek, Pennsylvania. This selective predation threatens unionid populations, which rely on stable substrates, and may exacerbate habitat degradation as gobies forage on attached dreissenid mussels, indirectly increasing erosion on unionid shells. Case studies from the Great Lakes illustrate these effects on native fish communities. In southern Lake Michigan's Indiana waters, mottled sculpin trawl catches plummeted from a mean of 0–4.4 fish per hour pre-1998 to effectively zero post-round goby invasion, with frequency of occurrence falling to 0–4%; similarly, johnny darter (Etheostoma nigrum) catches declined from 0–29 fish per hour to 0.17 fish per hour, with occurrence dropping to 15%. In Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin, the 2025 detection of round gobies near the Bowen Street Fishing Pier has raised concerns for walleye (Sander vitreus), as gobies could compete for food and habitat or prey on eggs, potentially disrupting recruitment in this important sport fishery, though monitoring continues to assess emerging impacts.

Role in food webs

In invaded ecosystems such as the Great Lakes, the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) occupies a significant position as prey, supporting various native predators and facilitating energy transfer within food webs. Sportfish like smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) readily consume round gobies, with the latter comprising up to 75% of smallmouth bass diets in Lake Erie and contributing to post-invasion increases in bass mass by approximately 17% for individuals around 6 inches in length. Yellow perch incorporate round gobies at frequencies of about 22% in their diets within certain fluvial habitats of the St. Lawrence River system, enhancing their nutritional intake from this abundant resource. Avian predators, including double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), have shifted to rely heavily on round gobies, which now form a dominant component of their diets in eastern Lake Ontario and other areas, buffering predation pressure on native prey fish. Reptilian predators, such as the Lake Erie watersnake (Nerodia sipedon insularum), have experienced a population surge due to this prey availability, with round gobies constituting over 90% of their consumed biomass; this has driven watersnake numbers from fewer than 2,000 adults in 1999 to around 12,000 by 2011. As a mid-level benthic predator in its native Ponto-Caspian range, the round goby primarily targets invertebrates like zooplankton and small mollusks. However, in invasive contexts, larger individuals (>100 mm) shift toward consuming dreissenid mussels (Dreissena spp.), elevating their effective trophic position and creating a novel linkage between primary benthic producers and higher-level consumers. This mussel reliance allows round gobies to channel energy from the lake bottom to piscivores, as evidenced in central Lake Erie where they process substantial mussel biomass—older gobies consume over 80% dreissenids by weight—altering traditional energy flows from pelagic to more benthically dominated pathways. The proliferation of round gobies has boosted overall fish biomass in several Great Lakes basins, with standing stocks in Lake Erie estimated at 203–4,803 tonnes and annual accumulations reaching 475–8,943 tonnes during peak invasion years around 1999. This abundance supports enhanced growth and condition in predators, such as smallmouth bass exhibiting 12% greater mass in larger size classes post-invasion in Lake Ontario, though it simultaneously reshapes trophic dynamics by concentrating energy in invasive pathways rather than native ones.

Management and control

Prevention strategies

Prevention of further spread of the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) primarily focuses on interrupting known introduction pathways, particularly through maritime and recreational activities in North America.^[66] Ballast water management represents a cornerstone of prevention efforts, as transoceanic shipping introduced the species to the Great Lakes in the early 1990s. Regulations under the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) Ballast Water Management Convention, which entered into force on September 8, 2017, mandate ballast water exchange or treatment to minimize viable organisms in discharged water, building on earlier guidelines from 1997. In the Great Lakes, the U.S. Coast Guard has enforced stringent requirements since 2012 for vessels entering from outside the Exclusive Economic Zone, including open-ocean exchange or approved treatment systems, effectively curbing new transoceanic introductions. These measures, combined with no-discharge zones, have significantly reduced the risk of additional Ponto-Caspian species like the round goby arriving via ballast.^[67]^[68]^[66] Boater education campaigns emphasize preventing overland transport by recreational watercraft, a key vector for secondary spread within inland waterways. The "Clean, Drain, Dry" protocol, promoted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Stop Aquatic Hitchhikers! program and adopted across U.S. and Canadian Great Lakes states, instructs boaters to remove visible plants and animals, drain all water from bilges, live wells, and engines, and dry equipment for at least five days before launching elsewhere. In New York, for instance, the Department of Environmental Conservation integrates this into round goby-specific outreach, including boat steward inspections at high-risk launch sites to demonstrate decontamination steps. Similar initiatives in Michigan and Ontario target anglers and marinas, reducing hitchhiker transfer by up to 90% when followed.^[69] Regulations prohibiting the use of live round gobies as bait address angler-mediated dispersal, which has facilitated range expansion into tributaries and disconnected waterbodies. All Great Lakes states, including Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, ban possession, transport, and use of live round gobies, with prohibitions enacted as early as 2005 in Michigan under invasive species laws and extended regionally by 2010. In Pennsylvania, for example, moving round gobies is illegal, and anglers must kill and report any caught outside established areas to prevent intentional or accidental releases. These rules, enforced through fishing licenses and checkpoints, have limited bait trade as a vector, though compliance relies on public awareness.^[70]^[66]^[71] Early detection monitoring programs enable rapid response to potential new introductions, using a combination of environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling and citizen science. eDNA techniques, which detect species-specific genetic material in water, have proven effective for non-invasive surveillance; in the Great Lakes, quantitative PCR assays identify round goby presence at low densities, with studies in Lakes Huron and Michigan confirming detections alongside traditional trawling. In Pennsylvania, the iMapInvasives platform integrates eDNA "hits" from ongoing studies to map expansion risks and guide targeted surveys. Complementing this, angler reporting programs, such as Pennsylvania's 2025 initiative launched in October, solicit input from northwest anglers via workshops and online tools to track sightings in Lake Erie tributaries like French Creek, informing education and containment strategies. These efforts, coordinated by state agencies and USGS databases, facilitate early intervention before populations establish.^[72]^[73]^[74]

