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American prairie

The American prairie is a temperate grassland ecosystem that historically dominated the central interior of North America, spanning from the Rocky Mountains eastward beyond the Mississippi River and from southern Canada to Texas, characterized by vast expanses of perennial grasses with minimal tree cover due to moderate rainfall insufficient for forests, periodic droughts, frequent fires, and grazing pressures that favored herbaceous vegetation over woody growth.^[1]^[2] This biome emerged approximately 8,000 to 10,000 years ago following the retreat of continental glaciers, forming one of the continent's largest continuous habitats second only in scale to tropical rainforests, with a continental climate featuring hot, dry summers, cold winters, and annual precipitation ranging from 25 to 100 centimeters that supported diverse grass-dominated plant communities.^[1]^[3] Subdivided into eastern tallgrass prairies (with grasses up to two meters tall), central mixed-grass regions, and western shortgrass steppes along a west-to-east precipitation gradient, the ecosystem sustained extraordinary biodiversity, including 40 to 60 grass species comprising 80 percent of aboveground vegetation, over 300 forb species, and deep-rooted systems extending 3 to 5 meters underground that stored up to 75 percent of biomass belowground for resilience against fire and grazing.^[1]^[3] Wildlife thrived in this fire-maintained landscape, where natural and indigenous-set blazes cleared competitors and bison herds—estimated at 30 to 60 million individuals before the mid-19th century—grazed and trampled soils, promoting nutrient cycling and preventing woody encroachment while supporting predators like wolves, grizzly bears, and pronghorn antelope.^[1]^[2] European settlement from the 1860s onward, facilitated by steel plows that could break the sod, led to massive conversion for wheat and corn cultivation, exploiting the fertile chernozem soils accumulated over millennia from prairie root decay; today, less than 4 percent of tallgrass prairie remains intact, with overall Great Plains grasslands reduced by about 50 percent to agriculture, rendering it among the most imperiled ecosystems globally and prompting ongoing restoration efforts amid debates over balancing food production with biodiversity preservation.^[1]^[2]^[4]

Geography

Location and Extent

The American prairies form a vast grassland biome centered in the Great Plains physiographic province of central North America. This region spans longitudinally from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains (approximately the 105th meridian west) eastward to near the 95th–98th meridian west, where deciduous forests and the Mississippi River valley begin, and latitudinally from northern Texas (around 30°N) northward through the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and into southern Canada as far as Saskatchewan and Manitoba (up to about 52°N).^[5] The prairies encompass parts of 10 U.S. states—primarily Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas—and adjacent Canadian provinces, with core areas in the U.S. interior lowlands receiving 20–40 inches of annual precipitation.^[6] Historically, prior to widespread European-American settlement in the 19th century, the prairies covered approximately 1.4 million square miles of this territory, representing the dominant vegetation where fire, grazing, and climate limited tree growth to scattered gallery forests along rivers.^[7] This extent included subtypes varying by moisture: tallgrass prairie dominating wetter eastern zones (historically about 170 million acres or 265,000 square miles), mixed-grass in transitional central bands (around 140 million acres or 219,000 square miles), and shortgrass in arid western reaches.^[1]^[8] Today, agricultural plowing, urbanization, and infrastructure have fragmented the prairies, leaving less than 4% of original tallgrass intact—often cited as under 1% in some assessments of unplowed, high-quality remnants—and roughly 20–30% of mixed- and shortgrass areas, with much of the remainder degraded or converted to cropland and pasture.^[1]^[8]^[9] Surviving patches, typically under 1,000 acres each, persist in protected sites such as national grasslands managed by the U.S. Forest Service, wildlife refuges under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (e.g., Flint Hills in Kansas), state parks like Tallgrass Prairie in Kansas, and private conservation easements held by organizations including The Nature Conservancy.^[10] These isolated holdings total several million acres but represent discontinuous islands amid a matrix of intensive land use, with ongoing losses documented at rates exceeding 1% per decade in unprotected grasslands as of 2020 surveys.^[8]

Classification and Types

The North American prairie biome is classified into three primary types based on dominant vegetation height, which correlates with regional precipitation gradients and soil moisture availability: tallgrass prairie, mixed-grass prairie, and shortgrass prairie.^[11]^[12] Tallgrass prairie, found in eastern regions such as Illinois and Iowa, features grasses exceeding 1.8 meters (6 feet) in height, including species like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), thriving in areas with higher moisture retention.^[1] Mixed-grass prairie occupies central transitional zones, such as parts of Nebraska and the Dakotas, with grasses averaging 0.6 to 1.2 meters (2 to 4 feet) tall, blending tall- and shortgrass species.^[12] Shortgrass prairie dominates western arid extents, including eastern Colorado and Kansas, where grasses rarely surpass 0.6 meters (2 feet), exemplified by buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides) and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis).^[11] These classifications are delineated by an east-to-west decline in annual precipitation, from approximately 760–1,000 mm (30–40 inches) in tallgrass zones to 300–500 mm (12–20 inches) in shortgrass areas, influencing grass stature and composition through water availability for growth.^[13] Historical fire regimes further define boundaries, with tallgrass prairies experiencing more frequent burns (every 1–5 years) due to accumulated litter from taller vegetation, compared to less frequent fires (every 5–35 years) in drier shortgrass regions, preventing woody encroachment and maintaining grassland dominance.^[14] Early surveys, such as Major Stephen H. Long's 1820 expedition across the Great Plains, documented these vegetative transitions from denser eastern grasses to sparser western forms, providing foundational observations of prairie extent without trees, informed by direct topographic and botanical assessments.^[15] American prairies are distinguished from savannas by near-total absence of trees and shrubs (typically under 10% woody cover), emphasizing continuous grass dominance adapted to periodic disturbances like fire and grazing, whereas savannas permit 10–30% tree cover in interspersed patterns.^[16] In contrast to Eurasian steppes, which share shortgrass traits but occur in continental climates with harsher winters, prairies are defined by their North American context of temperate, rain-fed herbaceous layers without significant shrublands.^[3] These biome boundaries rely on observable traits like grass height and cover rather than faunal dependencies, grounding classifications in empirical vegetation surveys.^[12]

Physical Environment

Climate Patterns

The American prairies, spanning the Great Plains, exhibit a continental climate marked by pronounced seasonal temperature extremes and variable precipitation. Summer highs frequently reach or exceed 100°F (38°C), driven by intense solar heating of the land surface, while winter lows can plummet to -20°F (-29°C) or below due to incursions of cold Arctic air masses.^[17] These extremes foster ecosystem adaptations such as deep-rooted grasses resilient to rapid shifts, but also contribute to vulnerability during prolonged deviations, as seen in historical heat waves amplifying drought stress on vegetation.^[18] Annual precipitation averages 10 to 30 inches (250 to 760 mm), transitioning from subhumid conditions in eastern tallgrass regions (over 25 inches) to semi-arid shortgrass areas in the west (under 20 inches), with a pronounced summer maximum from moist Gulf of Mexico air masses.^[19] This east-west gradient, combined with high evapotranspiration rates exceeding inputs in drier zones, creates a moisture deficit that causally limits woody plant establishment, favoring herbaceous dominance over forests despite occasional wetter pulses.^[20] Low relative humidity, sustained by frequent dry continental polar air flows from northern source regions, further suppresses tree transpiration and recruitment by intensifying water stress.^[21] Climatic variability, including multi-year droughts, forms integral cycles shaping prairie resilience through periodic resets of biomass and soil moisture. The 1930s Dust Bowl, spanning 1932 to 1939, featured severe rainfall deficits (often below 10 inches annually in parts of the central Plains) and elevated temperatures desiccating soils, reflecting natural atmospheric patterns like persistent high-pressure blocking rather than isolated anomalies.^[22] Such events, documented in long-term records, underscore how inherent fluctuations in air mass interactions drive boom-bust dynamics, with wetter interludes enabling rapid grass recovery and maintaining biodiversity via disturbance-dependent succession.^[23]

