Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Scholarly method

The scholarly method encompasses the systematic principles and practices employed by academics across disciplines to investigate phenomena, validate claims, and disseminate knowledge in a manner that prioritizes reliability, transparency, and reproducibility. It adapts foundational approaches like observation, hypothesis testing, and evidence evaluation—drawing from the scientific method—to suit diverse fields, including empirical data collection in sciences and critical interpretation in humanities. Central to this method are clear articulation of assumptions, rigorous documentation of procedures, and citation of prior work to enable verification by peers.^[1] Key components of the scholarly method include a variety of evidence-gathering techniques, such as experiments, surveys, interviews, mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, ethnographic observation, textual exegesis, classification, and hermeneutic interpretation, which scholars select based on the research question and subject matter. These methods are evaluated through frameworks like the 5W criteria (who, what, where, when, why) to assess their strengths in addressing causality, generalizability, and contextual factors, ensuring no single approach dominates but multiple can triangulate for robustness. In practice, the method demands interdisciplinary collaboration where applicable, particularly in emerging areas like digital humanities, to mitigate biases and fill data gaps with justified hypotheses.^[2] In humanities scholarship, the method stresses critical judgment, accuracy in textual representation, and full documentation of processes, as seen in the production of scholarly editions that mediate primary sources while revealing their historical and cultural contexts. Peer review serves as a cornerstone validation mechanism, subjecting findings to expert scrutiny before publication in academic journals or monographs. Overall, the scholarly method fosters cumulative knowledge-building, distinguishing academic inquiry from opinion or speculation by grounding assertions in verifiable evidence and ethical standards.^[3]

Definition and Scope

Defining the Scholarly Method

The scholarly method is a structured, evidence-based approach to investigation that emphasizes critical thinking, documentation, and validation to produce reliable knowledge within academic disciplines. It encompasses the body of principles and practices employed by scholars to ensure claims about the world are as valid and trustworthy as possible, while facilitating their communication to the broader scholarly community.^[4]^[5] This method prioritizes an intellectually disciplined process of conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information gathered from observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication.^[6] Key characteristics of the scholarly method include its systematic progression from formulating inquiries to drawing conclusions, reliance on verifiable sources, and unwavering commitment to intellectual honesty. Scholars advance knowledge through iterative cycles of questioning, exploration, and refinement, where initial ideas are tested and adjusted based on emerging evidence to address gaps in understanding.^[7] This approach demands transparency in documenting processes and limitations, enabling others to assess the rigor and replicability of findings.^[5] Foundational elements of the scholarly method involve the strategic use of primary sources—such as original documents, artifacts, or data that provide firsthand evidence—and secondary sources, which interpret and analyze those primaries to contextualize research. Ideas are iteratively refined through ongoing engagement with existing literature, ensuring contributions build upon and challenge prior work. The method culminates in dissemination via scholarly communication, including peer-reviewed publications, conferences, and digital repositories, to integrate new insights into collective academic discourse.^[8]^[9] The scholarly method applies across all academic fields, extending beyond the natural sciences—where the scientific method serves as a specialized subset—to the humanities, social sciences, and interdisciplinary studies, adapting its principles to diverse forms of inquiry such as textual analysis or historical interpretation.^[10] The scholarly method encompasses a wider array of investigative approaches than the scientific method, extending beyond empirical sciences to include non-experimental disciplines such as philosophy, history, and literary analysis. While the scientific method centers on formulating testable hypotheses, conducting controlled experiments, and applying falsifiability to validate or refute claims—primarily in natural and social sciences—the scholarly method incorporates interpretive and hermeneutic techniques that prioritize textual analysis, logical argumentation, and contextual synthesis without necessitating empirical data collection.^[11]^[12] In contrast to journalism, the scholarly method demands rigorous peer validation and sustained scrutiny over time, ensuring claims withstand community evaluation and potential replication, whereas journalism emphasizes timely dissemination of information to a broad audience, often without formal peer review or requirements for independent verification. Academic scholarship builds on extensive evidence gathering and methodological transparency, allowing for cumulative knowledge advancement, while journalistic reporting may rely on interviews, observations, or preliminary data to meet deadlines, prioritizing public interest over exhaustive validation.^[13] Unlike everyday reasoning, which often depends on personal anecdotes, intuition, or unverified assumptions to draw conclusions, the scholarly method insists on formal documentation, precise citation of sources, and systematic evaluation of evidence to mitigate bias and ensure reliability. Everyday inferences might accept a single experience as general truth, such as deeming a strategy effective based on one success, but scholarly inquiry requires reproducible standards and critical appraisal across multiple perspectives.^[14] The scholarly method delineates itself from pseudoscholarship through adherence to verifiable evidence, methodological rigor, and openness to critique, rejecting unsubstantiated assertions or selective interpretations that evade falsification. Legitimate scholarship employs peer-reviewed processes and empirical or logical standards to support claims, whereas pseudoscholarship often features dogmatic assertions, cherry-picked data, and resistance to external validation, mimicking academic form without substantive grounding.^[15]

Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Scholarship

The scholarly method traces its roots to ancient Greek philosophy, where the Socratic method emerged as a foundational approach to critical inquiry. Developed by the philosopher Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), this technique involved a dialectical process of questioning interlocutors to expose contradictions in their beliefs and stimulate deeper understanding, serving as a precursor to systematic analysis in scholarship.^[16] Plato, Socrates' student, preserved and expanded this method through his dialogues, such as the Euthyphro and Republic, which dramatize Socratic exchanges to explore ethical and metaphysical questions, emphasizing rigorous examination over dogmatic assertion.^[17] These works established dialectic as a tool for pursuing truth, influencing subsequent Western intellectual traditions by prioritizing logical scrutiny and verbal disputation.^[18] In the Roman era, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) advanced scholarly inquiry through rhetorical analysis, integrating Greek philosophical methods with practical oratory. In his treatise De Oratore (55 BCE), Cicero outlines the ideal orator's education, stressing the invention and dissection of arguments to persuade and illuminate complex issues, thereby applying analytical rigor to public and legal discourse.^[19] This approach bridged philosophy and rhetoric, promoting a holistic scholarly practice that valued evidence-based argumentation.^[20] Building on this, medieval scholasticism in Europe refined these techniques within emerging academic institutions. The University of Bologna, established in 1088 CE as Europe's first university, fostered disputation—a formal debate format where scholars defended theses against opponents—alongside textual exegesis of authoritative sources like Aristotle and scripture, aiming to resolve contradictions through logical precision.^[21]^[22] Scholastic methods emphasized cumulative interpretation, where commentaries layered upon prior texts to verify and expand knowledge, laying groundwork for verifiable scholarly claims. During the Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries CE), scholars in the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond made profound contributions to the scholarly method by systematically translating and critiquing Greek, Indian, and Persian texts, while advancing original research through empirical observation and experimentation. Figures like Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850 CE) developed algebraic methods and algorithms, and Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040 CE) pioneered the scientific method in optics with controlled experiments, emphasizing hypothesis testing and verification. These practices, often involving collaborative academies like the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, introduced rigorous documentation and peer critique, preserving ancient knowledge and influencing later European scholarship.^[23] Parallel developments in Eastern traditions contributed distinct emphases on commentary and ethical inquiry. In ancient India, Vedic traditions dating to approximately 1500 BCE formed the core of scholarly practice, with the Vedas—collections of hymns, rituals, and philosophical speculations—serving as sacred texts interpreted through successive layers of Brahmanical commentaries that dissected meanings for ritual and moral application.^[24] This exegetical approach prioritized interpretive depth to uncover ethical principles, influencing later Indian philosophy by treating texts as living sources for ongoing analysis. In China, Confucian scholarship, originating in the 5th century BCE with figures like Confucius (551–479 BCE), centered on ethical inquiry through study of the classics, such as the Analects, where commentaries explored virtues like ren (benevolence) and li (ritual propriety) to guide moral conduct and governance.^[25] These traditions fostered a scholarly ethic of self-cultivation and societal harmony via textual reflection, distinct yet akin to Western dialectics in their pursuit of principled knowledge.^[25] A pivotal transition in ancient scholarship occurred with the shift from predominantly oral to written traditions, which enabled the accumulation and preservation of knowledge across generations. In Greece, oral epics like Homer's Iliad gave way to written philosophical dialogues by the 5th century BCE, allowing ideas to be referenced and critiqued systematically rather than relying on memory alone.^[26] Similarly, in India and China, Vedic hymns and Confucian sayings, initially transmitted orally through memorization and recitation, were committed to writing around the 3rd century BCE during the Mauryan period with the development of the Brahmi script and during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), respectively, facilitating layered commentaries and verifiable transmission.^[27]^[28] This evolution supported emerging ideals of reproducibility, as written records permitted scholars to revisit and test prior claims, marking a foundational step toward modern scholarly rigor.^[29]

Evolution in the Modern Era

The scholarly method underwent significant transformation during the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution, marked by a shift from deductive reasoning toward empirical validation and inductive approaches. Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (1620) introduced an inductive method emphasizing systematic observation and experimentation to derive general principles from particular instances, challenging Aristotelian syllogism and promoting a more evidence-based inquiry.^[30]^[31] Concurrently, René Descartes' method of doubt, outlined in his Discourse on the Method (1637), advocated radical skepticism to dismantle unverified beliefs, rebuilding knowledge on clear and distinct ideas while incorporating empirical testing to validate conclusions.^[32]^[33] These developments laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution, prioritizing verifiable evidence over authority. In the 19th century, the scholarly method professionalized through institutional innovations that standardized rigorous evaluation. The establishment of peer-reviewed journals, such as the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1665, introduced systematic scrutiny by experts to ensure quality and reliability in published work, evolving into a cornerstone of modern scholarship.^[34]^[35] Wilhelm von Humboldt's model for the University of Berlin (1810) integrated research and teaching, fostering academic freedom and specialized inquiry, which influenced the rise of research universities worldwide and elevated the scholarly method as a professional discipline.^[36]^[37] The 20th century expanded the scholarly method beyond natural sciences, incorporating quantitative techniques and interdisciplinary frameworks. In social sciences, the Chicago School of sociology during the 1920s pioneered quantitative methods, using statistical analysis of urban data to study social phenomena empirically, such as community dynamics through census and survey data.^[38] Post-World War II, interdisciplinary approaches gained prominence, driven by complex societal challenges like technological advancement and policy needs, encouraging integration of methods across fields to address multifaceted problems.^[39] Recent digital shifts have further enhanced the scholarly method's accessibility and reproducibility via open access platforms. Launched in 1991, arXiv serves as a preprint repository for physics, mathematics, and related disciplines, enabling rapid dissemination of unpeer-reviewed work while facilitating global collaboration and data sharing.^[40]^[41] This evolution has democratized access to scholarly outputs, reducing barriers and accelerating verification processes across research communities.

Core Principles

Objectivity and Rigor

Objectivity in the scholarly method refers to the principle of minimizing personal, cultural, or ideological biases in the pursuit of knowledge, achieved through transparent disclosure of assumptions and incorporation of multiple perspectives to approximate an unbiased representation of reality.^[42] This approach ensures that research claims are grounded in evidence rather than subjective interpretations, fostering reliability and trustworthiness in scholarly outputs.^[43] For instance, scholars explicitly state methodological assumptions to allow scrutiny, while drawing on diverse viewpoints to counteract individual blind spots, thereby enhancing the validity of findings.^[42] Rigor constitutes the methodological strictness that underpins scholarly credibility, encompassing precision in terminology, logical argumentation, and deliberate avoidance of logical fallacies such as ad hominem attacks.^[44] Precision involves defining key terms clearly to prevent ambiguity, ensuring that concepts are consistently applied throughout the research process.^[45] Logical argumentation requires constructing arguments through valid deductive or inductive reasoning, where premises lead coherently to conclusions without extraneous appeals.^[46] By eschewing fallacies, scholars maintain the integrity of their reasoning, promoting sound intellectual discourse.^[47] To enforce these principles, scholars employ tools like footnotes for immediate source attribution and elaboration, bibliographies for comprehensive referencing, and statistical controls in quantitative work to account for confounding variables and reduce error.^[48] Footnotes and bibliographies not only credit prior work but also enable verification, reinforcing transparency.^[49] In empirical studies, statistical techniques such as regression adjustments or randomization help isolate effects, minimizing bias in data interpretation.^[50] Challenges to objectivity arise from researchers' embedded paradigms, which shape interpretation of evidence, as articulated in Thomas Kuhn's analysis of scientific paradigms where prevailing frameworks influence what is deemed acceptable knowledge. Mitigation strategies include blind review processes, where evaluators assess work without knowledge of the author's identity, thereby reducing prestige or affiliation biases.^[51] These measures, complemented by community scrutiny, help counteract paradigmatic influences and uphold impartiality.^[52]