Eradication and mitigation

Efforts to eradicate or mitigate round goby populations focus on established invasions, where complete removal is challenging due to the species' high reproductive rates and habitat preferences. Chemical controls, such as piscicides, have been tested for targeted application, with round gobies showing sensitivity to compounds like rotenone comparable to many native fish species, limiting their selectivity in larger water bodies. Pheromone-based traps have also been trialed experimentally. Acoustic playback traps, mimicking round goby reproductive calls, have shown promise in improving capture efficiency and selectivity over traditional food-baited methods in controlled studies.^[75]^[76] Biological mitigation strategies emphasize leveraging natural ecosystem processes and human intervention to suppress populations. Promoting native predators, such as piscivorous fish, has been explored as a biocontrol mechanism, with research indicating that enhanced predation pressure and biodiversity can limit round goby spread in coastal and riverine habitats. In the Baltic Sea, 2025 European Union initiatives under the RoundGoby project have promoted "eat the invader" campaigns, encouraging commercial fishing and consumption of round gobies through product development like canned goods, pet food, and public cooking challenges to reduce densities while creating economic opportunities. These efforts aim to transform the species from a threat into a resource, though sterile mate releases remain conceptual for round gobies, drawing from broader invasive fish control precedents without species-specific implementation to date.^[77] Physical removal methods, including electrofishing, netting, and trapping, are commonly applied in localized areas to reduce densities. In the 2025 Lake Winnebago response, as of November 7, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources crews used backpack electrofishing, angling, and traps, capturing over 50 individuals, with early efforts yielding at least nine verified specimens near the Oshkosh pier to curb establishment.^[78] Intensive trapping programs, such as baited minnow trap deployments in the St. Clair River, have demonstrated effectiveness in site-specific reductions, with a 2024 study reporting a 67% decline in capture rates within targeted zones compared to untreated references.^[79] Emerging genetic tools offer potential for long-term control, building on the 2020 round goby genome sequencing that enables targeted manipulations, though practical applications like infertility induction via CRISPR remain in early research stages without field deployment by 2025.^[60] Overall success in eradication is limited, with experts noting that once established, round goby populations are nearly impossible to fully eliminate due to their resilience and rapid colonization. Mitigation efforts have achieved partial density reductions of up to 67% in confined areas through intensive physical removal, providing localized relief for native species but requiring sustained monitoring to prevent rebound.

Parasites and pathogens

Native parasites

In its native range within the Ponto-Caspian basin, including the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) harbors a diverse parasite community comprising over 70 metazoan species.^[80] Trematodes dominate this assemblage, with notable examples including Cryptocotyle lingua and Cryptocotyle concava, while cestodes such as Cyathocephalus truncatus and nematodes like Philometra sp. also contribute significantly to the parasite fauna.^[80]^[1] This richness reflects the gobies' role in complex aquatic ecosystems where multiple host-parasite interactions occur.^[81] Prevalence of infection is notably high in native populations, with co-infections involving multiple parasite taxa being commonplace.^[1] Infection intensities vary by location and host age, though some trematode species exhibit higher burdens.^[80] Many of these parasites, particularly trematodes, utilize round gobies as intermediate hosts in their life cycles, facilitating transmission to definitive hosts such as piscivorous birds or larger fish through predation.^[82] In comparison to these native assemblages, round gobies in invasive ranges generally experience substantially reduced parasite loads.^[83]

Invasive range parasites

In the invasive range of the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus), particularly in the Great Lakes basin, approximately 22 metazoan parasite species have been documented, a substantially lower diversity compared to the 72 species reported from its native Black Sea range.^[83] Trematodes represent the most prevalent group among these, with the introduced species Diplostomum spathaceum commonly infecting the eyes of round gobies across multiple Great Lakes localities.^[83] This reduced parasite diversity and abundance align with the enemy release hypothesis, which posits that invasive species experience diminished parasitic regulation in novel environments, facilitating population expansion.^[83] Parasite prevalence in round gobies remains low, typically ranging from 10% to 30% for most taxa, with many infections involving immature stages and rare adult forms, contrasting with higher loads in co-occurring native fish species.^[84] No significant increase in overall parasitism has been observed over a decade following establishment, underscoring sustained enemy release.^[83] As of 2022, studies in the St. Lawrence River show juvenile round gobies acquiring local parasites seasonally, but overall burdens remain low.^[85] Some parasites native to the invasive range have been transmitted to round gobies through shared intermediate hosts, enabling co-infections. For instance, the nematode Anguillicoloides crassus, an invasive parasite primarily affecting eels, has been found encapsulated within cysts of the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis in round gobies, with larvae present in 12% of examined cysts, serving as a paratenic host that facilitates transmission to definitive eel hosts via predation.^[86] While parasite loads exert minimal health impacts on round gobies, allowing high population densities, there is potential for spillover to native species sharing habitats and prey resources. Recent studies indicate that round gobies can act as reservoirs for parasites such as trematodes in sympatric natives, though some evidence suggests a dilution effect reducing infections in certain native species following goby invasions.^[87]^[88] In the Baltic Sea, another key invasive range, surveys have revealed 24 native parasite species infecting round gobies, including ciliates, trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans, with overall prevalence around 78%.^[80] These findings reflect an increasing parasite diversity over time, as earlier assessments in the region documented only 4–12 species shortly after invasion, suggesting gradual accumulation of local parasites.^[80]

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