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Salfit

Salfit (Arabic: سلفيت) is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, serving as the capital of the Salfit Governorate.^[1] The city covers an area of 5.2 square kilometers and had a population of 10,911 according to the 2017 Palestinian census.^[2] Situated at an elevation of approximately 570 meters, Salfit lies in Area A of the Oslo Accords, under full Palestinian Authority civil and security control.^[3] The surrounding Salfit Governorate spans 204 square kilometers with a population of 75,444 as of 2017, encompassing fertile lands that support significant agricultural activity.^[1] Salfit is particularly noted for its olive cultivation, contributing substantially to the West Bank's olive oil production, estimated at around 1,500 tons annually from the region.^[4]^[5] The city's economy relies heavily on agriculture, including grapes and figs, alongside ancient wine presses that reflect its historical ties to viticulture.^[6] Proximity to Israeli settlements, such as Ariel, has led to land access restrictions and conflicts over agricultural resources, including documented incidents of settler interference with olive harvests.^[7]^[8] These tensions highlight causal factors in regional disputes, driven by settlement expansion fragmenting Palestinian land holdings, as evidenced by empirical data on built-up areas and barriers.^[9] Despite such challenges, Salfit maintains educational institutions, including branches of universities, and serves as a local hub for services in the governorate.^[10]

Etymology

Name derivation and historical usage

The name Salfit (Arabic: سَلْفِيت, Salfīt) derives from Arabic roots, with local linguistic interpretations linking it to "sal" (سل), denoting baskets, and "fit" (فيت), referring to grapes, collectively implying "basket of grapes" in reference to the region's historical cultivation of vineyards.^[6]^[11] This etymology aligns with empirical observations of the area's fertile terrain suited for fruit production, though alternative derivations propose connections to "salf" (سلف), connoting preceding or levelled agricultural fields prepared for sowing.^[12] Claims of Canaanite origins for the name lack substantiation from ancient Semitic texts or inscriptions, relying instead on unverified folk traditions without archaeological corroboration.^[6] Historical records attest to the name's usage as "Salfit" in Ottoman tax registers (defters) dating to the 16th century, reflecting administrative continuity in the Nablus sanjak.^[12] Spelling variations persist across languages, including Salfeet in some English transliterations and סַלְפִּית (Salfit) in Hebrew sources, but the Arabic form remains predominant in primary documents. No evidence supports pre-Ottoman attestations under a distinctly similar name, underscoring the term's likely medieval Arabic development tied to local topography and economy rather than ancient precedents.

Geography

Location and administrative boundaries

Salfit is situated in the central West Bank at geographical coordinates approximately 32°05′N 35°04′E, with an elevation of 522 meters above sea level.^[6] As the capital of Salfit Governorate, it lies within Palestinian Area A as designated by the Oslo II Interim Agreement of 1995, granting the Palestinian Authority full civil and security control over the urban center.^[6] The city's municipal boundaries, as delineated by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, encompass the main urban area and adjacent localities like Khirbet Qeis, covering a built-up zone administered under Palestinian governance.^[6] The administrative boundaries of Salfit place it roughly 20 kilometers east of the 1949 Armistice Line (Green Line), bordering Palestinian villages such as Az-Zawiya to the northwest and Qira to the southeast within the governorate.^[6] It is adjacent to the Israeli settlement of Ariel, located immediately to the east, which influences local access routes despite the separation under Oslo classifications.^[13] Salfit Governorate itself spans northwestern West Bank territories, bordered by Nablus Governorate to the north, Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate to the south, and Qalqilya Governorate to the west, with the Jordan Valley forming the eastern limit.^[14]

Topography, climate, and natural resources

Salfit lies in the central highlands of the West Bank, featuring hilly terrain typical of the Judean Hills with gentle slopes and elevations ranging from approximately 100 to 700 meters above sea level, averaging around 508 meters in the city proper.^[3]^[15] This topography supports terraced agriculture but limits expansive urban development due to steep gradients and fragmented landforms.^[16] The area experiences a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, with mean annual temperatures of 17.4–18.2°C across the Salfit Governorate.^[17]^[16] Annual rainfall averages 649.5 mm in Salfit city, concentrated between November and March, enabling rain-fed cultivation while summer months remain largely rainless.^[17]^[18] Natural resources are dominated by groundwater from aquifers shared across the West Bank and stone quarries, alongside agricultural potential from fertile soils suited to olives, which cover extensive groves in the hilly landscape.^[4]^[19] Water resources face constraints from overexploitation and recharge limitations, with hydrological assessments indicating vulnerability to pollution in the Salfit District's aquifers, where percolating contaminants from surface activities threaten groundwater quality.^[15]^[20] Empirical data from regional studies show nitrate levels exceeding safe thresholds in portions of West Bank groundwater, including northern areas near Salfit, underscoring risks to potable supplies.^[21]^[22]

History

Ottoman era

Salfit functioned as a village within the Nablus Sanjak of the Ottoman Empire, part of the broader administrative structure in Palestine following the conquest in 1516–1517. Ottoman tax registers (defters) from the 16th century documented it as a small rural settlement in the district, with local governance tied to timar holders responsible for tax collection and land management. In 1561, disputes arose when an agent of the timar holder in Salfit appeared before the kadi of Nablus to address local grievances, highlighting occasional tensions over taxation and authority but no large-scale unrest. The economy centered on agriculture, particularly olive cultivation, with Salfit recognized in the 19th century as one of the two primary olive-oil-producing villages in the Jabal Nablus region.^[23] Ottoman officials visiting the area in the late Ottoman period noted complaints from residents primarily against Nablus merchants, indicating economic interdependence amid subsistence farming.^[12] Demographic records portray a predominantly Muslim population with no notable Jewish or Christian communities, sustained under the Ottoman millet system that provided communal autonomy for Muslims via Islamic legal frameworks, fostering relative stability despite periodic fiscal pressures.^[12]