Reproducibility and Verification

Reproducibility in the scholarly method refers to the ability of independent researchers to obtain consistent results by applying the same methods, materials, and procedures as the original study, often facilitated by sharing detailed protocols, raw data, and analysis code.^[53] This core concept ensures that findings are not artifacts of unique conditions or errors, allowing the scientific community to build reliably upon prior work. For instance, in computational research, reproducibility involves regenerating results from the original input data and code, while in experimental settings, it requires access to reagents, equipment specifications, and step-by-step procedures to minimize variability.^[54] Without such transparency, scholarly claims risk becoming unverifiable, undermining the cumulative progress of knowledge.^[55] Verification complements reproducibility by employing systematic checks to validate scholarly claims, including cross-referencing primary sources against secondary accounts to confirm accuracy and context.^[56] Statistical significance testing provides a quantitative measure, where results are deemed significant if the p-value is below a conventional threshold of 0.05, indicating that observed effects are unlikely due to chance alone—a standard introduced by Ronald Fisher in the 1920s for practical convenience in hypothesis testing.^[57] Meta-analyses further strengthen verification by statistically synthesizing results from multiple studies, assessing overall effect sizes and heterogeneity to identify robust patterns across independent efforts.^[58] These processes collectively guard against false positives and ensure that scholarly conclusions withstand scrutiny. The emphasis on reproducibility and verification gained prominence following early replication challenges in psychology during the 1930s, exemplified by J. F. Brown's critiques of social psychology's methodological inconsistencies, which foreshadowed broader crises of confidence in the field.^[59] This historical push highlighted the need for rigorous validation to counter interpretive biases and inconsistent findings, setting the stage for modern standards. In contemporary practice, open science initiatives like the Open Science Framework (OSF), launched in 2013, promote pre-registration of studies—publicly archiving research plans before data collection—to prevent p-hacking, where researchers selectively analyze data to achieve statistical significance. Such tools enhance verification by committing methods in advance, fostering trust and enabling direct replication attempts.^[60]

Methodological Processes

Formulating Research Questions

Formulating research questions marks the foundational step in the scholarly method, where investigators identify gaps in existing knowledge to guide targeted inquiry. This process typically begins with a broad area of interest, followed by preliminary exploration to pinpoint unanswered questions or inconsistencies in prior work. For instance, researchers might start by reviewing key literature to uncover limitations, such as unexplored variables or contradictory findings, ensuring the inquiry addresses genuine voids rather than redundant topics.^[61]^[62] A scoping review or initial database search at this stage helps map the landscape, transforming vague curiosities into viable pursuits that align with disciplinary priorities.^[63] To refine these inquiries, scholars employ techniques such as brainstorming, which involves generating multiple "how" and "why" prompts to explore angles, and mind mapping to visually connect ideas and sub-themes. Preliminary scoping reviews further aid by systematically surveying recent publications, identifying trends, and eliminating overstudied areas. These methods facilitate iterative narrowing, often in collaboration with peers for diverse perspectives, to craft questions that are precise yet open-ended enough to allow discovery. Literature reviews serve as a key tool here to inform and sharpen this refinement process.^[62]^[61]^[63] Effective formulation relies on established criteria to evaluate question quality, such as the SMART framework—ensuring questions are Specific (clearly defined scope), Measurable (with observable outcomes), Achievable (within resource constraints), Relevant (to broader knowledge gaps), and Time-bound (feasible within timelines). For example, a broad topic like "climate change" might evolve into "How does the European Union's Emissions Trading System policy affect carbon dioxide emissions from industrial sectors in Germany between 2020 and 2030?" This specificity prevents overly ambitious scopes while maintaining investigative depth. Similar transformations occur in medical research, where "hormone levels in hypospadias" becomes "What are the differences in reproductive hormone profiles between children with isolated hypospadias and age-matched controls?"^[64]^[61]^[62] In the broader scholarly method, well-formulated questions establish feasibility by aligning with available data, methods, and expertise, while emphasizing relevance to advance understanding and avert scope creep that could derail projects. By anchoring the investigation in a focused query, this stage promotes efficient resource allocation and enhances the potential for meaningful contributions, setting the trajectory for subsequent evidence gathering.^[63]^[65]

Evidence Collection and Analysis

Evidence collection in the scholarly method entails systematically gathering data or sources to address predefined research questions, ensuring relevance and reliability through structured techniques. This process distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative approaches, each suited to different investigative needs. Qualitative evidence collection emphasizes depth and context, employing methods such as in-depth interviews, participant observations, and archival research to capture subjective experiences and meanings.^[66] Quantitative evidence collection, by contrast, prioritizes measurable outcomes, utilizing tools like structured surveys, controlled experiments, and large-scale datasets to generate numerical indicators of patterns and relationships.^[67] Sampling strategies are integral to evidence collection, tailored to the method's goals. In quantitative research, random sampling is commonly applied to promote statistical representativeness, where each population member has an equal chance of selection, minimizing bias and enabling generalization.^[68] Qualitative research often relies on purposive sampling to identify information-rich cases that illuminate the phenomenon under study, such as selecting experts for interviews based on their expertise rather than probability.^[69] Analysis of collected evidence transforms raw data into interpretable insights, employing technique-specific procedures. For qualitative data, thematic coding organizes content by assigning labels to segments of text or observations, followed by grouping codes into broader themes that reveal recurring patterns; this iterative process, as outlined in foundational approaches, facilitates nuanced understanding without imposing preconceived categories.^[70] In quantitative analysis, statistical methods like regression modeling quantify associations between variables; for instance, simple linear regression estimates the relationship via the equation Y = \beta_0 + \beta_1 X + \epsilon where Y is the dependent variable, X the independent variable, \beta_0 the intercept, \beta_1 the slope coefficient, and \epsilon the error term, allowing prediction and hypothesis testing.^[71] To enhance the robustness of findings, scholars integrate multiple evidence types through triangulation, which converges data from diverse sources—such as combining interviews with survey results—to corroborate interpretations and mitigate limitations of any single method.^[72] This cross-verification strengthens validity by identifying consistencies across qualitative and quantitative streams. Finally, documentation via audit trails records the entire process, including raw data, analytical decisions, and methodological reflections, ensuring transparency and enabling external verification of the research pathway.^[73]

