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Row crop

A row crop is an agricultural crop planted in straight rows spaced widely enough to allow mechanical cultivation, such as tilling or weeding, between the rows using specialized farm equipment.^[1] This planting method optimizes efficiency for large-scale farming by enabling the use of tractors and implements tailored for row-based operations, distinguishing row crops from close-sown or broadcast varieties like hay or pasture grasses.^[2] Common examples include commodity crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, cotton, rice, barley, and tobacco, which are primarily annual plants grown for grain, oil, fiber, or other uses.^[3]^[4] Row crops form the backbone of modern commercial agriculture worldwide, particularly in regions like the U.S. Midwest and Southern states, where they dominate cultivated cropland and drive economic output through food, feed, fuel, and export markets.^[2] In the United States, major row crops like soybeans, corn, wheat, and cotton account for a significant portion of farm exports, valued at approximately $60 billion annually as of 2023, supporting rural economies and global trade.^[5] Production practices emphasize soil preparation, precision planting, pest management, and crop rotation to maintain soil health and yields, with extension services providing guidance on sustainable techniques to address environmental challenges like erosion and nutrient runoff.^[3]^[4] The cultivation of row crops has evolved with advancements in mechanization since the early 20th century, shifting from labor-intensive methods to high-yield, technology-driven systems that enhance productivity but require careful resource management.^[6] Today, they represent a critical segment of global food security, with ongoing research focusing on resilient varieties and precision agriculture to adapt to climate variability and market demands.^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Row crops refer to agricultural plants that are cultivated in straight, evenly spaced rows sufficiently wide to permit the passage of mechanized equipment for operations such as tillage, cultivation, weeding, and harvesting.^[1] This planting arrangement, often achieved through drilling seeds rather than scattering them, allows for precise spacing that supports uniform crop growth and efficient machinery use.^[1] In contrast to other planting methods, row cropping differs from broadcasting, where seeds are sown broadly over the soil surface for close-grown crops like hay or pasture grasses without distinct rows, and from intercropping, which mixes multiple crop species in the same area to maximize land use.^[2] It also stands apart from perennial plantings, such as orchards or pastures, which involve long-term, non-annual establishments not requiring annual replanting or row-based mechanical intervention.^[2] The primary purpose of row cropping is to optimize large-scale, industrial agriculture by emphasizing uniformity, accessibility for machinery, and streamlined management practices that enhance productivity and reduce labor intensity.^[7]

Key Characteristics

Row crops are characterized by their uniform row spacing, which varies by crop but typically ranges from 30 to 40 inches for corn and similar row crops to provide sufficient clearance for agricultural machinery such as tractors and cultivators.^[8] This spacing facilitates efficient mechanical operations while allowing for optimal plant density, varying widely by crop—for example, around 25,000 to 35,000 plants per acre for corn—to maximize access to sunlight, water, and nutrients by reducing intra-row competition and promoting even resource distribution.^[9]^[10] Higher densities in narrower rows can enhance light interception and nutrient uptake, though wider spacings are preferred in mechanized systems to avoid equipment interference.^[11] Unlike perennial crops, row crops exhibit annual or seasonal growth cycles, completing their life from seed to harvest within a single growing season of 6 to 12 months, necessitating replanting each year to maintain productivity.^[12] This cyclical nature allows for crop rotation and soil management but requires precise timing for planting to align with environmental conditions like temperature and moisture availability.^[13] The linear arrangement of row crops makes them particularly suitable for row-specific soil management practices, including ridging and furrowing, which involve creating raised beds or channels to direct water flow and improve drainage.^[14] These techniques, combined with inter-row cultivation, enable effective weed control by disturbing soil between rows without damaging crop plants, while also mitigating soil erosion through water shedding from ridges and reduced runoff velocity in furrows.^[15]^[16]

History

Early Development

The origins of row crop farming trace back to ancient civilizations where rudimentary aligned planting emerged as a response to the need for organized cultivation amid challenging environmental conditions. In Mesopotamia, around 3000 BCE, early farmers developed the seeder plow, a wooden implement pulled by oxen that created furrows in the soil while simultaneously dropping seeds such as wheat and barley into them, effectively establishing proto-rows for more efficient sowing and irrigation management.^[17] This innovation, refined by the 2nd millennium BCE, allowed seeds to be buried at consistent depths, reducing exposure to birds and wind while facilitating water distribution in the arid Tigris-Euphrates valley.^[18] Similarly, in Mesoamerica, evidence of maize (corn) cultivation dates to approximately 7000 BCE in regions like the Balsas River valley, where indigenous groups managed early domestication and planting in the region's variable rainfall and volcanic soils.^[19] By the 1st century CE, Roman agricultural practices further formalized row planting as a means to enhance efficiency and maintenance. Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, in his comprehensive treatise De Re Rustica, advocated for precise spacing in aligned rows—such as three-foot intervals between plants and five-foot gaps between rows—for crops like vines and cereals, enabling easier access for weeding, fertilizing, and harvesting with hand tools. Columella emphasized that such systematic arrangement minimized labor waste and maximized yields by allowing cultivators to navigate between rows without damaging plants, drawing on earlier Hellenistic influences to promote this method across the empire's diverse climates. These texts influenced subsequent European farming, where row-like planting was recommended for small-scale operations to optimize sunlight exposure and soil aeration. Prior to the 19th century, row crop adoption remained constrained by reliance on manual labor, limiting its scale primarily to weed suppression in modest fields. Farmers hoed or pulled weeds by hand between rows using sickles, adzes, or simple mattocks, a labor-intensive process that required entire families or communal efforts during the growing season to prevent crop competition.^[20] Without mechanical aids, rows served mainly as pathways for foot traffic and basic irrigation rather than large-scale production, as broadcasting seeds remained more common for grains due to the time demands of precise planting.^[21] This pre-industrial approach sustained local food needs but restricted expansion, as manual weeding was highly labor-intensive for row-planted crops like wheat.