British Mandate and interwar period

Following the capture of Palestine from Ottoman control in 1917, Salfit fell under British military administration until the formal Mandate was established in 1920, with civil governance commencing in 1923; the village was classified within the Nablus sub-district and remained predominantly agricultural, focused on olive and cereal cultivation.^[24] The 1922 census recorded a population of 901 Muslims in Salfit, reflecting a stable rural community with no reported non-Muslim residents.^[25] By the 1931 census, the population had risen to 1,415, all Muslims, an increase attributable to high natural growth rates common in Mandate-era Palestinian villages amid improved public health measures, though some regional Arab migration from urban areas contributed amid economic pressures.^[25]^[26] Land transactions in Salfit during this period involved negligible sales to Jewish buyers, with British records indicating Jewish ownership comprised less than 1% of the sub-district's total area by 1945, preserving local Arab control over most arable land and minimizing direct displacement disputes in the village itself.^[27] However, regional violence from the 1929 riots—sparked by disputes over the Western Wall in Jerusalem and spreading to Nablus—heightened security measures and communal tensions, prompting British reinforcements and curfews that indirectly affected Salfit's access to markets and trade routes.^[28] Salfit participated in the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt, with local residents joining irregular fighters targeting British forces and infrastructure in the Nablus hills, driven by opposition to increased Jewish immigration and land policies under the Mandate.^[28] The revolt intensified after the 1937 Peel Commission proposed partitioning Palestine into Arab and Jewish states, a plan rejected by Arab leaders including those from the Nablus area as infringing on territorial integrity; Salfit's involvement included sabotage of roads and clashes with patrols, contributing to over 5,000 Arab casualties nationwide from British suppression operations.^[28]^[29] By the revolt's end in 1939, British countermeasures, including village fines and arrests, had disrupted local economies but solidified resistance narratives in Salfit.^[30]

Jordanian control (1948–1967)

Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Salfit fell within the territories of the West Bank occupied by Jordanian forces, placed under de facto Jordanian military administration pursuant to the 1949 armistice agreements with Israel.^[31] In December 1948, King Abdullah I of Transjordan announced the unification of these areas, including East Jerusalem, with his kingdom, a move formalized by a Jordanian parliamentary resolution on April 24, 1950, that approved the annexation and extended Jordanian citizenship to West Bank residents.^[32] ^[33] This annexation, however, lacked broad international recognition, receiving formal acknowledgment only from the United Kingdom and Pakistan.^[33] Under Jordanian rule, Salfit's administration emphasized security measures over economic or infrastructural development, reflecting the kingdom's prioritization of the East Bank and limited resources allocated to the annexed territories.^[31] A municipal council was established in Salfit in 1955 to handle local governance.^[6] Basic public utilities saw modest introduction, with electricity and water networks both initiated in 1958 under the West Bank Water Department.^[6] Construction activity remained largely confined to private-sector housing initiatives, with negligible public investment in broader infrastructure or industry.^[34] The local economy centered on subsistence agriculture, constrained by the hilly terrain and lack of modernization efforts, leading to persistent stagnation.^[31] The influx of approximately 280,000 Palestinian refugees into the West Bank following the 1948 war contributed to demographic pressures across rural areas, including Salfit, though specific local records on integration or camp establishment are sparse.^[31] Jordanian policies integrated refugees into the census framework, granting them citizenship upon annexation, but economic opportunities remained limited, exacerbating reliance on traditional farming.^[31]

Israeli administration (1967–present)

Israeli forces seized control of Salfit during the Six-Day War on June 5–10, 1967, as part of the broader capture of the West Bank from Jordan.^[35] The area fell under direct military rule administered by the Israel Defense Forces' Central Command, which maintained order through regional commanders overseeing civilian affairs, including local taxation, education, and health services.^[36] Pre-existing Jordanian-era municipal councils in Salfit continued to function with Israeli approval, handling day-to-day administration such as waste management and local markets, though subject to military oversight and veto on security-related matters.^[37] In March 1981, Israel transitioned from pure military governance to the Civil Administration under the broader military framework, delegating some non-security functions like infrastructure maintenance and agricultural permits to Palestinian civil servants in Salfit and the West Bank.^[36] This period saw empirical gains in economic output and public utilities; West Bank GNP grew at an average annual rate of 14% from 1970 to 1975 and 7% from 1976 to 1980, driven partly by Palestinian labor access to Israeli markets and remittances, with Salfit's agricultural exports benefiting from improved road connectivity.^[38] Electricity access expanded via connections to Israel's national grid, raising household electrification rates in rural West Bank areas from under 50% pre-1967 to over 90% by the early 1980s, including extensions to Salfit's villages for irrigation pumps and lighting.^[39] Security policies intensified amid documented threats, with Israeli forces imposing curfews, checkpoints, and administrative detentions in response to fedayeen attacks originating from West Bank locales during the 1970s, such as bus hijackings and shootings that killed dozens of Israeli civilians.^[40] These measures, justified by military orders citing prevention of infiltration, correlated with reduced cross-border incidents compared to pre-1967 Jordanian rule, though they restricted movement and fueled local grievances.^[41] Palestinian calls for autonomy escalated through strikes and petitions in the late 1970s, prompting limited Israeli concessions like village league experiments—self-governing councils in select West Bank areas, including near Salfit, which offered tax incentives but collapsed amid boycotts by 1983.^[37] The First Intifada, erupting in December 1987, brought widespread protests and stone-throwing clashes to Salfit, leading to the dismissal of local council heads deemed supportive of unrest and the imposition of prolonged closures, which halved West Bank economic growth by 1988.^[42] Israeli responses included over 100,000 arrests across the territories by 1990, with Salfit's strategic position near Nablus contributing to frequent military patrols, yet data indicate a decline in large-scale attacks from the area during peak enforcement years.^[41] Administrative continuity persisted through appointed mukhtars in villages until the early 1990s, balancing service provision with security imperatives amid ongoing autonomy pressures.^[36]