Soil Composition and Formation

The soils of the American prairie are predominantly classified as Mollisols, featuring a thick, dark-colored surface horizon enriched with organic matter derived from grassland vegetation.^[24] This mollic epipedon, often termed chernozem in reference to its black, fertile character, accumulates through the slow decomposition of dense grass roots and aboveground biomass, which contribute fibrous organic residues that resist rapid breakdown.^[25] Bioturbation by burrowing mammals, such as prairie dogs and gophers, further mixes these materials into the profile, enhancing aeration and organic incorporation over thousands of years under semi-arid to subhumid climates.^[24] Formation of these Mollisols primarily occurs on parent materials consisting of wind-deposited loess, often several meters thick, overlying glacial till in glaciated regions of the Great Plains.^[26] Loess, sourced from Pleistocene glacial outwash in river valleys like the Missouri and Mississippi, provides a silty, well-drained base that weathers to form fine-textured horizons rich in calcium and magnesium.^[27] High base saturation—typically exceeding 50%—results from this mineralogy and the recycling of bases via grass litterfall, yielding soils with elevated levels of exchangeable cations like calcium (often 20-30 cmol/kg in the A horizon) that underpin their nutrient fertility.^[24] In tallgrass prairie regions, such as eastern Kansas and Iowa, the A horizon can reach thicknesses of 1-2 meters, with organic matter contents of 6-10% in the upper layers, diminishing gradually with depth.^[25] These profiles develop granular structure from repeated wetting-drying cycles and root penetration, fostering high water infiltration yet vulnerability to erosion upon vegetation removal, as the loose, aggregated topsoil lacks binding from perennial roots.^[28] USDA soil surveys document this variability, with series like Marshall and Ida typifying deep, loess-derived Mollisols that have sustained productivity through inherent stability under native conditions.^[24]

Ecology

Plant Communities

The American prairie plant communities are stratified by precipitation gradients, transitioning from shortgrass dominants in arid western zones to tallgrass in mesic eastern regions. Shortgrass prairies, receiving 380-635 mm annual precipitation, are primarily composed of drought-tolerant perennials such as blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), which maintain low stature under water-limited conditions.^[13] Mixed-grass prairies in intermediate moisture regimes (635-890 mm) integrate mid-height species like little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), reflecting blended adaptations to variable hydrology.^[29] Tallgrass prairies, in higher-rainfall areas exceeding 890 mm annually, support robust C4 grasses including big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), and prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), which collectively dominate 80% of foliage biomass through 40-60 grass species.^[1]^[30] These grasses feature fibrous root systems extending 1-3 meters deep, enabling resource capture in nutrient-poor, seasonally variable soils.^[31] Forbs and wildflowers, including purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) and common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), comprise 20% of typical prairie cover, rising to higher proportions in mesic sites and enhancing overall floristic diversity.^[32] Floristic inventories of remnant prairies document 250-300 vascular plant species per 250-hectare stand, underscoring inherent richness prior to widespread conversion.^[33] This zonal pattern aligns with empirical moisture gradients, where decreasing aridity westward correlates with reduced forb density and grass height, as observed in unplowed remnants across the Great Plains.^[20]^[34]

Animal Species and Interactions

The American bison (Bison bison), a keystone herbivore in prairie ecosystems, historically numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals across the Great Plains prior to European settlement, shaping vegetation structure through selective foraging and trampling that promoted grassland diversity.^[35] Current wild populations are far smaller, with approximately 31,000 bison managed in conservation herds, underscoring their role in maintaining trophic balance by influencing plant succession and providing forage for predators.^[36] Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) function as ecosystem engineers, constructing extensive burrow networks that aerate soil, enhance water infiltration, and create microhabitats supporting over 200 associated species, including amphibians and reptiles, though their colonies are often targeted for control due to perceived competition with livestock.^[37] These rodents clip vegetation to improve visibility and forage quality, indirectly boosting nutrient availability in soils, yet populations have declined by an estimated 98% from historical levels due to plague, poisoning, and habitat fragmentation.^[38] Predatory interactions in prairie food webs involve species like the swift fox (Vulpes velox), which preys on prairie dogs and small mammals, and the ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis), a ground-nesting raptor specializing in rodents; both have experienced sharp declines correlated with prairie dog colony collapses, as evidenced by field studies showing predator abundances dropping alongside prey bases.^[39] The swift fox, once occupying 90% less of its historic range by the late 20th century, relies on prairie dog towns for hunting grounds, while ferruginous hawks exhibit sensitivity to grassland conversion, with breeding populations reduced by habitat loss in shortgrass prairies.^[40] Avian species such as the greater prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) and western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) depend on intact grasslands for lekking and nesting, with prairie-chicken numbers plummeting due to agricultural conversion that fragments leks and reduces insect prey availability.^[41] Small mammals and insects drive nutrient cycling through decomposition and herbivory; for instance, grasshoppers accelerate nitrogen turnover by consuming foliage and incorporating it into litter, increasing plant productivity by up to 33% in experimental plots, while prairie dogs and voles redistribute minerals via burrowing and fecal deposition.^[42] These basal trophic levels sustain higher predators, with studies revealing that insect outbreaks can amplify nutrient fluxes, countering nutrient limitations in low-rainfall prairies, though outbreaks occasionally disrupt short-term stability.^[43] Trophic cascades emerge when prairie dog declines cascade upward, reducing predator densities and altering bird communities, as observed in monitored colonies where burrow loss led to 50-90% drops in dependent species like burrowing owls and mountain plovers.^[39] Such dynamics highlight the interdependence of prairie fauna, where engineering by rodents and invertebrates underpins biodiversity amid ongoing habitat pressures.