Modern Advancements

The 19th century represented a pivotal shift in row crop agriculture, driven by technological innovations that addressed the challenges of expanding cultivation into the fertile but tough soils of the American Midwest. In 1837, blacksmith John Deere developed the first commercially successful self-scouring steel plow, which effectively sliced through the dense, sticky prairie sod that had previously resisted cast-iron plows, enabling deeper and more efficient tillage for row-planted crops.^[22] This breakthrough facilitated the rapid settlement and agricultural development of Midwestern regions, allowing farmers to convert vast grasslands into productive fields for row crops such as corn and wheat, thereby supporting the region's emergence as a major grain-producing area.^[23]^[24] The 20th century accelerated these advancements through widespread mechanization, particularly in the post-World War II era, when surplus military technologies and increased investment in agricultural research spurred the adoption of tractors, combines, and other machinery tailored for row crop operations.^[25] This mechanization boom complemented earlier genetic innovations, such as the commercialization of hybrid corn seeds in the 1930s, which produced more vigorous and higher-yielding plants suited to uniform row planting and significantly boosted Corn Belt productivity.^[26]^[27] By the 1970s, the introduction of broad-spectrum chemical herbicides like glyphosate, first marketed in 1974, transformed weed management in row crops by providing effective, non-selective control that minimized manual labor and enhanced crop establishment.^[28] These developments collectively reduced operational costs and increased scalability for large-scale row crop farming. Entering the 21st century, precision agriculture technologies integrated digital tools into row crop systems, with GPS-guided planting emerging as a cornerstone by the early 2000s to optimize row alignment and variable-rate applications.^[29] These systems enabled automated steering of equipment, ensuring precise seed placement and spacing that reduced overlaps, conserved inputs like seeds and fertilizers, and improved overall field efficiency for crops such as soybeans and cotton.^[30] By the mid-2000s, autosteer technologies had become standard on modern machinery, marking a transition toward data-driven row crop management that further amplified yields while addressing resource limitations.^[31]

Types and Examples

Major Row Crops

Corn (maize), known botanically as Zea mays, is a tall annual grass that grows to heights of 2-3 meters, featuring a single main stalk with broad leaves and tassels for pollination. Its growth habit necessitates wide row spacings, typically 76 cm (30 inches), to accommodate machinery and optimize light interception for high-yield potential in row systems. Globally, corn dominates row crop acreage, with harvested areas exceeding 200 million hectares as of 2024, underscoring its role as a staple for food, feed, and industrial uses.^[32]^[33]^[34] Soybeans (Glycine max), a legume with an erect, bushy growth habit reaching 0.6-1.5 meters, exhibit high-yield potential in row configurations due to their indeterminate or determinate varieties that branch profusely. A key agronomic trait is their symbiotic nitrogen-fixing roots, which associate with rhizobia bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms, enhancing soil fertility and enabling yields up to 3-4 tons per hectare in rotations. Worldwide harvested area for soybeans stands at approximately 134 million hectares as of 2022, supporting its status as a major protein and oil crop.^[35]^[36]^[37] Wheat (Triticum aestivum), a cool-season annual grass with a tillering growth habit that produces multiple stems from the base, thrives in narrow rows of 15-20 cm to maximize tiller density and grain fill. Its agronomic profile includes robust root systems and vernalization requirements for winter varieties, contributing to high yields of 3-8 tons per hectare under intensive row management. Global wheat harvested area reaches about 222 million hectares as of 2022, making it one of the most extensively cultivated row crops for human consumption.^[38]^[39] Cotton (Gossypium spp.), an indeterminate perennial shrub managed as an annual, develops a woody base with branching stems up to 1-2 meters tall, bearing bolls of fiber and seed. In row systems, spacings of 76-102 cm (30-40 inches) support its sprawling habit while facilitating mechanical cultivation, with yield potentials of 1-2 tons of lint per hectare. Harvested area globally is approximately 32 million hectares as of 2022/23, highlighting its economic importance in fiber production.^[40]^[41]^[42] Rice (paddy varieties of Oryza sativa), a semi-aquatic annual grass with tillering similar to wheat, is grown in flooded rows to control weeds and support straight growth up to 1 meter. Its agronomic traits include high tiller production and responsiveness to transplanting, enabling yields of 4-8 tons per hectare in intensive systems. Paddy rice occupies approximately 168 million hectares worldwide as of 2023, serving as a dietary staple for billions.^[43]^[44]^[45] Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a cool-season annual grass similar to wheat, features a tillering habit and is grown in rows typically spaced 15-20 cm apart to promote dense stands and efficient harvesting. It is valued for its versatility in food, feed, and malting, with global yields ranging from 2.5-4 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. Worldwide, barley occupies about 50 million hectares as of 2022, contributing to diverse agricultural systems.^[39]