Impact of Oslo Accords and Area A designation

The Oslo II Interim Agreement, signed on September 28, 1995, designated Salfit as an Area A locality, transferring responsibility for civil administration and internal security to the newly established Palestinian Authority (PA) in major West Bank urban centers.^[43] This classification covered approximately 18% of the West Bank's territory, primarily Palestinian population concentrations, with the intent of enabling phased Palestinian self-rule while Israel retained overall external security control.^[44] By the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics' 1997 census, Salfit's urban population numbered around 7,900, reflecting a small but growing community under the nascent PA framework.^[45] The PA's inaugural legislative and presidential elections on January 20, 1996, paved the way for localized governance in Area A sites like Salfit, including the establishment of a municipal mayor and council aligned with PA structures.^[46] Yet, promised fiscal independence faltered due to structural dependencies; the PA budget, including for Salfit Governorate localities, hinged on "clearance revenues"—customs duties and taxes on Palestinian imports collected by Israel and transferred monthly. These funds accounted for over 60% of PA revenues by the early 2000s, with ongoing Israeli oversight and periodic withholdings limiting autonomous budgeting, as documented in 2023 analyses showing monthly transfers averaging $150-200 million amid deductions for various obligations.^[47] ^[48] Implementation gaps widened during the Second Intifada (2000-2005), as rejectionist groups operating from PA-controlled Area A zones, including villages in Salfit Governorate, launched or facilitated attacks that killed over 1,000 Israelis, primarily civilians, via suicide bombings and shootings originating in West Bank enclaves.^[49] PA security lapses—evidenced by failure to dismantle militant networks despite Oslo-mandated cooperation—eroded trust and suspended further redeployments, contrasting the accords' autonomy goals with persistent violence that prioritized ideological opposition over governance stability.^[50] Israeli reports attributed much of this to PA tolerance of armed factions, undermining empirical progress toward state-building.^[51]

Governance and politics

Palestinian Authority administration

The Palestinian Authority exercises civil administration over Salfit through its municipal council, which handles local governance under the oversight of the Ministry of Local Government. The council, led by an elected mayor, manages day-to-day operations including public services, infrastructure maintenance, and revenue collection via taxes and fees, supplemented by transfers from PA central budgets and international donors. Local elections, last broadly held in the West Bank in phases up to 2012 with subsequent delays due to factional disputes, have seen Fatah-affiliated lists dominate Salfit, as in the 2005 polls where the party secured the council amid Hamas's limited participation in smaller West Bank locales.^[52] Educational services fall under PA jurisdiction, with governmental schools providing primary and secondary instruction to local students, though the sector contends with resource shortages such as the absence of specialized agricultural programs. Health provision includes primary care via the Salfit Health Directorate's clinics and secondary services at the Yasser Arafat Governmental Hospital, established in 2006 with 50 beds for emergency and specialized treatment, alongside private and radiology facilities.^[6] Fatah's entrenched position in Salfit mirrors PA-wide factional dynamics, where Hamas poses electoral challenges but has faced boycotts or weaker showings in West Bank municipal races, contributing to governance continuity under the dominant party. Allegations of corruption in PA local administration persist, with Palestine ranking 77th out of 180 countries in Transparency International's 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index (score of 29/100), reflecting systemic issues in public sector transparency and accountability that affect municipal efficiency.^[53]^[54]

Israeli military and civil oversight

The Israeli Civil Administration, operating under the Israel Defense Forces, coordinates certain civil affairs in the West Bank, including aspects of resource allocation and permitting that intersect with Palestinian Authority (PA) jurisdictions in areas like Salfit Governorate, despite its predominant Area A designation under the Oslo II Accord.^[55] This includes oversight of water supply through the Joint Water Committee (JWC), established by the 1995 Oslo II agreement, where Israel allocates approximately 196 million cubic meters annually to Palestinians in the West Bank from shared aquifers, with the PA distributing portions to governorates including Salfit via purchases from Mekorot.^[56] The JWC approves projects and monitors usage to ensure equitable management under the interim framework, though implementation involves Israeli veto power on developments affecting shared resources.^[57] Israeli military oversight in Salfit emphasizes counterterrorism, justified by the Oslo Accords' provisions granting Israel overriding responsibility for security against threats originating from Area A, allowing entry for operations without prior coordination in cases of imminent danger.^[58] The Shin Bet and IDF routinely conduct arrests and raids in the region to dismantle terror cells, contributing to the foiling of over 1,000 major attacks across the West Bank and Jerusalem in 2024 alone, many linked to Hamas or other groups active near Salfit.^[59] Checkpoints encircling Salfit, such as those at town entrances like Deir Istiya, serve to mitigate risks by screening movements and preventing weapon smuggling or incursions, with forces maintaining temporary and permanent posts amid heightened threats.^[60] While routine coordination occurs with PA security forces on joint arrests, Israel exercises unilateral action during emergencies, as evidenced by frequent IDF incursions into Area A sites in Salfit Governorate for targeted operations, preserving overall territorial security per the accords' structure.^[61] This framework has enabled a reported 40% decline in successful terror attacks from the West Bank in recent years, underscoring the efficacy of proactive measures despite operational tensions.^[62]

Local elections and municipal structure

The municipal elections in Salfit were last held on October 20, 2012, as part of the Palestinian Central Elections Commission's third round of local polls in the West Bank.^[63] Of 5,370 registered voters, 4,160 participated, yielding a turnout of 77.47%.^[63] The Fatah and Democratic Front list secured 9 of 15 council seats with 2,170 votes, while the Alshheed Yaser Arfat list obtained 4 seats with 1,072 votes, the Salfit Independent Block 2 seats with 389 votes, and the Salfit for All list no seats with 173 votes.^[63] These results reflected Fatah's dominance in the district amid Hamas's boycott of the West Bank phase.^[64] Subsequent municipal elections planned for 2017 and beyond have been repeatedly postponed by the Palestinian Authority due to internal political divisions, leaving Salfit's council appointed by the Palestinian National Authority rather than elected.^[6] The current council comprises 16 members and is headed by Mayor Abdul Karim Zubaidi.^[6]^[65] It operates through specialized committees, including those for urban planning, public services, and financial oversight, which review and issue local land use permits and development proposals.^[65] These committees have encountered disputes with residents and authorities over permit approvals, often tied to constrained land availability and regulatory hurdles in the governorate.^[6] Local electoral dynamics in Salfit are influenced by socioeconomic pressures, such as elevated youth unemployment rates reported at around 40% in the Salfit Governorate by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics in recent labor force surveys, which have amplified calls for council focus on job creation and economic planning in municipal agendas. Appointed councils' lack of direct accountability has drawn criticism from observers for reducing transparency in decision-making processes.^[66]