Ethical and Practical Aspects

Integrity and Peer Review

Integrity in scholarly method is upheld through adherence to ethical principles that prevent misconduct and ensure the reliability of research outputs. Key among these are the avoidance of fabrication, defined as inventing data or results; falsification, which involves manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data; and selective reporting, including the deceptive omission of conflicting data to favor a particular outcome.^[74] These principles form the foundation of research integrity, promoting honesty, objectivity, and accountability in all stages of inquiry.^[75] With the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) tools, additional ethical guidelines address risks such as AI-generated content leading to unintentional fabrication or issues with authorship and transparency in AI-assisted analysis. Organizations like the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) have issued position statements emphasizing disclosure of AI use and accountability for outputs.^[76] Citation ethics further reinforce integrity by requiring proper attribution of ideas, data, and methods to original sources, thereby crediting contributors and enabling verification. Ethically questionable practices, such as excessive self-citation, citation stacking to inflate metrics, or omitting key references due to bias, undermine the scholarly record and can constitute misconduct.^[77] Researchers must strive for balanced and relevant citations that accurately reflect the state of knowledge, avoiding manipulations that distort intellectual contributions.^[78] Peer review serves as a critical mechanism for collaborative scrutiny, involving independent experts evaluating manuscripts for validity, originality, and significance before publication. Common models include single-blind review, where reviewers know authors' identities but not vice versa; double-blind review, anonymizing both parties to reduce bias; and open review, where identities are disclosed and reports may be published alongside the article.^[79] The process typically begins with manuscript submission, followed by editorial assessment for suitability, invitation of 2-4 reviewers, evaluation of reports (often within 4-8 weeks per reviewer), and a decision to accept, revise, or reject; revisions may iterate 1-3 times, with overall timelines averaging 3-6 months from submission to final decision.^[80]^[81] The formalization of peer review emerged in the 18th century, with the Royal Society of Edinburgh instituting a referee system in 1731 for evaluating submissions, and the Royal Society of London establishing a dedicated committee in 1752 to assess papers prior to publication.^[82] Modern standards were advanced by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which issued its Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors in 2007, providing frameworks for handling ethical concerns, ensuring transparency, and maintaining publication integrity.^[83] Breaches of integrity, such as misconduct, lead to severe consequences including retractions of published works and institutional sanctions. Retractions have surged since 2000, with over 8,000 recorded in major databases like Web of Science from 2003-2022 alone, and the trend has continued, reaching over 35,000 cumulative retractions by early 2025, often due to fraud, error, or increasingly AI-related issues.^[84]^[85] Institutional responses may include debarment from funding, supervision requirements, termination of employment, or legal penalties, as overseen by bodies like the U.S. Office of Research Integrity.^[86] Peer review supports reproducibility by flagging methodological flaws, though it cannot eliminate all risks of undetected misconduct.^[87]

Challenges and Limitations

One prominent challenge in the scholarly method is publication bias, where studies with positive or statistically significant results are more likely to be published than those with null or negative findings, potentially skewing the scientific literature and leading to overestimation of effect sizes.^[88] This bias arises from pressures on researchers to produce novel outcomes to secure funding and career advancement, resulting in a distorted body of knowledge that favors confirmatory evidence over comprehensive exploration.^[89] Resource constraints further exacerbate these issues, particularly in underfunded research environments, where limited access to equipment, personnel, and data hampers the scope and quality of investigations.^[90] In low-income settings, for instance, clinical studies often face logistical barriers such as inadequate infrastructure, which delays timelines and reduces sample sizes, ultimately limiting generalizability.^[91] A key limitation of the scholarly method lies in the inherent subjectivity of interpretation, especially in humanities disciplines like hermeneutics, where analysts' personal perspectives and cultural contexts inevitably influence the meaning derived from texts or artifacts.^[92] This subjectivity can lead to divergent conclusions among scholars examining the same evidence, challenging the method's pursuit of unified knowledge without fully eliminating bias through rigorous protocols.^[93] Additionally, the scholarly method's deliberate, iterative pace often contrasts with urgent real-world needs, as extensive peer review and verification processes can delay dissemination of findings by years, hindering timely applications in policy or crisis response.^[94] This slowness prioritizes reliability but risks obsolescence in fast-evolving fields like public health or technology.^[95] Contemporary critiques highlight the replication crisis, exemplified by the 2015 Open Science Collaboration study, which attempted to reproduce 100 psychological experiments and found that only 36% yielded statistically significant results, compared to 97% in the originals, underscoring systemic flaws in reproducibility across disciplines.^[96] To mitigate these challenges, funding reforms such as diversified grant models and increased support for null-result publications have been proposed to counteract publication bias and resource limitations. Open science practices, including preregistration of study protocols, mandatory data sharing, and registered reports (where funding and publication decisions are made before results are known), have gained traction since the 2010s to enhance reproducibility and reduce bias.^[97]^[98] Interdisciplinary collaboration offers another strategy, fostering diverse expertise to enhance methodological robustness and address interpretive subjectivity through cross-disciplinary validation.^[99]