Key Processes: Fire and Grazing

Frequent low-intensity fires, occurring at intervals of 1 to 5 years in tallgrass prairies prior to European settlement, played a critical role in suppressing woody plant encroachment and maintaining herbaceous dominance by killing seedlings and resprouting shrubs while recycling nutrients through ash deposition.^[14] ^[44] Fire suppression since the late 19th century has enabled woody species invasion, as evidenced by increased tree and shrub density in unburned remnants, with controlled burn experiments demonstrating that reintroducing fires every 2-4 years reduces woody cover by up to 80% through top-kill and inhibition of regeneration.^[45] ^[46] Grazing by large herbivores, particularly historical bison herds numbering tens of millions, shaped prairie structure by selectively consuming dominant grasses, thereby reducing litter buildup, enhancing forb abundance, and creating microhabitats through wallowing and trampling that foster plant diversity and soil turnover.^[47] ^[48] This disturbance mimics patchy resource distribution, promoting grass regrowth vigor via compensatory mechanisms and preventing monoculture formation, though intensive domestic cattle grazing risks soil compaction and reduced diversity due to uniform foraging patterns absent in bison's herd dynamics.^[49] ^[50] The interplay of fire and grazing forms synergistic cycles essential to prairie persistence, where post-fire grazing accelerates fuel reduction and nutrient cycling while fires reset grazed patches to favor palatable regrowth, as shown in long-term exclosure studies revealing heightened fuel heterogeneity and lower burn severity under combined regimes compared to either alone.^[51] Paleoecological proxies, including charcoal layers and grazing scar evidence in sediment cores from the Great Plains spanning the Holocene, indicate these processes co-occurred for millennia, sustaining grassland extent against climatic woody expansion pressures.^[52] Modern restorations applying "pyric herbivory"—timed grazing post-burn—replicate this causality, yielding 20-50% greater biodiversity and resilience than fire or grazing in isolation.^[53]

Historical Context

Indigenous Management Pre-1492

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains, including the Lakota Sioux, Pawnee, and Blackfeet, employed controlled burns to maintain prairie landscapes, suppress woody vegetation, and promote nutrient-rich regrowth that attracted bison herds. These fires, often lit intentionally during drier seasons, created mosaics of burned and unburned patches, enhancing habitat heterogeneity and forage quality for grazing animals while facilitating travel and hunting.^[54]^[55] Archaeological records from sediment cores in northern Montana reveal frequent charcoal layers dating to pre-Columbian periods, correlating with human hunting infrastructure like bison drivelines and jumps, indicating that indigenous groups amplified natural fire regimes to concentrate prey. Over half of these charcoal peaks align with pluvial climatic episodes, where increased moisture supported grass recovery post-burn, allowing hunters to exploit synergies between weather and anthropogenic fire for sustained yields.^[54]^[56] Selective hunting practices complemented fire management, with tribes using communal drives to cull surplus bison—estimated at 30 to 60 million individuals across the Plains—without collapsing populations, as evidenced by stable herd sizes in ethnographic accounts and faunal remains from kill sites. This approach prioritized ecological balance, targeting primarily non-breeding males and juveniles to preserve reproductive capacity, thereby supporting tribal economies reliant on bison for food, hides, and tools across vast grassland extents.^[57]^[55] Overall, these stewardship methods transformed portions of the prairie from potential forest succession into productive grasslands, with pollen and charcoal data showing reduced tree pollen and elevated fire indicators in human-influenced zones compared to remote areas. Such active intervention, rooted in empirical observation of ecological dynamics, sustained biodiversity and productivity far beyond passive wilderness states.^[54]

European Settlement and Land Conversion (19th Century)

The Homestead Act, signed into law on May 20, 1862, by President Abraham Lincoln, granted 160 acres of public land to any adult citizen or intended citizen who had not borne arms against the U.S. government, provided they resided on and improved the land for five years.^[58] This policy spurred mass settlement across the Great Plains, enabling settlers to claim and plow vast tracts of prairie sod previously deemed unsuitable for farming due to deep-rooted grasses and lack of timber.^[59] By incentivizing cultivation, the Act facilitated the initial wave of land conversion, with over 1.6 million homesteads eventually claimed under its provisions, though success rates varied due to environmental challenges like droughts and soil exhaustion.^[58] Technological innovations complemented these policies, particularly the steel plow developed by John Deere in 1837, which featured a self-scouring moldboard that sliced through the sticky, root-bound prairie sod without clogging—unlike earlier cast-iron plows that required constant cleaning.^[60] This breakthrough allowed teams of oxen or horses to break up to 10 times more ground per day, accelerating the transformation of native grasslands into arable fields for crops like wheat and corn.^[61] Between 1830 and 1900, these tools and policies drove the conversion of much of the tallgrass prairie, originally spanning about 167 million acres, with the majority in the eastern portions—such as in Illinois and Iowa—plowed under for agriculture by the century's end.^[31]^[62] Railroad expansion further propelled settlement and farming, as lines like the Union Pacific, completed transcontinentally in 1869, connected remote prairie regions to eastern markets, reducing wheat transport costs and enabling large-scale grain production.^[63] By the 1880s, rail mileage in the Plains states had surged to over 50,000 miles, drawing migrants and fostering wheat belts in areas like Kansas and Nebraska, where acreage under cultivation expanded rapidly.^[64] U.S. Census data reflect this boom: while the broader western territories held sparse populations in 1850, the Great Plains saw densities rise as settlers poured in, supporting initial yield gains in grains, with productivity per acre increasing due to fertile virgin soils and expanded planting.^[65] These early adaptations demonstrated human capacity to harness prairie resources, though they initiated long-term ecological shifts by replacing diverse grasslands with monocultures.^[66]

20th-Century Impacts and Dust Bowl

The Dust Bowl, spanning the early to mid-1930s, devastated approximately 100 million acres of farmland across the southern Great Plains, primarily in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico.^[67] Meteorological records indicate a prolonged drought from 1930 to 1940, with regional precipitation 15 to 25 percent below long-term averages, intensifying aridity in an area prone to natural variability but unadapted to sustained dry conditions.^[68] This climatic stress exposed the fragility of recently plowed grasslands, where deep-rooted native vegetation had previously anchored semi-arid soils against wind erosion.^[67] Human land-use decisions amplified the drought's severity, as World War I demand and 1920s prosperity spurred plowing of marginal, submarginal lands—often with heavy machinery that pulverized soil structure without rotation or fallow periods.^[67] By the early 1930s, overcultivation left vast expanses bare during the dry spell, enabling dust storms that carried an estimated 1 billion tons of topsoil eastward, reducing soil depth by inches in affected fields and rendering millions of acres unproductive. Empirical soil surveys from the era documented erosion rates exceeding 100 tons per acre annually in peak storm areas, a direct outcome of disrupted vegetative cover rather than inherent prairie instability.^[69] Economic fallout compounded the environmental crisis, with crop failures slashing farm incomes amid the Great Depression, leading to widespread foreclosures and the displacement of roughly 2.5 million residents from Plains states, many undertaking arduous migrations to California and other regions for labor. Health impacts included "dust pneumonia" from inhaled particulates, livestock suffocation, and temporary abandonment of 3.5 million acres by 1935, underscoring how mismanaged expansion into drought-vulnerable zones—rather than unavoidable ecological collapse—drove the scale of hardship.^[70] Federal intervention began with the Soil Conservation Act of April 27, 1935, establishing the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) to address root causes through technical assistance and demonstration farms.^[71] SCS engineers promoted contour plowing—furrowing along elevation lines to slow runoff—alongside cover crops like legumes to bind soil and strip cropping to alternate erosion-prone fields with stabilizers, practices that empirical trials showed could halve sheet and gully erosion on sloping lands.^[72] By 1940, adoption across millions of acres had stabilized soils, preventing recurrence of 1930s-scale storms despite variable weather, as verified by SCS monitoring data.^[69] Post-World War II recovery shifted practices toward sustainable dryland farming, emphasizing summer fallow for moisture retention and wheat-sorghum rotations on adapted soils, while irrigation expanded via federal projects like the Ogallala Aquifer drawdown, boosting regional grain output from 300 million bushels in the 1930s to over 1 billion by the 1950s.^[73] These adaptations, informed by Dust Bowl lessons, enhanced productivity on resilient lands while retiring steeper or sandier plots to pasture, demonstrating that targeted management could mitigate natural variability without deeming the prairie inherently doomed.^[69]