Regional and Specialized Types

In arid and semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, sorghum and pearl millet serve as key row crops valued for their drought tolerance and ability to thrive in marginal soils with limited water availability.^[46] These crops are often planted in rows by smallholder farmers as a resilient alternative to more water-demanding staples, providing grain and forage while hedging against erratic rainfall patterns.^[47] In the U.S. Southeast, peanuts and tobacco represent prominent cash row crops adapted to the region's humid subtropical climate and sandy soils, with Georgia leading national production of both.^[48] Peanuts are typically sown in rows to facilitate mechanical harvesting, contributing significantly to local economies through export and processing.^[49] Tobacco, transplanted into rows after greenhouse propagation, supports high-value flue-cured varieties suited to the area's growing conditions.^[50] Specialized row crops include vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes, which are cultivated in intensive systems to maximize yields on limited land through precise spacing and management.^[51] Tomatoes in these setups often involve staked or trellised rows for efficient space use and disease control, while potatoes are hilled in rows to promote tuber development in high-density plantings.^[52] Cover crops like clover can also be established in rows as living mulches, offering soil protection by suppressing weeds, fixing nitrogen, and reducing erosion between main crop seasons.^[53] Row spacing adaptations vary by crop purpose and region; high-density vegetable systems, such as those for tomatoes or potatoes, commonly employ narrower rows of 12-18 inches to optimize light interception and resource use.^[54] In contrast, fiber crops like cotton typically use wider rows of 30-40 inches to accommodate machinery and allow for bushy growth that supports boll development.^[55]

Cultivation Practices

Planting and Maintenance

Soil preparation for row crops begins with tillage practices tailored to the row-based planting system, which facilitates machinery access and uniform seed placement. Conventional tillage involves plowing and disking to create a fine seedbed, inverting soil to bury crop residues and weeds while aerating the ground for root development.^[56] In contrast, conservation tillage methods such as no-till leave surface residues intact to reduce erosion and improve soil structure, with seeds placed directly into undisturbed soil using specialized planters.^[57] Strip-till, a hybrid approach, disturbs only the narrow row zones—typically 6-8 inches wide—to warm soil and incorporate fertilizers while preserving residue between rows for moisture retention and weed suppression.^[58] These tillage types are selected based on soil type, climate, and row spacing standards, which generally range from 15 to 40 inches to optimize light interception and equipment operation. Planting row crops primarily employs direct seeding via drills or planters that create furrows at precise depths and spacings, ensuring even distribution in straight rows for efficient cultivation, often using GPS-guided precision technology for variable rate application. Seed drilling is standard for major row crops like corn and soybeans, where seeds are metered into the soil at rates of 30,000-40,000 per acre for modern corn hybrids, with depths of 1.5-2 inches to promote germination.^[59]^[60] Timing is critical and crop-specific; in temperate zones, corn is planted in spring once soil temperatures reach at least 50°F (typically April to May) to avoid chilling injury and ensure rapid emergence within 10-14 days.^[59] Soybeans follow similar spring planting windows, often May to early June, when soils warm to 60°F for optimal nodulation and growth.^[61] Transplanting, though less common for large-scale field row crops, is used for certain vegetables like tomatoes or peppers in row systems, where seedlings are set into rows after 4-6 weeks of greenhouse growth to extend the season and reduce field exposure risks.^[62] Ongoing maintenance during the growing season focuses on protecting row crops from competition and damage while sustaining soil health. Inter-row weeding through mechanical cultivation—using sweeps or rotary hoes—controls weeds between rows without disturbing crop roots, often performed 2-4 times post-emergence when crops are 4-6 inches tall.^[63] Pest scouting involves weekly field walks to monitor for insects, diseases, and nutrient deficiencies, enabling targeted interventions like threshold-based spraying to minimize chemical use.^[64] Crop rotation, such as alternating corn with soybeans in a two-year cycle, prevents soil nutrient depletion—particularly nitrogen drawdown by corn—and disrupts pest cycles, improving long-term field productivity.^[65] These practices, integrated with irrigation and fertilization, support vigorous growth until maturity.