Applications Across Disciplines

In Natural and Physical Sciences

In the natural and physical sciences, the scholarly method adapts to prioritize empirical validation through controlled experimentation, where independent and dependent variables are isolated to test causal relationships, often quantified using statistical tools like null hypothesis significance testing (NHST).^[100]^[101] This approach involves formulating falsifiable hypotheses derived from theoretical models, followed by experimental design to minimize confounding factors, data collection under replicable conditions, and rigorous statistical analysis to assess significance, typically aiming for p-values below 0.05 or higher confidence levels in high-stakes fields.^[102] Such adaptations ensure that conclusions are grounded in observable evidence rather than intuition, enabling the refinement of laws and models that describe natural phenomena.^[103] A prominent example is the 2012 verification of the Higgs boson by the ATLAS and CMS collaborations at CERN's Large Hadron Collider, where hypotheses about the Standard Model were tested through proton-proton collisions generating petabytes of data, analyzed to achieve a discovery significance of over five standard deviations.^[104]^[105] In this process, controlled variables included beam energies and detector calibrations, with quantitative metrics from multivariate analyses confirming the particle's properties consistent with predictions. Similarly, biological assays in fields like pharmacology exemplify the method by quantifying responses to stimuli, such as measuring enzyme inhibition in cell cultures to test drug efficacy hypotheses under standardized conditions like temperature and concentration.^[106]^[107] Distinct to these disciplines is the integration of vast datasets and computational modeling to handle complexity beyond direct observation, as seen in climate science where global circulation models simulate interactions among atmospheric, oceanic, and land variables to project temperature rises under varying greenhouse gas scenarios.^[108] These models, validated against historical data, incorporate differential equations for fluid dynamics and rely on supercomputing for iterative hypothesis testing. Reproducibility remains critical in laboratory settings to confirm such findings across independent teams.^[109] The outcomes of this adapted scholarly method include robust predictive theories, such as the electroweak unification in particle physics bolstered by the Higgs discovery, and practical technological applications, including advancements in medical imaging from nuclear physics experiments.^[104] These contributions not only explain natural processes but also inform innovations like renewable energy technologies derived from solar physics modeling.^[108] In the social sciences and humanities, the scholarly method adapts to the interpretive nature of human-centered inquiry, emphasizing qualitative approaches that prioritize context, meaning, and subjective experience over universal laws or replicable experiments. Disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and history employ methods like ethnography, which involves immersive observation and participant involvement to understand cultural practices from insiders' perspectives.^[110] Grounded theory, originating in sociology but widely used in anthropology, builds theoretical models inductively from data through constant comparison, allowing emergent patterns to guide analysis without preconceived hypotheses.^[111] Discourse analysis further complements these by examining language and communication to uncover power dynamics and social constructions, as seen in studies of media or policy texts.^[112] A seminal example in history is source criticism, pioneered by Leopold von Ranke in the 19th century, which stresses rigorous evaluation of primary documents to reconstruct events "wie es eigentlich gewesen" (as they actually happened), prioritizing empirical fidelity over philosophical speculation.^[113] In economics, a social science with quantitative leanings, econometric modeling integrates statistical techniques to test theoretical relationships in observational data, enabling causal inferences for policy evaluation while acknowledging data limitations like endogeneity.^[114] These adaptations highlight the method's flexibility, where evidence collection varies by interpretive needs, such as archival dives in history or surveys in sociology. Unique to these fields are heightened ethical sensitivities due to human subjects involvement, mandating protocols like Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight to ensure informed consent, minimize harm, and respect autonomy, as outlined in the Belmont Report's principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.^[115] Unlike the natural sciences' emphasis on falsification, social sciences and humanities often rely on narrative synthesis to integrate diverse qualitative findings into coherent stories or frameworks, organizing themes across studies to illuminate complex social phenomena without seeking definitive refutation.^[116] Such methods yield outcomes like theoretical frameworks that explain social behaviors—e.g., grounded theory's models of cultural adaptation in anthropology—and policy insights, such as econometric analyses informing inequality interventions in economics.^[117] These contributions foster deeper understanding of societal dynamics, influencing education, governance, and cultural preservation.