Demographics

Population trends and statistics

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) 2017 Population, Housing and Establishments Census, Salfit city recorded a population of 10,911 residents. The census enumerated 5,452 males and 5,459 females, reflecting a near-even gender distribution. Prior to 2020, Salfit's annual population growth rate averaged approximately 2.5%, consistent with broader trends in the Salfit Governorate, where the population expanded from 46,077 in 1997 to 75,444 by mid-2017.^[67] This rate has subsequently moderated due to emigration amid regional instability. PCBS mid-year projections for localities in the governorate indicate continued modest increases, with estimates for Salfit city reaching around 11,500 by 2023 after adjusting for outflows.^[68] Salfit's municipal area spans 26.123 square kilometers, yielding an overall density of roughly 417 inhabitants per square kilometer based on 2017 figures; urban residential zones exhibit higher concentrations.^[6] The crude birth rate in the Salfit Governorate aligns closely with West Bank averages, at approximately 25 births per 1,000 population in recent years, compared to the territory-wide rate of 27.2 per 1,000 in 2021.^[69]^[70] The population of Salfit is ethnically homogeneous, comprising exclusively Palestinian Arabs of Levantine origin.^[71] Religiously, the residents are nearly entirely Sunni Muslims, with the 2017 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) census recording 100% of the Salfit Governorate population—encompassing the city—as adherents of Islam and no documented presence of Christians, Jews, or other religious groups.^[71] This uniformity reflects broader patterns in rural West Bank areas, where post-1948 demographic shifts and emigration diminished any prior minority communities. Social organization in Salfit centers on extended family clans, or hamulas (plural: hama'il), which consist of multiple interrelated families tracing descent to a common ancestor and exerting influence over local customs, dispute resolution, and resource allocation.^[72] These patrilineal units maintain traditional roles in a predominantly agrarian society, fostering cohesion amid external pressures. The gender distribution approaches parity, with PCBS data from 2007 indicating 50.1% males and 49.9% females in Salfit city, a balance consistent with recent West Bank averages of approximately 51% males overall.^[6]^[73] Educational attainment among adults reflects moderate progress, with a 2007 PCBS profile showing 44.3% of the literate population (aged 15+) having completed preparatory or secondary levels, supplemented by 22.7% holding university degrees—levels above the Palestinian average at the time due to local emphasis on schooling.^[6]

Economy

Agricultural sector and land use

The agricultural sector in Salfit Governorate relies heavily on olive cultivation, which dominates permanent crop areas spanning approximately 100,091 dunums as of land use assessments in 2006.^[74] These olive groves, often comprising over 98% of horticultural plantings in surveyed areas, produce significant yields, with records showing around 3,460 metric tons of olives pressed in the governorate during the 2021 season.^[75]^[76] Earlier data from 2008 identified Salfit as Palestine's leading olive oil producer, with annual output estimated at 1,500 tons, underscoring the crop's economic centrality despite annual fluctuations tied to weather and biennial bearing cycles.^[20] Rain-fed farming prevails, constituting 90.9% of cultivated land in 2010, supplemented by limited irrigation from wells and springs amid chronic water scarcity that restricts expanded production.^[16] Terraced hillsides, a traditional adaptation to the rugged topography, support olive trees but impede mechanization, fostering dependence on manual harvesting and maintenance practices that elevate labor costs and constrain efficiency gains.^[77]^[78] Yields per dunum remain modest compared to irrigated counterparts elsewhere, with PCBS and FAO-aligned analyses highlighting vulnerability to rainfall variability in this semi-arid zone.^[79] Olive oil and related products form the bulk of agricultural exports, channeled primarily through Israeli ports and markets, with 2022 production estimates around 500 tons reflecting post-harvest processing constraints and market access dynamics.^[76] Constraints include soil erosion risks on terraces and limited access to modern inputs, though initiatives like pruning training have aimed to bolster resilience and output in olive-dependent holdings.^[80] Overall, the sector supports local livelihoods but faces productivity hurdles from environmental factors and infrastructural limitations, per PCBS agricultural census data.^[79]

Industrial and service activities

The industrial sector in Salfit Governorate primarily revolves around mining, quarrying, and small-scale manufacturing, employing roughly 20.7% of the male labor force as of recent Palestinian labor surveys.^[81] Stone quarrying and processing dominate this segment, with Salfit recognized as a key hub for marble and stone works production, supporting local extraction and fabrication activities that contribute to construction materials supply within the West Bank.^[4] Manufacturing activities remain limited to light industries, such as basic textiles and assembly, constrained by fragmented markets, regulatory hurdles under Palestinian Authority oversight, and restricted access to larger export channels due to territorial divisions.^[82] Service activities form a notable portion of non-agricultural employment, with commerce, hotels, and restaurants accounting for about 14.5% of the workforce, centered on retail trade, small-scale hospitality, and basic financial services like banking branches.^[81] These sectors rely heavily on local consumption and informal networks, supplemented by public services including education and administration, though overall growth is hampered by high operational costs and dependency on remittances from Palestinian workers abroad. Nationally, personal remittances have ranged from 5% to 16% of GDP in recent years, providing a buffer for household spending in areas like Salfit but not translating into robust service expansion.^[83] Unemployment in the broader Palestinian labor market reached 25% among participants aged 15 and above in the second quarter of 2023, with youth rates significantly higher—often exceeding 40% in the West Bank—reflecting structural issues such as underdeveloped industrial clusters, Palestinian Authority fiscal constraints, and Israeli-imposed movement restrictions limiting access to external job markets.^[84] In Salfit, these dynamics amplify challenges for transitioning from small-scale quarrying to diversified services, perpetuating reliance on subsistence-level operations amid ongoing economic fragmentation.^[85]