Harvesting and Post-Harvest

Harvesting of row crops typically involves mechanized equipment to efficiently collect mature plants while minimizing losses and damage. For grain row crops such as corn and wheat, combine harvesters equipped with row-specific headers are standard, where corn heads use gathering chains and stripper plates to align with and remove ears from spaced rows, reducing stalk breakage and foreign material intake.^[66] These headers must match the planter's row spacing—typically 30 inches for corn—to avoid misalignment losses of up to 2.5 bushels per acre.^[66] For wheat, grain table headers with sickle bars cut across rows at adjustable heights to capture seed heads effectively.^[67] In contrast, delicate fiber crops like cotton often rely on mechanical pickers with rotating spindles that selectively remove seed cotton from opened bolls, achieving 70-97% efficiency while preserving fiber quality over hand-picking methods.^[68] Hand-picking remains viable for small-scale or high-value operations to avoid trash contamination, though it yields typically 15-20 kg per day per worker in labor-intensive regions like India, or up to 50-100 kg per day for experienced workers elsewhere.^[68] Timing harvest is critical to balance yield, quality, and machinery efficiency, guided by maturity indicators such as kernel moisture content and physiological markers. For corn, optimal harvest occurs when grain moisture reaches 19-25%, allowing combines to operate without excessive kernel damage, though field drying may extend to 15-18% for direct storage.^[66] Physiological maturity is confirmed by the black layer at the kernel base, typically at 30-35% moisture, after which deterioration accelerates if not harvested promptly.^[69] Desiccants, such as sodium chlorate or ethephon-based harvest aids, are applied to cotton when 60% of bolls are open to accelerate leaf drop and boll opening, promoting uniform row maturity and reducing regrowth in variable fields.^[70] These chemicals, applied at rates like 4.5 lb/acre for sodium chlorate, enable timely mechanical harvest above 60°F, minimizing weather-related losses.^[70] Post-harvest handling focuses on preserving quality through drying, cleaning, and controlled storage to avert spoilage from mold, insects, or respiration. Grain from row crops like corn and wheat is dried to 14-15.5% moisture using continuous-flow systems at 120-160°F, preventing heat damage while removing excess water—wet corn at 25% requires about 22 hours versus 12 hours at 20%.^[69] Cleaning follows to eliminate broken kernels, foreign material, and fines via screens and aspirators, reducing biological activity and aeration issues in storage.^[71] Storage occurs in ventilated silos or bins at cool temperatures below 60°F with aeration at 0.1-0.25 cfm per bushel, maintaining viability for 6 months or more and doubling safe holding time per 10°F drop.^[71] Quality grading adheres to USDA standards, assessing factors like test weight (minimum 56 lb/bu for U.S. No. 1 corn), damaged kernels (≤3%), and foreign material (≤2%) post-dockage removal to ensure market value.^[72] For cotton, grading evaluates fiber length, strength, and micronaire via High Volume Instrument (HVI) systems, with mechanical harvest often increasing trash content to 14-18% if not pre-cleaned.^[68]

Economic and Agricultural Role

Production and Yield

Row crops, including staples such as corn, soybeans, wheat, and rice, constitute a significant portion of global agricultural output, with total primary crop production reaching 9.6 billion tonnes in 2022, where maize, wheat, and rice alone accounted for nearly half.^[73] In the 2024/2025 marketing year, global cereal production, encompassing key row crops like corn and wheat, is forecast to hit a record 2,990 million tonnes, up 4.4% from 2024, driven by expanded harvested areas and improved yields in major producing regions.^[74] Regional production is concentrated in a few leading countries; for instance, the United States dominates corn output at 377.63 million metric tons (31% of global share), followed by China at 294.92 million metric tons (24%), and Brazil at 135 million metric tons (11%), contributing to a worldwide total of approximately 1,219 million metric tons.^[75] Similarly, rice production is led by China with 211.86 million tonnes and India with 178.31 million tonnes, supporting a global milled equivalent of 535.8 million tonnes.^[76] Soybean output centers in Brazil (169 million metric tons, 40% global) and the United States (118.84 million metric tons, 28%), with total production forecasted at 425.4 million metric tons.^[77] Wheat production, projected at 793 million metric tons globally, is spearheaded by China, India, and Russia, which together account for about 41% of the total.^[78]^[79] Yield factors for row crops have been profoundly influenced by the adoption of hybrid varieties, which enhance genetic uniformity, disease resistance, and overall productivity compared to traditional open-pollinated seeds. In the United States, for example, corn yields stagnated at around 26 bushels per acre (approximately 1.6 tonnes per hectare) until the late 1930s but have since risen to averages exceeding 170 bushels per acre (over 10 tonnes per hectare) through hybrid development, representing a genetic gain of about 1.9 bushels per acre per year since the mid-1950s.^[80] For wheat, modern hybrid and semi-dwarf varieties have elevated global average yields to 3.5-4 tonnes per hectare, a substantial improvement over historical levels of 2-3 tonnes per hectare in the early 20th century, primarily due to better nutrient efficiency and lodging resistance. These advancements stem from selective breeding techniques that promote hybrid vigor, allowing row crops to achieve higher biomass accumulation and grain fill under intensive farming conditions.^[81] Production trends for row crops show consistent increases attributable to biotechnological innovations, particularly since the introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the mid-1990s. For soybeans, GMO herbicide-tolerant varieties, first commercialized in 1996, have expanded to cover 94% of U.S. planted acres by 2020, contributing to yield gains through reduced weed competition and simplified management, with global GM soybean production adding an estimated 180.3 million tonnes cumulatively from 1996 to 2015.^[82] Overall, GM crops have boosted global farm output by facilitating higher yields in pest-prone areas; for instance, in 2018 they generated an additional $18.9 billion USD in farm income, with a cumulative $225.1 billion from 1996 to 2018 while increasing production volumes across row crops like corn and soybeans.^[83] According to FAO data up to 2024, these biotech trends, combined with precision agriculture, have driven a 56% rise in primary crop production since 2000, with row crops benefiting from expanded GMO adoption in over 30 countries and a global biotech area of 206.3 million hectares.^[84] Projections for 2025 indicate continued growth, with cereal yields rising 1-2% annually due to these factors.^[85]