References

[1]
Introduction to Literate Scientific Computing
The scholarly method includes clear formulation of assumptions, statement of methods of acquiring experimental data, reproducibility of conclusions, and ...
[2]
[PDF] Classifying Scholarly Theories and Methods - IMR Press
As with theory, the provision of a list of methods provi- des a more compelling definition of scholarly method than has existed heretofore. Moreover the 5W ...
[3]
Considering the Scholarly Edition in the Digital Age: A White Paper ...
Sep 2, 2015 · Differentiated from other types of editions, a scholarly edition is one that follows scholarly method and purpose, that is undertaken with ...
[4]
Recommended Reading - Information Literacy Framework
Dec 11, 2024 · Scholarly Method (aka scholarship) - the body of principles and ... critical thinking and set the groundwork in place for life-long learning.<|separator|>
[5]
Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology
### Summary of Definitions and Principles of Scholarly Research Methodology
[6]
Academic Inquiry: Home - City University of Seattle Library
Oct 23, 2024 · Academic inquiry is the process of asking increasingly complex questions through exploring new ideas.
[7]
Refining Your Research Question - UCF Pressbooks
Research is iterative and depends upon asking increasingly complex or new questions whose answers, in turn, develop additional questions or lines of inquiry ...
[8]
Primary & Secondary Sources - Humanities & Social Sciences
Aug 2, 2024 · Primary sources are original materials on which research is based. ... Secondary sources can include items such as scholarly books ...
[9]
Scholarly Communication at Purdue - Libraries
Apr 15, 2024 · Scholarly Communication is the process of conducting research and sharing the results: from creation, to dissemination, to preservation of knowledge.
[10]
Humanities | First at LAS | University of Illinois Chicago
Humanities research uses different methods for scholarly pursuits, including historical research, or critical or rhetorical research. Historical research ...
[11]
03 Unit 1: Construction of Truth | OEN Manifold
Scholarly methods include two main approaches: the historical method, through which historians verify their interpretations, and the scientific method, through ...
[12]
Scholarship and the Modern Professor
Scholarly Methods [Wikipedia: Scholarly method]. Dialectic reasoning; Historical method; Empirical method; Scientific method. Modern Complications to ...
[13]
Academic research and studies: How they work and why journalists ...
Unlike most journalistic stories or blogs, academic studies are the product of months or years of work; they can include analysis of large sets of data or ...Missing: differences | Show results with:differences
[14]
Scientific Versus Everyday Reasoning – UPEI Introduction to ...
Scientific and everyday reasoning both employ induction: drawing general conclusions from specific observations.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[15]
Pseudoscience and the Demarcation Problem
The demarcation problem in philosophy of science refers to the question of how to meaningfully and reliably separate science from pseudoscience.
[16]
The Socratic Method | University of Chicago Law School
Socrates (470-399 BC) was a Greek philosopher who sought to get to the foundations of his students' and colleagues' views by asking continual questions ...
[17]
Platonic Dialogue, Maieutic Method and Critical Thinking
Aug 10, 2025 · The rational question-and-answer-based method Plato uses in the dialogues is usually called the Socratic (or "elenctic") 6 method, which is of a ...
[18]
Socrates - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 16, 2005 · Although the premises have deep roots in early attempts to solve the Socratic problem (see the supplementary document linked above), the ...Notes to Socrates · Resources for Teaching · Early Attempts to Solve the...
[19]
The Roman World of Cicero's De Oratore - Oxford Academic
Aug 5, 2004 · Abstract. This book studies Cicero's first and fullest dialogue, on the ideal orator-statesman. It illustrates the dialogue's achievement as ...
[20]
Cicero's rhetorical theory (Chapter 2) - The Cambridge Companion ...
Cicero's rhetorical theory constructs an ideology in which rhetoric is central to the Republic's existence.
[21]
Our history — University of Bologna - Unibo
Nine centuries of Alma Mater Studiorum: from as far back as 1088, conventionally referred to as the year in which the Studium of Bologna was founded ...Bologna: Art and History · Famous people and students · Nine centuries of historyMissing: CE scholarly disputation
[22]
1.13: Scholasticism - Humanities LibreTexts
Aug 26, 2022 · Scholasticism was the rigorous application of methods of logic, originally developed by Aristotle, to Christian scriptures.
[23]
[PDF] VEDIC HINDUISM by S. W. Jamison and M. Witzel - Mathematics
We tentatively suggest 1500-500 BCE as convenient limiting dates of the period,1 ... In India, an increasing interest in Vedic ritual can be observed since.
[24]
Chinese Ethics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 10, 2008 · The tradition of Chinese ethical thought is centrally concerned with questions about how one ought to live: what goes into a worthwhile life ...
[25]
[PDF] From Oral to Literate Cultural Transmission in Ancient Athens
An eclectic group of scholars, from classicists to philosophers, continue to study both ancient and contemporary cases of the oral tradition, in order to better ...
[26]
[PDF] Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word - Monoskop
This classic work explores the vast differences between oral and literate cultures and offers a brilliantly lucid account of the intellectual, literary and ...
[27]
Francis Bacon - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 29, 2003 · In his Preface to the Novum Organum Bacon promises the introduction of a new method, which will restore the senses to their former rank (Bacon ...Scientific Method: The Project... · Scientific Method: Novum... · Bibliography
[28]
“A New Logic”: Bacon's Novum Organum - MIT Press Direct
Jun 1, 2021 · The purpose of this paper is to assess Bacon's proclamation of the novelty of his Novum Organum. We argue that in the Novum Organum, ...
[29]
Descartes' Epistemology - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 3, 1997 · For knowledge building, Descartes construes sceptical doubts as the ground-clearing tools of epistemic demolition. Bulldozers undermine literal ...
[30]
Descartes, Rene: Scientific Method
Descartes is usually portrayed as one who defends and uses an a priori method to discover infallible knowledge, a method rooted in a doctrine of innate ideas.Missing: validation | Show results with:validation
[31]
History of Philosophical Transactions | Royal Society
Philosophical Transactions is the world's first and longest-running scientific journal. It was launched in March 1665 by Henry Oldenburg.
[32]
THE ROYAL SOCIETY AND THE PREHISTORY OF PEER REVIEW ...
Nov 16, 2017 · Its origins have commonly been dated to the foundation of the Philosophical Transactions in 1665, or to early learned societies more generally, ...<|separator|>
[33]
The Humboldtian Model of Higher Education and its Significance for ...
Sep 26, 2022 · The Humboldtian Model requires that universities govern themselves, have academic freedom, and integrate education and research.
[34]
Humboldt's Unity of Research and Teaching: Influence on the ...
The model Wilhelm von Humboldt created in Germany merged research with teaching, promoted basic research, protected academic freedom, and validated research ...
[35]
Quantitative Methods in Sociology: 1920-1960 - jstor
Quantitative methods in sociology developed from 1920-1960, with key issues including philosophical debates, case study vs. statistical methods, and attitude ...
[36]
Interdisciplinarity in Historical Perspective1 | Perspectives on Science
Aug 1, 2019 · This paper sketches a historical account of interdisciplinarity. A central claim advanced is that the modern array of scientific and ...
[37]
arXiv Business Model White Paper
Jan 15, 2010 · Since its inception in 1991 with a focus on the high energy physics community, arXiv has significantly expanded both its subject coverage and ...1. Introduction · 2.2 Collaborative Support... · 3. Technical Architecture
[38]
Celebrating 30 Years of arXiv and Its Lasting Legacy on Scientific ...