Infrastructure, including water management

The Salfit Municipality maintains an electricity distribution network connected to the Israeli grid, through which the city purchases power from the Israel Electric Corporation, with local management handling internal supply and expansions.^[86] Coverage extends to urban areas, but residents experience irregular access due to supply constraints and network limitations, prompting ongoing rehabilitation and expansion efforts as outlined in municipal programs.^[17] ^[87] Road infrastructure includes internal networks targeted for paving and adaptation, with projects such as those in nearby Farkha village extending to Salfit areas, incorporating lighting and complementary utilities.^[88] Access to regional Highway 5 provides connectivity to larger West Bank routes, though municipal plans emphasize improving local adaptability during design and implementation to address terrain challenges.^[89] Water management relies on local springs, such as the Spring of the Mill and the Rail, where water is collected in tanks and pumped for distribution, supplemented by groundwater from the mountain aquifer.^[17] ^[90] However, the governorate faces a water deficit despite these resources, with pollution from sewage and solid waste affecting springs and aquifers used for supply.^[20] ^[15] Wastewater infrastructure development includes a long-planned treatment plant in Salfit, with recent construction initiated by the Mediterranean Automation and Control Company (MACC) under a KfW-funded design-build-operate-maintain contract, incorporating a small solar photovoltaic component for energy needs.^[91] ^[92] Recent initiatives under the Salfit Sustainable Energy Access and Climate Action Plan (SEACAP) aim to integrate solar energy into infrastructure, including assessments for photovoltaic systems up to 0.5 MWp to mitigate grid dependency and improve voltage stability, though implementation requires coordination with external grid operators.^[17] ^[86] These efforts address broader vulnerabilities, such as high water loss rates exceeding 35% in West Bank networks due to aging pipes and unauthorized connections, which impact local management.^[93]

Territorial disputes and Israeli settlements

Proximity to Ariel and settlement expansion

Ariel, an Israeli settlement city established in 1978, is located approximately 5 kilometers east of Salfit within the Salfit Governorate of the central West Bank.^[13]^[94] The settlement was founded under the Israeli military government's authority in the post-1967 territories, utilizing lands declared as state land or requisitioned for military needs via orders such as Military Order 418.^[13] As of 2024, Ariel hosts over 20,500 residents, making it one of the largest settlements in the region and contributing to a dense demographic footprint adjacent to Palestinian communities like Salfit.^[95]^[94] Settlement expansion in Ariel has intensified proximity effects on surrounding areas, with Israeli authorities advancing plans for additional housing. In 2023, the government promoted broader settlement construction totaling thousands of units across the West Bank, including initiatives tied to Ariel's bloc.^[96] Construction commenced in March 2024 on the Ariel West neighborhood, a non-contiguous extension approved by the Housing and Construction Ministry, featuring plans for at least 731 units on hilltop land near existing settlement boundaries.^[97]^[98] This development, situated westward toward Salfit, aims to double Ariel's population within a decade through new infrastructure and residential zones.^[95] Prior to the Second Intifada, economic linkages existed, with Palestinians from Salfit and nearby villages commuting to jobs in Ariel's industries and services, though exact commuter figures from Salfit remain undocumented in available records.^[99]

Land appropriation claims and legal disputes

Palestinian residents and authorities in Salfit and surrounding villages, such as Iskaka, have alleged the appropriation of private lands for Israeli settlement expansion, including specific seizures like 8 dunams in Iskaka for demarcating boundaries of the Nofe Nahamya outpost in the Salfit Governorate.^[100] In June 2004, the Israeli Civil Administration issued preliminary appropriation orders to Salfit landowners for territory required for a security fence around the adjacent Ariel settlement, with the land slated for seizure by the end of 2007 despite U.S. opposition to including Ariel within the barrier.^[101] These claims often assert that such actions involve private Palestinian property, contravening international law as per the International Court of Justice's 2004 advisory opinion, which deemed the separation barrier and associated land seizures in occupied territory unlawful. Israeli authorities counter that appropriated lands in the Salfit area are typically classified as state land under military orders—based on surveys showing lack of continuous private cultivation per Ottoman and Jordanian-era records—or are necessary for security, excluding outright seizure of proven private holdings for settlement purposes.^[13] The Israeli High Court of Justice upheld this distinction in a July 2006 ruling rejecting petitions from Salfit-area Palestinians against the Ariel barrier route, affirming its proportionality for preventing terrorist attacks despite restricting Palestinian access to approximately 10% of village lands, while mandating compensation or alternative routes where feasible.^[102] Further reinforcing private land protections, the Supreme Court in June 2020 invalidated the 2017 Regularization Law, which had sought to retroactively legalize outposts on private Palestinian property in the West Bank, ruling it violated constitutional property rights and equality principles applicable to the military commander.^[103] Disputes frequently hinge on evidentiary disputes over land titles, with Palestinian claims relying on oral traditions or incomplete documentation challenged by Israeli cadastral surveys. Satellite imagery analyses of the broader Salfit Governorate reveal correlated vegetation declines, including olive groves, proximate to Ariel's growth from 4,615 dunams in 1978 onward, though causation remains contested between settlement infrastructure, security clearances, and natural factors.^[99]^[104] In cases proven as private, courts have ordered settler evacuations, as in a 2020 decision mandating removal of homes from Palestinian-owned land in the West Bank, underscoring judicial limits on appropriation absent security imperatives.^[105]