Market Dynamics

Row crop markets are characterized by active commodity trading, primarily through standardized futures contracts that facilitate price discovery and hedging against risks. Corn and soybeans, two of the most prominent row crops, are traded on the CME Group exchanges, including the historic Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), where contracts specify delivery grades, quantities, and locations to ensure liquidity and transparency for global participants. These futures markets handle billions of bushels annually, allowing producers to lock in prices ahead of harvest and processors to secure supply amid fluctuating conditions.^[86] Price volatility remains a defining feature of row crop markets, driven by external shocks that affect supply and demand balances. Weather events, such as droughts in key producing regions like the U.S. Midwest or excessive rainfall in South America, can sharply reduce yields and propel prices upward, as seen in corn market swings tied to La Niña patterns. Geopolitical factors, including trade tensions between major importers like China and exporters, or conflicts disrupting Black Sea grain flows, further amplify uncertainty, with studies showing elevated geopolitical risk indices correlating to heightened futures volatility in grains.^[87]^[88] The value chain for row crops spans from farm-level production through processing, distribution, and international trade, creating interconnected economic flows that influence global food security. In the United States, soybeans exemplify this chain, with harvested beans processed into meal for livestock feed and oil for various uses before export; this pathway supports a robust export sector, where shipments to China—a primary destination—have exceeded $15 billion in value during the 2020s. For instance, in fiscal year 2022, U.S. soybean exports to China totaled $16.4 billion, accounting for nearly half of all U.S. agricultural exports to the country and underscoring the crop's role in bilateral trade dynamics.^[89] Policy interventions, particularly through the U.S. Farm Bill, play a pivotal role in stabilizing and incentivizing row crop markets via subsidies and demand-side supports. The Farm Bill's crop insurance provisions, authorized under Title XI, subsidize up to 60% of premiums for producers of row crops like corn and soybeans, reducing financial exposure to yield losses and encouraging acreage expansion; extensions of the 2018 Farm Bill through 2025 and into 2026 for key programs have maintained these supports at over $10 billion annually in federal outlays. Complementing this, Title IX energy programs and mandates under the Renewable Fuel Standard bolster biofuels demand, requiring blending of corn-derived ethanol into gasoline and thereby sustaining elevated production levels for row crops amid volatile energy markets.^[90]^[91]^[92]

Environmental and Sustainability Aspects

Benefits to Farming Systems

Row crop agriculture enhances farming systems through significant efficiency gains, primarily enabled by mechanization, which reduces labor requirements and supports larger-scale operations. Mechanized planting, cultivation, and harvesting in uniform rows allow for faster and more precise field operations, minimizing manual labor while increasing productivity. For instance, the adoption of machinery in row crop production has historically contributed to rising agricultural output with fewer workers, enabling farms to expand and contribute to global food security by boosting crop yields to meet growing populations. This scalability is particularly evident in major row crops like corn and soybeans, where mechanization facilitates consistent, high-volume production across vast areas. Rotations within row crop systems further support soil health and fertility by diversifying nutrient demands and reducing depletion from monoculture practices. By alternating crops such as corn with soybeans or wheat, farmers improve soil structure, enhance nutrient cycling, and increase overall fertility, leading to higher long-term yields without excessive external inputs. These rotations also promote biodiversity by breaking pest and disease cycles, allowing for more resilient ecosystems within the farm. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, tailored to row configurations, minimize chemical overuse by combining monitoring, biological controls, and targeted interventions, thereby preserving beneficial insects and reducing environmental impacts while maintaining crop protection. The adaptability of row crop systems to climate challenges is bolstered by precision agriculture techniques, such as variable-rate application of fertilizers, which optimize inputs based on soil variability and weather conditions. This approach enhances resource efficiency, reduces waste, and improves crop resilience to stressors like drought or erratic rainfall by ensuring nutrients are delivered precisely where needed. For example, adjusting fertilizer rates in row patterns can lower leaching risks and support sustainable yields under changing climates, contributing to broader farming system stability.

Challenges and Mitigation

Row crop farming, particularly through conventional tillage practices, contributes significantly to soil erosion, with average annual losses on U.S. cropland estimated at approximately 4.6 tons per acre (about 11.3 tons per hectare) as of 2017 according to the USDA National Resources Inventory, though rates have continued to decline with conservation efforts and can still exceed 10 tons per hectare in intensively tilled fields.^[93] This erosion is exacerbated by the exposed soil between rows during planting and cultivation, leading to the loss of topsoil essential for long-term productivity. Additionally, runoff from row crop fields carries sediments, fertilizers, and pesticides into waterways, making agricultural nonpoint source pollution the leading cause of impairments to rivers and streams in the United States.^[94] Nitrate and phosphorus from these sources, often linked to tile-drained row crop systems like corn and soybeans, contribute to eutrophication and hypoxic zones in downstream waters.^[95] Monoculture systems dominant in row crop production further diminish biodiversity by simplifying habitats, reducing insect and pollinator populations, and limiting soil microbial diversity compared to more varied cropping systems.^[96] This loss affects ecosystem services such as natural pest control and pollination, with studies indicating significant reductions in wild bee diversity in intensive row crop landscapes.^[97] To address soil erosion, conservation tillage—leaving at least 30% crop residue on the surface—has been widely adopted, covering about 70% of major U.S. row crop acreage like corn and soybeans by the early 2020s.^[98] Cover cropping during off-seasons suppresses erosion by protecting soil and enhancing infiltration, reducing nitrate leaching by up to 61% in Midwestern row crop systems.^[99] Vegetative buffer strips along field edges and waterways trap sediments and nutrients, mitigating runoff pollution by 40-90% for particulate phosphorus and sediments in agricultural settings.^[100]^[101] Emerging regenerative practices, including no-till farming integrated with cover crops, further build soil health and reduce erosion rates to below 2 tons per hectare annually in adapted systems.^[102] Precision agriculture technologies, such as GPS-guided variable-rate application, enable targeted inputs in row crops, cutting fertilizer use by up to 15% and other inputs like water by 20-30% while maintaining yields, according to 2025 analyses of U.S. Midwestern farms.^[103] These approaches, often combined with brief crop rotations, enhance overall resilience against environmental degradation.^[104] As of 2025, USDA initiatives have expanded climate-smart practices in row crop systems, promoting carbon sequestration and adaptation to climate variability.^[105]