Human Economic Utilization

Crop Agriculture and Productivity

The American prairies, encompassing the Great Plains and portions of the Midwest Corn Belt, serve as a primary agricultural region in the United States, often referred to as the nation's breadbasket due to their role in producing major grain crops like corn and wheat. These areas account for over 60% of U.S. corn for grain output and a substantial share of wheat production, with the southern Great Plains contributing 57% of national winter wheat. The fertile mollisols and chernozems of the region support high-volume cultivation, enabling the U.S. to rank as a leading global exporter of these commodities.^[74]^[75] Crop yields in prairie agriculture have dramatically increased since the 19th century, driven by mechanization, hybrid seeds, fertilizers, and precision farming. In the late 1800s, average U.S. corn yields hovered around 20-30 bushels per acre, reflecting rudimentary farming techniques and variable weather. By the 1930s, yields averaged about 26 bushels per acre, with gradual improvements accelerating post-World War II to reach modern levels exceeding 170 bushels per acre nationally in recent years, such as the record 179.3 bushels per acre estimated for 2024. Wheat yields followed a similar trajectory, rising from low teens in the early 1900s to national averages of 40-50 bushels per acre today, with peaks over 100 bushels in optimal conditions. These gains have enhanced food security and supported economic output valued in tens of billions annually for key prairie crops alone.^[76]^[77]^[78]^[79] Contemporary practices such as crop rotations, no-till farming, and genetically modified (GM) crops have further boosted productivity while promoting soil maintenance. Crop rotations, involving sequences like corn-soybean-wheat, improve nutrient cycling and yield stability, often increasing maize output by 5-10% compared to monoculture. No-till methods, widely adopted in the Great Plains, minimize soil disturbance to preserve organic matter and sequester carbon, contributing to sustained fertility without the erosion risks of conventional tillage. GM crops, including herbicide-tolerant and insect-resistant varieties dominant in prairie corn and soybeans, have delivered average yield gains of about 22% globally, with U.S. farmers reporting reduced input needs and higher net returns that support conservation efforts. These innovations underscore agriculture's adaptive efficiency in leveraging prairie soils for long-term output.^[80]^[81]^[82]^[83]

Livestock Ranching Practices

Livestock ranching on the American prairie centers on beef cattle production, with the Great Plains hosting over 50% of the nation's beef cows—more than 16 million head as of recent assessments—and utilizing the majority of remaining grasslands for grazing.^[84] These operations form the economic foundation for many rural communities in Plains states, where grazing sustains livelihoods amid variable climate and limited alternatives to intensive crop agriculture, contributing to regional stability through forage-based systems that align with native grassland ecology.^[85] Sustainable grazing relies on rotational systems that divide pastures into paddocks, rotating herds to emulate pre-settlement bison movements and allow forage regrowth, thereby preventing soil compaction and maintaining productivity.^[86] Stocking rates are calibrated to local conditions, with conservative targets—such as 25 animal units per hectare in shortgrass steppe—ensuring long-term viability by matching livestock demand to precipitation-driven forage yields, which have shown potential increases of up to 72% in sustainable capacity in eastern Colorado since historical baselines.^[87]^[88] Disease control emphasizes brucellosis prevention, where heifer calves are vaccinated with the RB51 strain between 4 and 12 months of age to mitigate risks from wildlife transmission, preserving herd health without relying solely on quarantine measures.^[89] Structural adaptations, including windbreaks of trees or shrubs along field edges, shield pastures from erosive winds, reducing livestock stress and forage loss that could exacerbate overgrazing pressures in open prairie landscapes.^[90]

Resource Extraction and Urban Encroachment

Resource extraction in the American prairie, particularly in shortgrass and mixed-grass regions, includes significant oil and gas development, exemplified by the Bakken Formation underlying parts of North Dakota and Montana. The Bakken has driven substantial production, with North Dakota's oil and gas tax revenues reaching nearly $22 billion between fiscal years 2008 and 2020, primarily from unconventional extraction techniques like hydraulic fracturing.^[91] This activity has supported economic growth in rural prairie areas but involves well pads, roads, and pipelines that fragment habitats, though studies indicate direct impacts on certain ecosystems, such as prairie potholes, remain limited relative to total land area.^[92] Urban encroachment has accelerated prairie conversion through metropolitan expansion, notably in the Denver area, where urbanized land grew from 150 square miles in 1950 to 499 square miles by 2000, predominantly overtaking former prairie landscapes.^[93] This sprawl, driven by population influx and housing demands, has consumed thousands of acres annually in Colorado's Front Range, with daily rural land loss peaking at over 5,800 acres in the mid-1990s before declining to about 1,400 acres per day by 2012–2017.^[94] Such development provides essential infrastructure and economic opportunities but reduces contiguous prairie extents, altering hydrological patterns and increasing impervious surfaces.^[95] Wind energy extraction represents a renewable dimension, with the Great Plains hosting over 42,300 turbines and 74,221 megawatts of capacity across 15 states, accounting for 76% of U.S. wind power.^[96] Facilities in prairie grasslands generate clean energy to meet growing demands but can displace wildlife through habitat fragmentation and cause fatalities via turbine collisions, particularly for birds and bats, though overall fragmentation is less persistent than from fossil fuel infrastructure.^[97] Siting in low-impact zones mitigates effects, balancing energy security with ecological considerations.^[98]

Conservation and Restoration

Major Initiatives and Protected Areas

The establishment of federal protected areas has preserved scattered remnants of the American prairie, primarily through units managed by the National Park Service (NPS), U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), though these collectively safeguard far less than 1% of the original expanse, which once covered approximately 400 million acres across tallgrass, mixed-grass, and shortgrass variants.^[8] Badlands National Park in South Dakota, redesignated from a national monument in 1978 after initial protection in 1939, encompasses 244,000 acres of sharply eroded buttes interspersed with the largest contiguous undisturbed mixed-grass prairie in the United States, supporting native species like bison and prairie dogs amid ongoing erosion and grazing management.^[99] Similarly, the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve in Kansas, authorized by Congress in 1996, spans 10,894 acres in the Flint Hills—the largest remaining tallgrass prairie expanse—and is co-managed by the NPS and The Nature Conservancy to maintain ecological processes such as periodic fire and bison grazing on land historically reduced to under 4% of its original 170 million acres.^[100] USFS-managed areas further contribute to prairie conservation, including the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie in Illinois, established in 1996 via transfer of 19,165 acres from former military lands, where restoration efforts have reintroduced bison herds and native plants on soils previously degraded by industrial use, representing one of the largest federal tallgrass holdings east of the Mississippi.^[101] The national grasslands system, administered by the USFS under the 1937 Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, totals 3.8 million acres across 20 units primarily in the Great Plains, such as the 1.03 million-acre Little Missouri National Grassland in North Dakota, which preserves mixed- and shortgrass prairies through sustainable grazing leases while mitigating soil erosion from historical overcultivation.^[102] FWS national wildlife refuges also protect prairie habitats, with the Northern Tallgrass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge, initiated in 2000, acquiring easements and fee-title lands across 85 counties in Minnesota and Iowa to conserve fragmented tallgrass remnants amid agricultural dominance, totaling over 50,000 acres by emphasizing habitat connectivity for grassland birds and pollinators. Complementing these federal efforts, non-governmental organizations like The Nature Conservancy, active in prairie acquisitions since the 1950s, have facilitated protections through partnerships, such as donating core lands for federal units and managing adjacent buffers, though federal holdings remain the primary metric of large-scale, publicly accessible preservation amid pervasive fragmentation.