Security barriers and access restrictions

The Israeli security barrier, initiated in 2002, includes segments constructed between 2003 and 2006 in the Salfit Governorate vicinity, particularly encircling the Ariel settlement bloc and protruding into Palestinian areas as "fingers" that dissect local contiguity.^[106] These features, comprising chain-link fencing, concrete walls up to 8 meters high, anti-vehicle ditches, and patrol paths, separate Salfit communities from approximately 10-15% of their agricultural lands, placing them in restricted "seam zones" or on the barrier's eastern side.^[107] Access to such lands requires Israeli-issued permits, often limited to seasonal farming windows, with denial rates exceeding 50% in some years due to security assessments.^[108] Israeli authorities report that barrier completion in northern and central West Bank sectors, including near Salfit, contributed to a 90% decline in successful terrorist infiltrations and suicide bombings from those areas post-construction, based on pre- and post-2006 incident data comparing secured versus unsecured fronts.^[109] ^[110] Fixed and temporary checkpoints, such as those at Salfit's northern entrances and junctions like Deir Ballut, enforce these restrictions, permitting limited Palestinian worker crossings into Israel via magnetic cards and daily quotas—typically 5,000-10,000 from the region pre-2023, subject to biometric scans and searches.^[111] Following the Second Intifada's escalation after September 2000, unrestricted access to Israeli labor markets ended, replacing it with permit regimes that reduced Salfit employment in Israel from over 20% of the workforce to under 5% by 2005.^[112] These measures impose economic trade-offs, with World Bank analyses indicating checkpoints and barriers elevate goods transport costs by 15-20% for Salfit producers, curtailing olive and crop exports to Israeli markets while precluding alternative routes due to by-pass roads reserved for settlers.^[113] Palestinian reports document over 700 internal West Bank obstacles, including earth mounds and gates near Salfit, fragmenting travel times to hours for short distances, though Israeli data attributes sustained permit issuance—averaging 150,000 West Bank workers by 2022—to balancing security with economic needs.^[114]^[115]

Security and conflicts

Palestinian militancy and attacks from the area

During the Second Intifada (2000–2005), Salfit emerged as a hub for Palestinian militant infrastructure linked to planning suicide bombings and other attacks against Israeli targets, prompting Israeli military operations such as Operation Defensive Shield in April 2002, where forces raided the area to dismantle explosives workshops and arrest suspected operatives.^[116] In October 2015, a resident of Qarawat Bani Hassan in Salfit Governorate carried out a stabbing attack in Israel, leading to his detention and subsequent Israeli plans to demolish his family home as a deterrent measure.^[117] On April 29, 2022, two gunmen from Iskaka village in Salfit Governorate opened fire at the entrance to Ariel's industrial zone, killing a 23-year-old Israeli security guard and wounding another person before fleeing; the attackers, affiliated with Hamas, were arrested the following day after a manhunt by Israeli security forces.^[118]^[119] A Palestinian youth from Bruqin village in Salfit Governorate attempted a stabbing attack against Israeli security personnel near Ariel's industrial zone entrance, where he was shot and killed by forces after approaching with a knife.^[120] Zaher Jabarin, a senior Hamas operative born in Salfit in 1969, has directed West Bank terrorist cells under his command, including recruitment for shooting attacks and the resurgence of suicide bombings, such as the August 2024 Tel Aviv blast that killed one and injured dozens.^[121] Israeli security sources, including Shin Bet interrogations, have documented ongoing Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad recruitment efforts in Salfit-area villages, with arrested militants confessing to plotting shootings and stabbings against Israeli civilians and soldiers.^[118] Palestinian Authority-controlled schools and mosques in Salfit propagate incitement against Israel through curricula that glorify violence and reject recognition of Jewish historical ties to the land, fostering a rejectionist ideology that sustains militancy despite repeated two-state solution offers.

Israeli counter-terrorism operations

Israeli security forces, including the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Israel Security Agency (ISA), regularly conduct raids in the Salfit Governorate to apprehend suspects linked to militant activities and to dismantle potential attack infrastructure. These operations are typically based on actionable intelligence regarding planned assaults against Israeli targets, with forces entering villages to search residences, detain individuals, and confiscate arms or explosives. For example, on October 24, 2025, IDF troops carried out a raid in the northern part of Deir Ballut, a town in the Salfit district, explicitly aimed at thwarting terrorism.^[122] Similar incursions occurred throughout October 2025, resulting in the detention of multiple residents during searches of homes in Deir Ballut and nearby areas.^[123] Such targeted actions form part of a broader counter-terrorism framework in the West Bank, where ISA-led intelligence efforts have demonstrated high efficacy in preempting threats. In 2024 alone, the ISA reported thwarting more than 1,000 attempted terror attacks originating from the West Bank and Jerusalem, reflecting a decline in realized incidents despite rising planning attempts.^[124] Operations in Salfit-adjacent regions often prioritize precision to minimize non-combatant involvement, drawing on real-time surveillance and informant networks to isolate high-value targets involved in plotting or logistics. While breakdowns in coordination with Palestinian Authority security have occurred amid escalations, routine arrests in Salfit have disrupted local cells affiliated with groups like Palestinian Islamic Jihad, preventing cross-regional attack chains.^[125]

Specific incidents and casualty data

In January 2012, Israeli settlers vandalized the Deir al-Ghusun mosque near Salfit and set fire to several Palestinian-owned vehicles in an apparent price-tag attack, with Hebrew graffiti reading "price tag" sprayed on walls; no casualties were reported.^[126] On April 7, 2022, two Palestinians from Kafr Laqif in Salfit Governorate stabbed and killed Israeli security guard Vyacheslav Gushchin, aged 48, at a gas station in the Ariel industrial zone adjacent to Salfit; the attackers, identified as Muhammad Ghayth and Ibrahim Nabulsi-related associates, were arrested days later by Israeli forces.^[118] During an Israeli military raid on May 13, 2021, in Iskaka village (Salfit District), 27-year-old Palestinian 'Awad Ahmad Harb was killed by Israeli gunfire amid reported clashes; the IDF described him as a militant involved in prior attacks, while B'Tselem classified the death as resulting from live ammunition without specifying combatant status. In a June 20, 2022, incident in Iskaka, 27-year-old Palestinian Shadi 'Amer Abu Shakhar was stabbed to death by an Israeli settler following an alleged attempted theft; the perpetrator was detained by Israeli authorities. On December 1, 2023, during an IDF arrest operation in Qarawat Bani Hassan (Salfit District), 42-year-old Palestinian Amer Qassam was shot and killed; the military reported he was armed and resisted arrest as a suspected militant, whereas B'Tselem documented the fatality via live ammunition. B'Tselem records at least five Palestinian fatalities in Salfit Governorate from Israeli forces or civilians between 2021 and 2023, primarily during security operations or confrontations, while Israeli casualties linked directly to Salfit-originated attacks remain limited to isolated cases like the 2022 Ariel incident; IDF reports emphasize targeting militants, contrasting with B'Tselem's broader civilian-inclusive tallies that do not always verify hostilities.^[127]