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The Evolution of Precision Agriculture and Policy Implications
Aug 23, 2023 · The first GPS auto-guidance system was usedon a salt harvester in 1996. By the early 2000s precision farming began to pick up speed. According ...Missing: crops | Show results with:crops
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The History of Precision Agriculture | When did precision farming start?
Jun 28, 2021 · Precision ag was theorized in the 1980s by Dr. Pierre Robert, but wasn't widely used until the early 2000s.Missing: guided row
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A very short history of precision agriculture - GPS World
Mar 26, 2025 · In the mid-2000s, autosteering systems started to become standard on newer equipment and soon became a key product in the aftermarket. This gave ...Missing: planting crops
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Global maize production, consumption and trade: trends and R&D ...
May 17, 2022 · The global maize area (for dry grain) amounts to 197 M ha, including substantive areas in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Asia and Latin America ...
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Row Spacing for Corn - Integrated Crop Management
Jan 1, 2022 · The most common row spacing for corn across the Corn Belt is 30-inches. This is compared to 36- and 38-inch row spacing dating back to the 1960s.Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
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Nitrogen fixation trends in soybean - Top Crop Manager
Jan 20, 2023 · “One of the fascinating features of soybeans is their ability to fix nitrogen through their symbiotic association with bacteria called rhizobia, ...Missing: row | Show results with:row
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Analysis of world trends in soybean production
For the period from 2014 to 2023, the area under soybeans in the world increased by 20.3 million hectares, amounting to 139.4 million hectares (Figure 1).
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[PDF] The Biology of Triticum aestivum L. (bread wheat)
Bread wheat is the most widely grown food crop in the world. The global production of wheat in 2019 was estimated at 766 million tonnes by the Food and ...
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Wheat - Wikipedia
Wheat is a group of wild and domesticated grasses of the genus Triticum They are cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world ...Wheat production in the United... · Taxonomy of wheat · Winter wheat · Wheat flourMissing: profile | Show results with:profile
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Cotton Growth and Development - Bayer Crop Science
Feb 14, 2024 · Cotton has an indeterminate growth habit, allowing plants to grow very tall and heavy with vegetation if they are not managed properly. First ...
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https://www.ogtr.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/2021-07/the_biology_of_triticum_aestivum_l._bread_wheat.pdf
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[PDF] Rice Production Manual - Agronomy
This manual covers rice growth, yield components, land formation, field development, and variety selection.
[40]
Rice production systems in Asia | Gis Asie
Rice lands occupy some 150 million hectares worldwide, i.e. 15% of the global farm area and almost a quarter of the world's cereal crop lands.<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Sorghum and Pearl Millet as Climate Resilient Crops for Food ... - NIH
Sorghum and pearl millet are also regarded as climate-smart crops because of their extreme tolerance to heat (up to 42°C air temperature), drought, and salinity ...Missing: row | Show results with:row
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[PDF] Maize, sorghum, and pearl millet have highly ... - OSTI.GOV
Sorghum and pearl millet are the staple crop of large population in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Sorghum is cultivated on about 35 M ha.Missing: row | Show results with:row
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Agriculture in Georgia
Feb 25, 2022 · Georgia now consistently ranks first in the nation's production of poultry and eggs and is also a top producer of peanuts, pecans, tobacco, blueberries, and ...
[44]
More Than PB and Hay: The Value of Peanuts in North Carolina
Jun 8, 2022 · With the advent of peanut cultivation and harvest machinery around 1900, peanuts became a truly commercially-viable cash crop in the South.
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This Year's Tobacco Crop Starts Now | N.C. Cooperative Extension
Feb 19, 2024 · Tobacco is a unique “row crop”, in that unlike corn, soybeans or cotton, it is actually started from seed in a greenhouse and transplanted into the field as a ...
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A Guide to Intensive Vegetable Systems
Intensive Vegetable Production refers to a system of marketing and producing vegetable crops in which great attention is placed on detail and optimization…
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Production and Harvesting - Vegetables - Penn State Extension
One of the greatest challenges in growing tomatoes in an intensive production system is keeping up with the plants high consumption of ...
[48]
Clover Cover Crops as a Living Mulch for Pepper Production in ...
May 9, 2023 · Clover cover crops that are grown as living mulch may suppress weeds, contribute nitrogen after establishment, and prevent soil erosion.
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Keep garden rows wide enough to cultivate, narrow enough to ...
May 13, 2013 · For most crops such as beans, corn, tomatoes, eggplant, peppers, okra, peas and squash, 36-inch row spacing would be the minimum. Some gardeners ...Missing: typical | Show results with:typical
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[PDF] Ultra-Narrow-Row Cotton - USDA
or more than a century, farmers planted cotton in wide rows about 30 to 40 inches apart. Their choices were limited, as was their equipment, which was.
[51]
Seed To Harvest: The Basics Of Row Crops In Pennsylvania
Jan 25, 2024 · This series will supply the basics of what it takes to grow crops in Pennsylvania, and why farmers grow them.
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Conservation tillage | Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education ...