Restoration Techniques and Outcomes

Restoration of American prairies primarily involves seeding native grasses and forbs, prescribed burns to suppress invasives and prepare soil, and managed grazing to emulate historical herbivory patterns. Seeding methods include drilling for higher establishment rates compared to broadcasting or hydroseeding, with native seed mixes targeting diverse species like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis).^[103] Prescribed burns, often conducted in spring or fall, reduce thatch buildup and invasive cool-season grasses such as smooth brome (Bromus inermis), enhancing native seedling germination by up to several-fold in prepared sites.^[104] Grazing simulations using bison or cattle, typically at moderate intensities (e.g., 20-50% utilization), prevent woody encroachment and boost forb diversity after 10-20 years, though initial effects may favor annuals over perennials.^[105] Outcomes vary by site history and management intensity, with native plant establishment often achieving 20-50% cover in early years, limited by seed bank legacy effects and weed competition; long-term successional plots over four decades show floristic quality indices (FQI) averaging 50, ranging from 29 to 69, indicating partial resemblance to remnants but persistent gaps in rare species.^[106] At Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, restoration since 1996 on former arsenal lands has supported grassland bird populations, including stable bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) trends from 1985-2015 and habitats for upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) and short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), aided by bison and cattle grazing that maintains open structure.^[107]^[108] Costs for full conversion from cropland to prairie exceed $1,500 per [acre](/page/Acre), encompassing [seeding](/page/Seeding) (130-368/acre for mixes), herbicide pretreatment, and ongoing burns or grazing management at $60-100/acre annually, with benefits like improved soil health offset by low short-term returns and maintenance needs to counter reinvasion.^[109]^[110] Limitations include unpredictable seedling survival (e.g., <30% for some forbs without disturbance) and the necessity for repeated interventions, as passive recovery rarely achieves reference community composition without active measures.^[111]

Carbon Sequestration and Biodiversity Goals

Restored American prairies offer potential for soil carbon sequestration, primarily through accumulation of organic matter in deep-rooted grassland soils, which historically stored substantial carbon prior to agricultural conversion. Empirical studies indicate sequestration rates of 0.15 to 1.4 megagrams of carbon per hectare per year in managed or restored grasslands, depending on soil type, climate, and management practices such as grazing or fire exclusion.^[112] However, these rates diminish over time as soils approach saturation, and long-term persistence requires ongoing maintenance; biometric measurements in prairie restorations have revealed challenges in net sink verification due to concurrent respiration and methane emissions from wetlands within prairie systems.^[113] Scaled to the United States, restoring degraded grasslands could contribute modestly to national carbon budgets, but claims of offsetting large fractions of emissions—such as 15% of U.S. carbon stocks or annual emissions—lack robust empirical support across the full prairie extent and must be scrutinized against IPCC assessments emphasizing temporary and reversible storage potentials.^[112] Biodiversity goals in prairie restoration target the return of keystone species, such as bison (Bison bison), whose grazing, wallowing, and nutrient cycling activities foster habitat heterogeneity and support diverse plant and insect communities essential to prairie function.^[114] Initiatives like those in the Northern Great Plains aim to reestablish populations of these species alongside prairie dogs and native ungulates to mimic pre-settlement dynamics, with preliminary data showing increased floral diversity and pollinator abundance in bison-grazed areas.^[50] Yet, empirical evidence highlights gaps in achieving comprehensive ecosystem recovery: fragmented landscapes and altered disturbance regimes limit gene flow and full trophic reassembly, resulting in restorations that often attain only 50-70% of historical species richness after decades, as invasive grasses and legacy soil degradation persist.^[115] These environmental objectives entail inherent trade-offs with food production, as converting marginal croplands or overgrazed pastures to native prairie reduces arable area available for grains and livestock feed, potentially straining domestic yields in a context of global demand growth.^[116] Biophysical analyses confirm that carbon storage and biodiversity enhancements on restored lands inversely correlate with crop productivity, with no scalable synergies observed without technological offsets like precision agriculture on remaining farms; thus, prioritization of sequestration or species recovery implies opportunity costs measured in forgone caloric output, underscoring the need for targeted rather than expansive restoration to balance causal ecosystem benefits against agricultural imperatives.^[117]^[116]

Threats and Degradation

Habitat Fragmentation and Loss

The conversion of tallgrass prairie to row crops represents the primary driver of habitat fragmentation across the American prairies, with over 99% of the original extent lost to agriculture since European settlement. This plowing and tillage have subdivided vast contiguous grasslands into small, isolated remnants, disrupting migration corridors for species like bison and prairie chickens and preventing the restoration of natural disturbance regimes such as fire and grazing.^[10]^[118] Remaining prairie patches suffer from pronounced edge effects, where the interface between habitat and converted land reduces core area viability through changes in soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient cycling. In tallgrass systems, these edges correlate with lower native plant richness and higher nest predation rates, as artificial nest experiments demonstrate elevated failure near boundaries due to increased predator activity from adjacent fields and developments. Smaller fragments, often under 100 hectares, exhibit diminished ecological integrity, as edge influences extend inward, compromising habitat quality for interior-adapted species.^[119]^[120] Road networks and urban expansion compound agricultural fragmentation by creating linear barriers that isolate patches and amplify edge-to-core ratios. These infrastructures serve as dispersal vectors for non-native plants and alter hydrology, with GIS mapping revealing heightened disturbance zones adjacent to roadways that degrade adjacent prairie integrity. While natural factors like periodic droughts contribute to patch dynamics, human land-use patterns—evident in satellite-derived change detection—account for the bulk of contemporary fragmentation, as pre-settlement prairies maintained connectivity through expansive, unbarred landscapes.^[121]^[122]^[123]