Competing narratives: Security necessities vs. occupation critiques

Israeli security authorities maintain that measures such as barriers, checkpoints, and counter-terrorism operations around Salfit and adjacent West Bank areas are indispensable for mitigating threats from militant groups, evidenced by the empirical correlation between the West Bank barrier's phased construction from June 2002 and a precipitous decline in successful suicide bombings. Prior to the barrier's impact, Palestinian perpetrators from Judea and Samaria, including regions near Salfit, executed over 130 suicide attacks inside Israel from September 2000 to August 2005, resulting in hundreds of civilian deaths; post-completion in key segments, such infiltrations plummeted by approximately 90% in affected areas, with annual incidents dropping to near zero by 2006, as barriers physically impeded bomber transit while operations neutralized planning cells.^[109]^[110]^[50] Palestinian officials and advocacy groups, echoed by reports from organizations like Human Rights Watch, contend that Israel's presence in the West Bank, including control over Salfit-adjacent territories, perpetuates a cycle of resistance by entrenching land confiscations, movement restrictions, and economic dependency, portraying security protocols as tools of domination rather than defense and attributing militancy to occupation-induced despair rather than ideological drivers.^[7] Such critiques often invoke apartheid analogies, alleging systemic subjugation of Palestinians akin to South Africa's racial hierarchy, though these are disputed given that Israel's Arab citizens—comprising about 21% of the population—possess full legal equality, including universal suffrage, Knesset seats (with multiple Arab parties and ministers), and access to national institutions without the codified racial bans characteristic of apartheid.^[128] Counterarguments grounded in causal sequence highlight that interstate hostilities predating the 1967 territorial changes undermine occupation-as-root-cause narratives: Arab armies invaded the nascent State of Israel in May 1948 immediately after its UN-recognized declaration, initiating the first Arab-Israeli war and subsequent armistice lines, while 1967's Six-Day War followed Egyptian mobilization, troop deployments to Sinai, and naval blockade of Israeli shipping—provocations prompting Israel's preemptive strikes amid existential threats.^[129] Palestinian leadership's repeated forswearing of territorial compromises, from rejecting the 1937 Peel Commission's two-state partition to declining 2000 Camp David parameters (offering 91-95% of West Bank/Gaza with land swaps) and 2008 Olmert proposals (yielding East Jerusalem sovereignty and near-total West Bank evacuation), illustrates rejectionism as a perpetuating factor in impasse, independent of security imperatives.^[130] These dynamics, per Israeli analyses, necessitate ongoing vigilance in volatile zones like Salfit—proximate to Ariel and historical launch points for attacks—where empirical terror suppression data validates defensive postures over indefinite concessions.^[130]

Notable people

Zaher Jabarin (born September 11, 1968, in Salfit), also known as Zaher al-Jabarin, is a senior Hamas operative designated by U.S. sanctions for facilitating terrorist activities, including suicide bombings targeting Israeli civilians.^[131]^[132] He heads Hamas's military wing in the West Bank and was elected to the group's politburo in 2021.^[133] Arabi Awwad, a communist activist from Salfit, founded the Revolutionary Palestinian Communist Party in October 1982 after leading a faction that split from the Jordanian Communist Party's West Bank branch, primarily over opposition to recognizing Israel.^[134]^[135] As a former teacher of Arabic literature, he emphasized armed struggle against Israeli occupation within a Marxist framework.^[134]