Aug 2, 2021 · Conservation tillage, or minimum tillage, is a broadly defined practice that includes no-till, strip till, ridge till, and mulch till systems.Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance<|control11|><|separator|>
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Strip Preparation for No-till Corn and Soybeans - Purdue Extension
Other methods of loosening soil in the row include cultivator sweeps or powered rotary tillers set for strip tillage, either preplant or with the planter. ...Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance
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How Early Is Too Early to Plant Row Crops? - SDSU Extension
Apr 23, 2021 · If corn is planted before soil temperatures reach a minimum of 50 degrees Fahrenheit, it may be much slower to germinate and come up less ...Missing: zones | Show results with:zones
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When and how to plant soybean - University of Minnesota Extension
Planting very full-season varieties (+0.5 maturity group (MG)) tends to produce greater overall yields, but only when planted by the first week of May. By mid- ...
[56]
Growing Vegetable Transplants | Oklahoma State University
Crops likely to benefit from transplanting include brassica head crops, lettuce, onions, celery, nightshades like tomato, etc. and cucurbits.
[57]
APPENDIX – Weed Management - Extension
The use of effective herbicides has reduced the need for inter-row cultivation. However, many growers use both herbicides and row cultivation as their weed ...
[58]
[PDF] Crop Scouting Manual 2010 - Wisconsin Corn Agronomy
After the soybeans are too large for direct observations, use the drop cloth technique (for wide row soybeans only) or 15 inch diameter insect sweep net.
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[PDF] IPM Plan Guide Sheet Practices for Field Crop Production
Sep 3, 2009 · Ohio IPM Elements3 Rotate to crops other than corn Rotate soybean with corn or small grains; a two or three year rotation is adequate under ...Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance
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[PDF] 8 – Corn Harvesting - Extension
Corn heads aligned with combine wheels and matched with planters and row bedders improve combine performance. Rasp-Bar Cylinder or Threshing Rotor. A rasp-bar ...
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[PDF] Grain Harvest and Handling - VTechWorks
Header attachments are used to engage the crop. The two most common types of header attachments on grain combines are the grain table and the corn or row head.
[62]
Current research and development in cotton harvesters: A review ...
May 15, 2023 · Cotton picking is typically done mechanically by cotton pickers or cotton strippers in developed nations like the USA, Australia, Brazil, and ...
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Corn Harvest, Handling, Drying, and Early Storage Considerations ...
Sep 15, 2025 · Similarly, the period of holding before damage causes a quality grade reduction is also roughly cut in half for every 2 additional points of ...Missing: row silos standards
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Cotton Harvest Aids | MU Extension
Sep 1, 2020 · Removing leaves and opening bolls with harvest aids are important components of a management plan for producing high-quality cotton fiber.
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[PDF] 10 Drying, Handling, and Storage of Raw Commodities
All postharvest operations attempt to maintain the initial quality of the harvested grain. During storage, grain must be protected from deterioration or attack.Missing: row | Show results with:row
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[PDF] Grain Inspection Handbook - Book II Grading
Oct 1, 2020 · Book II of the Grain Inspection Handbook sets forth policies and procedures for grading grain according to the Official United States Standards ...
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FAO Statistical Yearbook 2024 reveals critical insights on the ...
Nov 18, 2024 · The global production of primary crops reached 9.6 ... maize, wheat and rice together account for nearly half of global crop production.
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FAO Cereal Supply and Demand Brief
Forecast at 2 990 million tonnes, world cereal production (including rice in milled equivalent) is expected to reach a record level in 2025, up 4.4 percent from ...
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Production - Corn - USDA Foreign Agricultural Service
Chart showing the top 10 producers of Corn from 2015 to 2024 in Metric Tons plus an aggregated amount for the rest of the world. The chart has 1 X axis ...Missing: hectares 2020s
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Top 10 Rice‑Producing Countries in the world, based on ... - Facebook
Aug 2, 2025 · Production of Rice: China: 211,860,000 (tonnes) India: 178,305,000 Bangladesh: 54,905,891 Indonesia: 54,649,202 Vietnam: 42,758,897 ...
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Production - Soybeans - USDA Foreign Agricultural Service
Market, % of Global Production, Total Production (2024/2025, Metric Tons). Brazil, 40%, 169 Million. United States, 28%, 118.84 Million.Missing: FAO | Show results with:FAO
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Wheat Production by Country 2025 - World Population Review
China, India, and Russia are the three largest individual wheat producers in the world, accounting for about 41% of the world's total wheat production.
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https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/fao-statistical-yearbook-2024-reveals-critical-insights-on-the-sustainability-of-agriculture-food-security-and-the-importance-of-agrifood-in-employment/en
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Historical Corn Grain Yields in the US - Purdue Agronomy
US corn yields were stagnant at 26 bu/ac until the late 1930s, then increased to 0.8 bu/ac/year, and then to 1.9 bu/ac/year since the mid-1950s.Missing: row | Show results with:row
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Corn Yield Gains Due to Genetic and Management Improvements
Today's hybrids have improved stress tolerance, a higher grain-to-stover ratio, less silk delay and barrenness, better stalks and roots, smaller tassels, more ...