Invasive Species and Climate Effects

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), an invasive cool-season grass introduced from Europe, dominates northern Great Plains prairies by forming dense sod layers that suppress native warm-season bunchgrasses, alter soil nitrogen dynamics, and reduce overall plant diversity.^[124] This invasion, documented in field studies since the early 20th century, decreases habitat quality for grassland-dependent wildlife and limits forage production, with invaded sites showing up to 50% lower native species richness compared to uninvaded areas.^[125] Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), another aggressive perennial, outcompetes desirable forbs and grasses through allelopathic chemicals and rapid vegetative spread, leading to forage losses estimated at $100–$200 per acre annually for ranchers in affected regions.^[126]^[127] Management of these invasives relies on integrated approaches, including herbicide treatments such as glyphosate, picloram, and imazapic applied in late summer or fall for optimal efficacy against leafy spurge, often achieving 70–90% initial control when timed with plant phenology.^[128]^[129] Prescribed burns, conducted every 2–4 years, effectively reduce Kentucky bluegrass cover by 40–60% by favoring fire-adapted natives, though repeated applications are needed to prevent reinvasion.^[125] Biological controls, like flea beetle (Aphthona spp.) releases for leafy spurge since the 1980s, have yielded field-observed reductions of up to 95% in high-density populations, though success varies with site conditions and requires monitoring to avoid non-target effects.^[130] Observed climate trends since 1950 show Great Plains prairies experiencing 1–2°C warming, particularly in winters, alongside a 10–20% decline in soil moisture from prolonged droughts, as evidenced by Palmer Drought Severity Index data.^[131] These shifts have contracted mesic grassland extents eastward, with field inventories revealing increased woody shrub cover in former prairie zones due to reduced fire frequency and altered precipitation patterns.^[132] Invasive species and climate stressors interact synergistically; for example, Kentucky bluegrass exhibits heightened establishment under warmer, variable rainfall regimes observed in the Prairie Potholes, where reduced native vigor allows denser invasions that deplete soil water and exacerbate wind erosion rates by 20–30% through shallower root systems.^[133]^[134] Empirical plot studies confirm that invaded grasslands under drought conditions lose 15–25% more topsoil annually than intact natives, amplifying degradation cycles.^[135] Adaptation potentials include resilient native genotypes selected for drought tolerance, which maintain productivity in experimental restorations despite projected 10–20% declines in overall grassland biomass under continued warming.^[136]

Controversies and Debates

Restoration vs. Agricultural Priorities

The restoration of American prairies often conflicts with agricultural priorities due to the Great Plains' outsized role in national food production, where these lands contribute approximately 61% of U.S. wheat output and significant portions of corn, sorghum, hay, and livestock.^[137] Proponents of rewilding argue for converting portions of marginal farmland—potentially up to 15% of degraded prairie soils—to enhance carbon sequestration and biodiversity, citing perennial grasslands' capacity to store carbon rapidly compared to annual crops.^[138] However, such conversions risk reducing overall agricultural yields in a context of global food demand, as prairie regions underpin over 40% of U.S. grain and beef production essential for domestic and export markets.^[139] Economic evaluations highlight trade-offs where restoration costs, including lost crop revenues and transition expenses, frequently exceed ecosystem service benefits like carbon storage when food security is prioritized. For instance, analyses of land-use shifts in the Prairie Pothole Region indicate that retiring croplands for conservation yields ecological gains but diminishes provisioning services such as grain output, with substitutability limited by soil and market constraints.^[140] In food-scarce scenarios, the opportunity cost of reallocating productive prairie acreage to rewilding is high, as perennial restoration sequesters carbon at rates that, while beneficial long-term, do not offset immediate productivity losses from displacing high-yield row crops or grazing.^[141] Recent conversions of remaining grasslands to agriculture have shown diminishing returns on prime lands already exploited, suggesting restoration may be more viable on low-productivity margins, yet broad rewilding proposals overlook these causal dynamics in sustaining caloric output.^[142] Hybrid strategies, such as regenerative grazing that integrates rotational livestock management with native grass restoration, demonstrate empirical success in balancing these priorities by improving soil health and biodiversity without fully sacrificing output. In Iowa grasslands, managed grazing case studies have enhanced forage quality and wildlife habitat while maintaining viable herd sizes, reducing erosion and input costs compared to conventional tillage.^[143] Similarly, adaptive grazing on Great Plains rangelands has proven cost-effective for conservation, mimicking historical bison patterns to boost carbon retention and resilience while supporting economic livelihoods through sustained meat production.^[144] These approaches underscore evidence-based land use, where targeted restoration on submarginal lands complements intensified sustainable agriculture on fertile soils, avoiding zero-sum trade-offs.^[145]

Specific Conflicts: American Prairie Reserve and Rancher Concerns

The American Prairie Reserve (APR), established in 2004, seeks to assemble approximately 3.2 million acres of contiguous grassland in northeastern Montana to restore a functioning prairie ecosystem, including reintroduction of bison herds.^[146] ^[147] This expansion has intensified conflicts with local ranchers, who perceive the initiative as prioritizing ecological restoration over established agricultural uses, potentially eroding ranching heritage and economic viability in rural communities.^[148] As of December 2024, APR controlled over 500,000 acres through deeded and leased lands, with a major September 2025 acquisition of the 67,960-acre Anchor Ranch further fueling debates over land competition.^[149] ^[150] A primary concern involves APR's bison management, as ranchers fear disease transmission, particularly brucellosis—a bacterial infection that can cause abortions in cattle—to their livestock from free-roaming herds.^[151] APR maintains that its bison are sourced from brucellosis-free herds, undergo regular testing, and showed no evidence of the disease in health assessments as recent as 2021, asserting minimal risk through containment and monitoring protocols.^[152] ^[153] Despite these measures, ranchers argue that bison proximity imposes added testing and management costs on cattle operations and cite historical precedents from Yellowstone bison migrations as justification for ongoing apprehension.^[151] ^[154] In September 2025, Montana Governor Greg Gianforte, along with the state's federal delegation, sent a letter to U.S. Interior Secretary Doug Burgum opposing APR's applications to convert Bureau of Land Management (BLM) grazing permits for cattle into bison use on public lands, warning that such shifts would remove productive acreage from agriculture and inflate local land prices, disadvantaging working ranchers.^[155] ^[156] The officials highlighted that APR's nonprofit status enables tax-exempt acquisitions and operations that undercut market-based ranching, potentially leading to job losses in beef production without commensurate economic offsets from tourism or conservation.^[151] A follow-up October 2025 letter reiterated these points, emphasizing harm to Montana's agricultural economy from sidelining "vast swaths" of land.^[151] Ranchers have voiced that APR's land buys drive up property values, pricing family operations out of the market and fostering perceptions of unfair competition from an entity not reliant on livestock sales for survival.^[148] ^[157] Ranchers further contend that APR's model contributes to cultural displacement, viewing the replacement of cattle grazing with wild ungulates as an existential threat to the ranching identity that sustains rural Montana demographics and traditions.^[158] While APR promotes biodiversity enhancements through bison grazing, which it claims improves soil health and supports native species, empirical data on net gains remains contested, with critics noting limited quantifiable improvements relative to the scale of land conversion and associated agricultural employment declines in Phillips and Blaine counties.^[153] ^[157] Local opposition frames these shifts as prioritizing distant environmental ideals over immediate economic realities, where ranching supports thousands of jobs versus speculative ecotourism benefits.^[148]