Oct 25, 2021 · The work of arXiv has been important to the development of Open Access (OA) . Indeed, the OA movement was almost called Open Archive, says ...
[39]
Scientific Objectivity - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 25, 2014 · Objectivity is often considered to be an ideal for scientific inquiry, a good reason for valuing scientific knowledge, and the basis of the ...
[40]
Objectivity | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Hence, objectivity is typically associated with ideas such as reality, truth and reliability. The perceiving subject can either perceive accurately or seem to ...
[41]
Rigor, Reproducibility & Replication - Responsible Conduct of ...
Scientific rigor includes redundancy, sound analysis, error recognition, avoiding traps, and honesty. Reproducibility includes methods, results, and ...
[42]
Key Terms: Introduction - The Writing Center - CUNY
At times, managing Key Terms involves coining a new term and imbuing it with a precise meaning. At other times, it involves defining existing terms for your ...
[43]
Logic in Argumentative Writing - Purdue OWL
Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments. It works by testing propositions against one another to ...Using Logic in Writing · Using Logic · Logical Fallacies · Does Logic Always Work?
[44]
[PDF] AVOIDING COMMON ERRORS IN LOGIC AND REASONING
The goal of scholarly writers is to present original ideas and convince readers that these ideas are valid by setting forth well-reasoned and organized ...
[45]
Footnotes made easy - Research Guides at Princeton University
Jun 4, 2025 · Why footnotes? The footnotes and bibliography in any scholarly work have two purposes: to acknowledge the author's debt to the work of others. ...
[46]
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Footnotes or ...
Oct 30, 2025 · The use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper.
[47]
"Statistical Control in Correlational Studies: 10 Essential ...
Statistical control is widely used in correlational studies with the intent of providing more accurate estimates of relationships among variables, ...
[48]
Managing internal nomination and peer review processes to reduce ...
Recent innovations and scholarly research on peer review can help program administrators, reviewers, and award committees improve practices and mitigate bias.
[49]
[PDF] Chapter 5 - Blind Peer Review by Academic Journals - Bad request!
Blind peer review attempts to mask the identity of authors to reviewers and/or of reviewers to authors, to alleviate the effects of biases.
[50]
Understanding Reproducibility and Replicability - NCBI - NIH
B1: “Reproducibility” refers to instances in which the original researcher's data and computer codes are used to regenerate the results, while “replicability” ...THE EVOLVING PRACTICES... · DEFINING... · VARIATIONS IN METHODS...
[51]
Reproducibility - Harvard Biomedical Data Management
Reproducibility is the ability to duplicate a prior study's results using the same materials and procedures as the original investigator.
[52]
Six factors affecting reproducibility in life science research and how ...
For scientists to be able to reproduce published work, they must be able to access the original data, protocols, and key research materials. Without these, ...
[53]
Summary - Reproducibility and Replicability in Science - NCBI - NIH
Reproducibility is obtaining consistent results using the same input data; computational steps, methods, and code; and conditions of analysis. This definition ...THE ROLE OF... · DEFINITIONS · REPRODUCIBILITY · REPLICABILITY
[54]
The Significant Problem of P Values | Scientific American
Oct 1, 2019 · ... p value. Fisher suggests that researchers might consider a p value of 0.05 as a handy guide: “It is convenient to take this point as a limit ...
[55]
Chapter 10: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses
Meta-analysis is the statistical combination of results from two or more studies, yielding an overall statistic to summarize intervention effectiveness.10.4 Meta-Analysis Of... · 10.5 Meta-Analysis Of... · 10.13 Bayesian Approaches To...Missing: verification scholarly
[56]
J. F. Brown's Social Psychology of the 1930s - Henry L. Minton, 1984
It is argued that the crisis in social psychology over the past decade has historical roots in J. F. Brown's social psychology of the 1930s.Missing: replication | Show results with:replication
[57]
Pre‐registration: Why and How - Simmons - 2021
Dec 3, 2020 · Pre-registration benefits the field by reducing p-hacking ... Many social scientists choose to pre-register at the Open Science Foundation (OSF) ...
[58]
Formulation of Research Question – Stepwise Approach - PMC - NIH
To develop a RQ, one needs to begin by identifying the subject of interest and then do preliminary research on that subject. The researcher then defines what ...
[59]
Developing research questions - Library - Monash University
Learn how to develop your research questions with our quick guides and activities designed to formulate specific and actionable research questions.
[60]
Back to the basics: guidance for formulating good research questions
The purpose of this commentary is to provide useful guidance on composing and evaluating rigorous research questions.
[61]
[PDF] Basics of Academic Research - UMass ScholarWorks
Develop three research questions applicable to your field of study and your research problem. Make sure that the questions meet the SMART criteria. Then ...
[62]
Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls - PMC - NIH
-Is the target population narrow or broad? -Is the target population vulnerable? -What are the eligibility criteria? -What is the most appropriate recruitment ...
[63]
How to use and assess qualitative research methods
May 27, 2020 · The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of qualitative research methods, including hands-on information on how they can be used, reported and assessed.
[64]
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research | Differences, Examples ...
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different ...
[65]
(PDF) Sampling Methods in Research: A Review - ResearchGate
Jul 14, 2023 · The article provides an overview of the various sampling techniques used in research. These techniques can be broadly categorised into two types.
[66]
Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in ...
Purposeful sampling is widely used in qualitative research for the identification and selection of information-rich cases related to the phenomenon of interest.
[67]
General-purpose thematic analysis: a useful qualitative method for ...
Sep 23, 2021 · Thematic analysis is a popular method for systematically analysing qualitative data, such as interview and focus group transcripts.
[68]
Statistics review 7: Correlation and regression - PubMed Central
The most commonly used techniques for investigating the relationship between two quantitative variables are correlation and linear regression.
[69]
The use of triangulation in qualitative research - PubMed
Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena.<|separator|>
[70]
Using an Audit Trail to Demonstrate Trustworthiness
May 3, 2023 · An audit trail is a detailed record of the research process that documents the steps taken by the researcher from the initial research question to the final ...
[71]
Policies - Regulations Q&A | ORI - The Office of Research Integrity
A: Research misconduct means fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research or in reporting research results.
[72]
Research Integrity definitions and challenges - ScienceDirect
The core principles of research integrity include rigor, honesty, transparency, respect, and accountability (Fig 1) [[4], [5], [6]]. Research integrity reflects ...Missing: avoidance | Show results with:avoidance
[73]
Ethically Questionable Citation Practices | ORI
Citations are the notations in the text of a paper that identify the source and/or evidence for our claims and for related research and theories mentioned in ...
[74]
Citation Ethics: An Exploratory Survey of Norms and Behaviors - PMC
Jun 5, 2024 · The ethics of citation has attracted increased attention in recent discussions of research and publication ethics, fraud and plagiarism.
[75]
Types of Peer Review - Wiley Author Services