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Agricultural Biotechnology - FDA
Jul 9, 2024 · In 2020, GMO soybeans made up 94% of all soybeans planted, GMO cotton made up 96% of all cotton planted, and 92% of corn planted was GMO corn.
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GM crop technology use 1996-2018: farm income and production ...
Jul 24, 2020 · GM crop technology has had a significant positive impact on global gross farm income, which amounted to 18.9 USD billion in 2018. This is ...
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harmonizing the discourse on genetically modified crops - Frontiers
By October 2024, over 30 nations have approved the cultivation of GM crops. The global area utilized for biotech crop production has reached 206.3 million ...Missing: row | Show results with:row
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[PDF] OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2024-2033 (EN)
Part 4: Statistical Annex presents projections for production, consumption, trade, and prices for agricultural commodities, fish, and biofuels, as well as ...
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Agricultural Commodities Products - CME Group
Access real-time and historical data on key commodities like Wheat, Corn and Soybean futures and options to empower your trading decisions and enhance your risk ...Grain and Oilseed futures and... · Micro Ag futures · Hard Red Spring Wheat FuturesMissing: row | Show results with:row
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Factors Impacting Ag Commodities Production and Prices | AgCountry
Mar 19, 2024 · Probably the most impactful variable is weather volatility. The more volatile and extreme weather becomes, the more productive potential for ...<|separator|>
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Geopolitical Risk and the Volatility of the International Grain Futures ...
Jul 22, 2025 · This study offers valuable insights into grain market volatility and geopolitical risk, contributing to agricultural futures investment and ...Missing: row | Show results with:row
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Record U.S. FY 2022 Agricultural Exports to China
Jan 6, 2023 · Soybeans accounted for nearly one-half of U.S. agricultural exports to China at a record $16.4 billion, surpassing the previous year's record by ...
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Farm Bill | USDA
Jun 3, 2019 · USDA provides financial support including crop and livestock insurance, grants and loans, and disaster resources for farmers and ranchers. ... On ...Implementation Progress · Title Ii -- Conservation · Title Xii -- Miscellaneous
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What is the Farm Bill? - National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
The Crop Insurance title provides premium subsidies to farmers and subsidies to the private crop insurance companies who provide federal crop insurance to ...The Farm Bill Connects The... · 5. How Does The Farm Bill... · AppropriationsMissing: row | Show results with:row
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Challenge #1: Soil Erosion from Agricultural Fields
The national average soil loss in 2007 was 4.8 tons per acre per year compared to 7.3 tons per acre per year in 1982 (NRCS, 2017h).
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Nonpoint Source: Agriculture | US EPA
The National Water Quality Assessment shows that agricultural runoff is the leading cause of water quality impacts to rivers and streams, the third leading ...
[88]
Row crops, field tiles causing water quality problems, studies say
Apr 28, 2011 · The largest losses of nitrate, which occur every January-June, are related to intensive, fertilized agriculture with tile drainage. Phosphorus ...
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The impacts of modern agriculture on insect diversity - Entomology
Jan 24, 2022 · Monoculture farming reduces insect diversity by simplifying landscapes, impacting soil health, and preventing pollinators from accessing needed ...
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Diversified Farming in a Monoculture Landscape: Effects on Honey ...
Apr 4, 2020 · For example, conversion of natural habitat into extensive row-crop agriculture in the Midwestern United States is associated with reduced wild ...
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[PDF] Economic Outcomes of Soil Health and Conservation Practices on ...
Adoption of conservation tillage (no-till and reduced tillage combined) continues to increase, but the adop- tion of no-till alone has slowed for some crops. • ...
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[PDF] Midwest Cover Crop Adoption: Summary - Purdue Agriculture
In Midwestern systems, cover crops have been found to decrease nitrate losses by up to 61%, mitigating nutrient leaching into waterways (Johnson et al., 2024).
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Cover crops for improved surface water quality: Benefits and ...
Cover crops mainly reduce particulate phosphorus loss, defined as phosphorus attached to soil particles, by reducing erosion and increasing water infiltration.Missing: row | Show results with:row
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Conservation Buffers for Reducing Non Point Source Pollution
A grassy strip between a field and a wetland can be a conservation buffer. The strip may be mowed several times a year to keep it from growing up to brush.Missing: row mitigation
[95]
Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability - PMC - NIH
Generally, soil conservation programs consider T values to be ≈5–12 tons/hectare per year (30), equivalent to ≈0.4–1 mm/yr of erosion (assuming a soil bulk ...Missing: row | Show results with:row
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The role of modern agricultural technologies in improving ...
Sep 16, 2025 · Precision agriculture, utilizing GPS, drones, and IoT, improves yields by 20–30% and cuts input waste by 40–60%. Biotechnology, with CRISPR and ...
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Crop rotation: In praise of deliberate, sequenced disruption of ...
Dec 1, 2016 · Crop rotation is growing different crops in sequence, like wheat, corn, then beans. It helps control pests and improve soils, and is a human ...Missing: loss row