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Apr 1, 2021 · Researchers at the USDA-ARS recently found that the long-term sustainable stocking rate of the shortgrass steppe has increased by 72% in the ...Missing: Great | Show results with:Great
[89]
Bangs vaccine and talking to your veterinarian - Beef Magazine
Apr 7, 2025 · The brucellosis vaccination, also known as “Bangs” vaccine, should only be administered to females between 4 and 12 months of age as protection from Brucella ...
[90]
[PDF] Windbreaks for Conservation - USDA Forest Service
Field windbreaks can reduce some of the risks associated with farming wherever wind erosion and wind damage to crops are hazards. The use of windbreaks can ...
[91]
Oil prices, oil production, and production taxes in North Dakota
Between fiscal years 2008 and 2020, oil and gas tax revenues totaled nearly $22 billion, supporting key expenditures such as $8.2 billion for local communities ...
[92]
Impact of the Bakken/Three Forks unconventional oil and gas ...
(2019) that concluded that the direct development impact on prairie potholes was minimal from UOAG within the Bakken/Three Forks Formation of North Dakota, the ...
[93]
Denver's Urban Expansion | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Oct 15, 2021 · The Denver metropolitan area expanded in urbanized land from 150 square miles in 1950 to 499 square miles in 2000, primarily onto prairie and ...
[94]
Loss of Farmland, Wildlife Habitat, Open Space - Colorado Sprawl
It went from 3,301 acres per day in the mid-1980s to a peak of 5,858 acres per day in the mid-1990s, and back down to 1,439 acres per day by 2012 to 2017, a ...
[95]
Urbanization in Denver produces more streamflow because of ...
Urban streams in the Denver, Colorado, USA region flow more often than undeveloped grassland streams. We sought to identify the sources of this increased ...
[96]
[PDF] Energy development and production in the Great Plains
The 15 Great Plains states with grasslands have > 42300 wind turbines with a combined 74221 MW of wind energy capacity, representing 76% of total US wind ...
[97]
Which is worse for wildlife, wind farms or oil drilling? - BBC
Jan 30, 2025 · However, "we found overall that wind energy resulted in less habitat fragmentation than oil and gas and especially, less impacts over the long ...
[98]
Wind and Wildlife in the Northern Great Plains - PubMed Central - NIH
Jul 25, 2012 · Goals for wind energy development in the NGP are roughly 30 GW of nameplate capacity by 2030. Our analyses demonstrate that there are large ...
[99]
Badlands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)
Dec 8, 2020 · The park's 244,000 acres protect an expanse of mixed-grass prairie where bison, bighorn sheep, prairie dogs, and black-footed ferrets live today ...Nature · Things To Do · Directions · Maps
[100]
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve Quick Facts (U.S. National Park ...
Feb 12, 2024 · The Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve was created in 1996, with 10,894 acres. The National Park Service owns only 180 acres, with most land ...
[101]
Home | Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie - USDA Forest Service
There are nearly 9,000 acres open to the public with 33 miles of trail for hiking, biking, and horseback riding. Plan Your Visit ...
[102]
The National Grasslands Story | US Forest Service
... National Grassland in North Dakota is the biggest, with 1,028,051 acres. The Sheyenne National Grassland is the only National Grassland in the tall grass ...
[103]
[PDF] Evaluating Seeding Methods and Rates for Prairie Restoration
We addressed three ques- tions: (1) Which seeding method (drilling, broadcasting, or hydroseeding) is most effective at establishing prairie species? (2) What ...
[104]
Fire as a Site Preparation Tool in Grassland Restoration: Seed Size ...
Sep 1, 2018 · This study suggests that preparing a restoration site with prescribed fire prior to seeding will substantially increase the establishment success of seeds sown ...Missing: efficacy | Show results with:efficacy
[105]
Post‐restoration grassland management overrides the effects of ...
In spring, restoration method had no effect on the total species richness (Fig. 2, Table 1), whereas two decades of grazing resulted in significantly increased ...
[106]
[PDF] 12. Results from Four Decades of Successional Prairie Restoration ...
FQI of selected plantings using the data from the fourth decade ranged from 69 to 29 with a mean FQI of 50. (Table 5). DISCUSSION. Creating a Tallgrass Prairie ...
[107]
[PDF] State of the Grasslands Report - Chicago Wilderness
Trends at Midewin. National Tallgrass Prairie from 1985-2015 show that Bobolink populations are stable and indicate a high likelihood of long- term persistence ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes<|separator|>
[108]
[PDF] BIRDS of MIDEWIN | The Nature Conservancy
Jan 27, 2022 · Midewin supports diverse grassland birds like Upland Sandpiper, Short-eared Owl, and Northern Harrier, due to grazing by cows and bison.
[109]
[PDF] Restoring Your Crop Field to Conservation Prairie
The estimated cost to restore a crop field to conservation prairie is $1506 per acre, based on. 2013 prices. Costs associated with site assessment and ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[110]
[PDF] Assessing outcome predictability in prairie strip establishment
At the. Nashua site, the Pollinator mix cost $368/ acre, the Diversity mix cost $291/acre, and the. Economy mix cost $130/acre. We weighed, bagged, and mixed ...
[111]
[PDF] Are we close enough? Comparing prairie reconstruction ...
Nov 23, 2019 · Reconstructed prairies did not reach the diversity and species composition of remnant prairies, and improved seed collection is needed.
[112]
Grassland soil carbon sequestration: Current understanding ...
Aug 4, 2022 · Empirical and experimental studies have indicated that improving grassland management can increase SOC storage, thus mitigating carbon losses ...
[113]
Prairie restoration and carbon sequestration: Difficulties quantifying ...
Aug 10, 2025 · We investigated carbon cycling and ecosystem characteristics among two prairie restoration treatments established in 1987 and adjacent cropland, ...
[114]
Quick and Dirty Guide to Bison as Keystone Species
Oct 10, 2023 · The ways bison graze, poop and wallow touch on everything about the ecology of a prairie. But well, it can all be more than a little messy.
[115]
[PDF] Prairie restoration and carbon sequestration - Tallgrass Ontario
Abstract. We investigated carbon cycling and ecosystem characteristics among two prairie restoration treatments established in 1987 and adjacent cropland, ...<|separator|>
[116]
Benefits and trade-offs of optimizing global land use for food ... - PNAS
Oct 9, 2023 · Food production often conflicts with carbon storage and freshwater supply. These trade-offs differ in space as they depend on biophysical ...
[117]
Trade-offs between agricultural production and ecosystem services ...
Jul 1, 2025 · This study evaluated the trade-offs between provisioning ecosystem services (crop yields) and other key ecosystem services including regulating services.
[118]
Threats to the Prairie - Grassland Heritage Foundation
Most of this loss came from simple destruction of the habitat as people converted prairies into other uses. For example, the tall grasses that once covered ...
[119]
Recent declines in northern tall-grass prairies and effects of patch ...
Northern tall-grass prairies have lost more than 97.5% of their historical extent, and as such are the most threatened of the North American prairies (Samson et ...
[120]
Evidence for Edge Effects on Multiple Levels in Tallgrass Prairie
We tested how edges affect nest survival and predator distribution in a native tallgrass prairie system in southwestern Missouri using artificial nests, natural ...Missing: viability | Show results with:viability
[121]
[PDF] Paving the way for habitat disturbance: Different road types have ...
Road disturbance can facilitate the establishment and growth of invasive plant species and herbivorous insects in adjacent ecosystems.
[122]
PRAIRIEMAP: A GIS database for prairie grassland management in ...
A database of spatial information, called PRAIRIEMAP, which is needed to address the management of prairie grasslands in western North America.Missing: fragmentation statistics