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Despite U.S. Deal, Israel Starts Ariel Fence - Haaretz Com
Under appropriation orders issued two weeks ago by civil administration officials to land owners in Salfit, the property is to be taken by the end of 2007.
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24 July 2006: High Court errs in denying petition against separation ...
Jul 24, 2006 · On 17 July 2006, the High Court of Justice rejected a petition that Palestinian residents of villages around the Ariel settlement had filed ...Missing: appropriation | Show results with:appropriation
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Israel's Supreme Court strikes down law legalising settlements on ...
Jun 10, 2020 · Israel's Supreme Court struck down a law on Tuesday that had retroactively legalised about 4000 settler homes built on privately owned ...
[105]
[PDF] Vegetation Loss and Anthropogenic Expansion in the West Bank
Jun 5, 2025 · This research studies vegetation loss in the West Bank using satellite imagery, analyzing the impact of Israeli settlements and road expansion ...Missing: reduction | Show results with:reduction
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Israel's top court rules for removal of settler homes from Palestinian ...
Aug 27, 2020 · Accepting a petition by Palestinian plaintiffs, Israel's top court overturned a 2018 District Court ruling which had broken judicial ground by ...
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[PDF] THE HUMANITARIAN IMPACT OF 20 YEARS OF THE BARRIER
In 2002, the Israeli authorities started to build a Barrier with the stated aim of preventing violent attacks by Palestinians inside Israel.
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Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank ... - UN.org.
Mar 12, 2019 · In June 2002, the Israeli Government commenced construction of the West Bank Barrier as a security measure to protect its citizens from ...Missing: effects | Show results with:effects
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The Separation Barrier - B'Tselem
Nov 11, 2017 · In June 2002, the Israeli cabinet decided to construct the Separation Barrier. The decision was made following a long string of attacks ...Missing: Salfit | Show results with:Salfit
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Setting the Facts Straight on the Security Fence | IDF
The security fence serves one purpose and one purpose only: to prevent terrorists from carrying out deadly attacks on Israeli civilians.Missing: infiltrations Salfit
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Effective in Reducing Suicide Attacks from the Northern West Bank
Jul 7, 2004 · Another factor that helps minimize the scope of terrorism is the ongoing activity against terrorist groups' leaders and bomb engineers. A Source ...Missing: statistics Salfit
[112]
Movement and Access in the West Bank | September 2024 - OCHA oPt
Sep 25, 2024 · Thirteen checkpoints along the Barrier continue to separate East Jerusalem from the rest of the West Bank, only three of which can be used by ...
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List of military checkpoints in the West Bank and Gaza Strip | B'Tselem
Jun 5, 2024 · Staffed by Border Police from 5:30 A.M. to 12 noon, at which time the checkpoint closes. Ari'el-Salfit, Salfit, Intermittently staffed, Internal ...
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West Bank Check-Points Damage Economy, Illustrate High Cost of ...
Jul 18, 2013 · Our results suggest that the check-points damage the economy more by increasing goods transport costs, rather than by reducing labor mobility.Missing: Salfit | Show results with:Salfit
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Over 700 road obstacles control Palestinian movement within the ...
Oct 8, 2018 · These checkpoints prohibit the vast majority of the Palestinian population from accessing areas behind the Barrier (the “Seam Zone”) and East ...
[116]
Fact Sheet: Movement and Access in the West Bank, September 2024
Sep 25, 2024 · Since 7 October 2023, the Israeli authorities have imposed additional restrictions on the movement of 3.3 million Palestinians across the ...
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Suicide bombing kills two, injures dozens – Baltimore Sun
Also yesterday, in a pre-dawn raid in Salfit in the West Bank, Israeli soldiers destroyed an explosives workshop, seized weapons, and arrested “about 15 ...<|separator|>
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Israel to Demolish Family House of Palestinian Detainee in Salfit Town
... Palestinian detainee in Qarawat Bani Hassan town, northwest of Salfit, for his alleged involvement in a stabbing attack that took place in October 2015.
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Suspects nabbed in killing of Ariel security guard; PM: We'll reach ...
Apr 30, 2022 · “There is no terrorist we won't reach and settle the score with,” the premier said. “Our war against terror is long.” Defense Minister Benny ...<|separator|>
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Hamas claims deadly Ariel terror shooting, vows it 'won't be the last'
May 2, 2022 · Sixteen Israelis have been killed in a deadly wave of terror attacks since mid-March. Hamas officials have encouraged and praised the bloodshed, ...
[121]
Israeli Soldiers Kill Youth near Salfit for Alleged Stabbing - WAFA
According to the Israeli police spokeswoman Luba Samri, said “A while ago, a Palestinian youth carried out a stabbing attack at the entrance to the industrial ...
[122]
Little-known Hamas leader seen behind resurgence of West Bank ...
Sep 19, 2024 · ... suicide bombing in south Tel Aviv, August 18, 2024. (Avshalom Sassoni/Flash90). Born in Salfit in the central West Bank in 1969, Jabarin ...
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https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20251026-israeli-army-injures-palestinian-detains-11-in-west-bank-raids/
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https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2025/01/06/more-than-1000-terror-attacks-in-west-bank-and-jerusalem-thwarted-in-2024/
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More Than 1,000 Terror Attacks in West Bank and Jerusalem ... - FDD
Jan 6, 2025 · Shin Bet Discloses Increase in Thwarted Attempts, Decrease in Realized Terror Attacks: Israel's internal security agency, the Shin Bet, ...
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Country Reports on Terrorism 2022: Israel, West Bank, and Gaza
There were no changes to legislation related to terrorism in 2022. Israeli security forces took law enforcement actions against suspected terrorists and ...
[127]
Israeli Settlers Vandalize Mosque, Burn Cars Near Salfit - WAFA
Israeli Settlers Vandalize Mosque, Burn Cars Near Salfit. SALFIT, January 11, 2012 (WAFA) – Jewish settlers Wednesday vandalized a mosque and set fire to ...Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
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https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4343950
[129]
Why Allegations that Israel Is An 'Apartheid' State Are False under ...
Feb 1, 2023 · Israel is an “apartheid” State that engages in widespread, state-sanctioned, racially-motivated discrimination against the “Palestinians.”
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Milestones: The Arab-Israeli War of 1948 - Office of the Historian
The Arab-Israeli War of 1948 broke out when five Arab nations invaded territory in the former Palestinian mandate immediately following the announcement of the ...1967 · Creation of Israel, 1948 · North Atlantic TreatyMissing: initiation | Show results with:initiation
[131]
A Short History of Palestinian Rejectionism
Feb 16, 2020 · In 2008, Israeli PM Ehud Olmert offered Arafat's successor as PLO Chairman and PA president Mahmoud Abbas a sweeping peace proposal. Abbas ...
[132]
Sanctions List Search - OFAC - Treasury
Type: Individual, List: SDN. Last Name: JABARIN, Program: SDGT. First Name: Zaher, Nationality: Title: Citizenship: Date of Birth: 11 Sep 1968; 09 Nov 1968 ...
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Zaher Al-Jabarin: The Mastermind behind Suicide Attacks on Israeli ...
Sep 2, 2024 · Zaher Al-Jabarin, the head of Hamas's military wing in Judea and Samaria, is a critical figure in orchestrating suicide terrorist operations.
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Zaher Jabareen | ECFR - European Council on Foreign Relations
Zaher Jabareen (زاهر جبارين), born in the West Bank town of Salfit, was elected to Hamas's Politburo in 2021 and is a prominent member of the group's armed ...
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Palestinian Revolutionary Communist Party (PRCP)
Arabi Awad is a former teacher of Arabic literature from the village of Salfit, near Nablus. He was Secretary of the JCP in the West Bank and active in ...
[136]
Founding of the Revolutionary Palestinian Communist Party (Timeline)
It emerged from a split in the Jordanian Communist Party's West Bank branch over recognition of Israel, with Arabi Awwad leading the more radical faction.