The three most common types of peer review are single-anonymized, double-anonymized, and open peer review.
[76]
The Peer Review Process - Wiley Author Services
1. Submission of paper · 2. Editorial Office assessment · 3. Appraisal by the Editor-in-Chief (EIC) · 4. EIC assigns an Associate Editor (AE) · 5. Invitation to ...
[77]
How Long Is Too Long in Contemporary Peer Review? Perspectives ...
Aug 12, 2015 · Furthermore, respondents reported that a “typical” turnaround time for a manuscript submission was on average 14.4 ± 6.0 weeks (ranging between ...
[78]
The Birth of Modern Peer Review | Scientific American
Apr 19, 2014 · Peer review was introduced to scholarly publication in 1731 by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, which published a collection of peer-reviewed ...
[79]
[PDF] Code of Conduct and Best-Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors
The COPE Code of Conduct for Journal Editors is designed to provide a set of minimum standards to which all. COPE members are expected to adhere.
[80]
A bibliometric analysis from 2003 to 2022 using the Web of Science
Oct 30, 2024 · This bibliometric study analyzed retracted articles published between 2003 and 2022, indexed by the Science Citation Index Expanded of the Web of Science Core ...
[81]
Research Misconduct | Research Compliance
Consequences of misconduct · Correction or retraction of published articles. · Imposition of supervision or mentorship. · Loss of eligibility to receive federal ...
[82]
Financial costs and personal consequences of research misconduct ...
Aug 14, 2014 · Most retractions are associated with research misconduct, entailing financial costs to funding sources and damage to the careers of those committing misconduct.
[83]
Publication bias: What are the challenges and can they be overcome?
Publication bias has an escalating and damaging effect on the integrity of knowledge. The research process usually starts by conjecturing a relationship between ...
[84]
What Is Publication Bias? | Definition & Examples - Scribbr
Oct 29, 2022 · Publication bias refers to the selective publication of research studies based on their results. Here, studies with positive findings are more likely to be ...What causes publication bias? · Why is publication bias a...
[85]
Conducting clinical research in a resource-constrained setting - NIH
Aug 16, 2021 · Clinical research conducted to Good Clinical Practice (GCP) standards is increasingly being undertaken in resource-constrained low-income and ...Missing: underfunded | Show results with:underfunded
[86]
Four challenges for funding research with societal goals - LSE Blogs
Oct 10, 2023 · We brought together over 50 research funders from 14 countries to discuss the challenges of how research funding can support societal goals.
[87]
Subjectivity in Art History and Art Criticism
Subjectivity, however, plays a decisive role in the humanities, which approach intellectual works and human action in an interpretive rather than explanatory ...
[88]
What is subjectivity? Scholarly perspectives on the elephant in the ...
Nov 8, 2022 · Subjectivity can be seen "as the process of making sense of the world as one engages in communicable thought with oneself and the world through ...
[89]
The Need for Speed vs. Reliable Science
Apr 15, 2025 · Slow science prioritizes quality over speed and seeks to buck incentive structures that promote mass production.
[90]
Is scientific progress slowing? with James Evans - UChicago News
Mar 31, 2022 · As University of Chicago Professor James Evans argues, scientists are overloaded by the flood of research papers they have to read.
[91]
Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science
Open Science Collaboration, An open, large-scale, collaborative effort to estimate the reproducibility of psychological science. Perspect ...
[92]
Research funding challenges? There are ways to overcome them
May 15, 2025 · “They should explore innovative funding models, such as crowdfunding options, to access funding from different sources, and prioritise research ...
[93]
Promoting Interdisciplinary Research Collaboration: A Systematic ...
This article reports the results of a systematic review of the academic literature on strategies for promoting new interdisciplinary research collaborations.
[94]
Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific ...
Feb 6, 2021 · Scientific method is meant to involve testing of a hypothesis through a careful consideration of independent and dependent variables. The ...
[95]
Null hypothesis significance testing: a short tutorial - PMC - NIH
NHST is a method of statistical inference by which an experimental factor is tested against a hypothesis of no effect or no relationship based on a given ...
[96]
Understanding Statistical Hypothesis Testing: The Logic of ... - MDPI
Statistical hypothesis testing is among the most misunderstood quantitative analysis methods from data science. Despite its seeming simplicity, it has ...
[97]
Scientific Method - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 13, 2015 · Theory driven experiments are not always directed at testing hypothesis, but may also be directed at various kinds of fact-gathering, such ...
[98]
[1207.7214] Observation of a new particle in the search for ... - arXiv
Jul 31, 2012 · Abstract:A search for the Standard Model Higgs boson in proton-proton collisions with the ATLAS detector at the LHC is presented.
[99]
ATLAS and CMS publish observations of a new particle - CERN
Sep 10, 2012 · The ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN today published observations of a new particle in the search for the Higgs boson in the journal Physics Letters B.
[100]
Bioassay - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
One noteable example is the rabbit pregnancy test in which a urine sample from a woman suspected of being pregnant was injected into a female rabbit.
[101]
The History and Conceptual Framework of Assays and Screens - PMC
Feb 15, 2023 · Examples of Fabrication methods are oligonucleotide synthesis or peptide synthesis, purification of a peptide by high pressure liquid ...
[102]
[PDF] Climate Models An Assessment of Strengths and Limitations
projections of future climate change. This report describes the models and their ability to simulate current climate. The science of climate modeling has ...
[103]
A computational model approach to assess the effect of climate ...
Dec 1, 2021 · In the case of computational models, a simulation must be run to validate and analyze the model. The results of simulations provide predictions ...
[104]
Observation in Grounded Theory and Ethnography - NIH
Oct 9, 2016 · Grounded theory and ethnography are two research methodologies which use observation as data collection tool. However, there are differences in the focus of ...
[105]
Comparing the Five Approaches - Sage Publishing
A theory, often portrayed in a visual model, emerges in grounded theory, and a holistic view of how a culture-sharing group works results in an ethnography.
[106]
Sage Research Methods - Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis offers new opportunities for researchers to explore the empirical ramifications of the linguistic turn that has worked its way through the so ...
[107]
[PDF] Leopold von Ranke and his Development and Understanding of ...
It also shows that primary sources were important to Ranke's work and that the sources he uncovered were often of great historical importance. But the example ...
[108]
Econometrics: Making Theory Count - Back to Basics
Econometrics uses economic theory, mathematics, and statistical inference to quantify economic phenomena. In other words, it turns theoretical economic models ...
[109]
Institutional Review Boards and Social Science Research | AAUP
This report addresses the government's rules for protecting human beings who are the subjects of social science research.
[110]
Methods for the synthesis of qualitative research: a critical review
Aug 11, 2009 · Critical interpretive synthesis is an adaptation of meta-ethnography, as well as borrowing techniques from grounded theory. The authors stated ...Meta-Ethnography · Grounded Theory · Textual Narrative SynthesisMissing: humanities | Show results with:humanities
[111]
The Econometric Model for Causal Policy Analysis - PMC
We show that the econometric approach to causality enables economists to characterize and analyze a wider range of policy problems than alternative approaches.