[123]
[PDF] Species Status Assessment Report for the Lesser Prairie-Chicken ...
Mar 3, 2022 · The LEPC has experienced substantial and protracted declines in distribution and abundance due to habitat loss and fragmentation across its ...
[124]
Kentucky Bluegrass Invasion in the Northern Great Plains and ...
Apr 20, 2021 · Thus, Kentucky bluegrass can function as a ”transformer” species as it not only affects the native plant community composition, but also soil ...
[125]
Impacts and management of invasive cool‐season grasses in the ...
Aug 17, 2013 · Bahm et al. (2011) suggest that herbicide use allows for initial and sometimes temporary reduction of smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass; ...<|separator|>
[126]
Effects of the invasive leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) on plant ...
Jan 27, 2023 · In North America, leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is a problematic invader that reduces plant diversity and forage production for livestock.
[127]
Chapter 14 Leafy Spurge - Biological Control of Invasive Plants in ...
Leafy spurge reduces forage production and wildlife habitat, and causes considerable monetary losses to the livestock industry (Messersmith and Lym, 1983; ...
[128]
Leafy Spurge Control - Missouri Department of Conservation
Several chemicals have been used for leafy spurge control. These include picloram, 2,4-D, dicamba, and glyphosate.
[129]
Effect of Herbicides for Leafy Spurge Control on the Western Prairie ...
This timing is optimum for leafy spurge control with quinclorac and imazapic and the orchid generally has senesced by mid-September, making injury less likely.
[130]
Leafy Spurge Biocontrol - Colorado Department of Agriculture
Control of leafy spurge is highly correlated with flea beetle density. With high-density populations of flea beetles, up to 95% reduction of spurge has been ...
[131]
Climate Impacts in the Great Plains - US EPA
Oct 6, 2016 · Climate change in the Great Plains includes warmer winters, increased drought, water stress, and impacts on vulnerable communities, agriculture ...Overview · Vulnerable Communities · Water Resources
[132]
Linking Landscapes and People --Projecting the Future of the Great ...
A hotter and drier climate by 2100 leads to an increased suitability to support shrubland and a decreased suitability to support grassland.
[133]
[PDF] Climate Change Impacts on Introduced Grass Invasion in the Prairie ...
Abstract – The Prairie Potholes Region of the northern Great Plains is under threat from the combined effects of introduced perennial grasses and climate ...
[134]
[PDF] Impacts of Invasive Species on Forest and Grassland Ecosystem ...
Invasive species alter carbon, nitrogen, and hydrologic cycles, increasing nitrogen cycling, using more water, and potentially reducing soil moisture.
[135]
Managing invasive plants on Great Plains grasslands: A discussion ...
Invasive plants threaten native species, diminish land values, and are unpredictable. Woody encroachment decreases diversity and increases erosion. Management ...
[136]
Climate change effects on rangelands and rangeland management
Increasing drought, temperature, wildfire, and species invasions will likely transform the landscape and render many rangelands less capable of supporting ...Missing: yield | Show results with:yield
[137]
Skold, Melvin D. - Colorado State University
The Great Plains States produce 61% of the nation's wheat, and over 51% of the national total is produced in the GPP. The percentages of U.S. production of ...
[138]
Lessons From Long‐Term Monitoring of Carbon Gains and Losses ...
Jun 9, 2025 · In contrast, perennial systems such as switchgrass, miscanthus, and restored prairies do sequester carbon and begin doing so quickly. These ...
[139]
AGRICULTURE | Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
Corn and wheat became the most important crops of the Plains, just as they had been in the more humid eastern states.Missing: initial 19th
[140]
Valuing ecosystem and economic services across land-use ...
Importantly, this study will help determine economic and ecological tradeoffs in the PPR and the substitutability of retired croplands enrolled in conservation ...
[141]
What are the carbon opportunity costs of our food? - Our World in Data
Mar 19, 2021 · Meat and dairy products need more land than alternatives, and therefore have a higher opportunity cost. Going vegan would result in the largest carbon savings.
[142]
Millions of grassland acres lost in the Great Plains, says new report
Oct 29, 2023 · The report said prime lands for agriculture were converted decades ago, meaning recent conversions may not yield significant agricultural ...<|separator|>
[143]
[PDF] Improving Iowa Grasslands with Managed Grazing: 5 Case Studies
“The main thing is to have more good grasslands to attract the birds, and then manage the grasses as best you can.” One page summary of a case study by the ...Missing: hybrid success
[144]
Accelerating regenerative grazing to tackle farm, environmental, and ...
Jan 1, 2021 · Regenerative grazing can contribute to conservation goals and provide a cost-effective alternative to other grassland management strategies. The ...
[145]
North America Regenerative Grazing Lands
Well-managed grazing on intact rangelands can deliver healthy, natural ecosystems, robust economies, vibrant rural communities and global food security. Rob ...Missing: hybrid success
[146]
History & Values | American Prairie
Grasslands are losing. Temperate grasslands are the least protected biome on Earth, with only four places left in the world – including the prairies of Montana ...
[147]
American Prairie
Our mission is to create one of the largest nature reserves in the United States. This will serve as a refuge for people and wildlife, forever.Visit the Prairie · Maps · Hunting · Leadership
[148]
Saving the Wild or Saving the Cowboy? Cultural Conflict between ...
Oct 25, 2024 · Perceptions that American Prairie is driving up land prices, harming the community, and competing unfairly with ranchers make the area analogous ...
[149]
American Prairie surpasses half a million acres
Dec 5, 2024 · American Prairie grows to over half a million acres with new land purchase near Upper Missouri River Breaks, CMR Refuge.
[150]
American Prairie acquires Anchor Ranch; debate over bison permits ...
Oct 3, 2025 · On Sept. 4, 2025, American Prairie announced the purchase of the Anchor Ranch, totaling 67,960 acres, including 22,837 acres of deeded land ...
[151]
https://dailymontanan.com/2025/10/24/governor-federal-delegation-send-letter-to-interior-targeting-american-prairie/
[152]
American Prairie Reserve Bison Herd Given Clean Bill of Health
Mar 11, 2021 · American Prairie is pleased to announce that once again no evidence of clinical disease was found in its bison herd.Missing: ranchers | Show results with:ranchers
[153]
Healthy Bison, Healthy Grasslands | American Prairie
That's why any bison we import are sourced from brucellosis-free herds. American Prairie routinely conducts bison handlings to maintain and monitor herd health.
[154]
American prairie. What's the issue? | Page 46 - Hunt Talk
Mar 31, 2022 · That means no bison with brucellosis can be transferred. The protocol around Yellowstone for moving bison takes about 7-10 years, IIRC. Those ...<|separator|>
[155]
[PDF] Gov. Gianforte Letter to Sec. Burgum - Montana Governor's Office
Sep 5, 2025 · Since 2017, American Prairie Reserve (APR) has been in the process of seeking the Bureau of Land Management's (BLM's) approval to change ...Missing: prices competition
[156]
Governor Gianforte, Federal Delegation Advocate for Montana ...
Sep 9, 2025 · In the letter, the governor and Montana's federal delegation highlighted they are awaiting the Department of Interior's decision on those ...Missing: prices competition
[157]
American Prairie marches on - Beef Magazine
Jul 28, 2025 · Born in 2004, American Prairie's vision is to fully restore and reconnect 3.2 million acres of Montana's shortgrass prairie ecosystem. In that ...
[158]
Montana ranchers oppose American Prairie Reserve - Facebook
Mar 17, 2022 · (2) "Wild species such as grizzly bears, wolves and free- roaming bison, she says, would be a threat to cattle on her property. Plus, the glut ...