Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is the peripheral portion of the human skeletal system, comprising the bones of the upper and lower limbs along with the pectoral and pelvic girdles that attach these limbs to the axial skeleton. The term "appendicular" derives from the Latin appendicula, a diminutive of appendix, meaning a small appendage or addition.^[1] It consists of 126 bones in total, forming a framework specialized for mobility, locomotion, grasping, and manipulation of objects.^[2]^[3] The pectoral girdle, also known as the shoulder girdle, includes the clavicles and scapulae, which anchor the upper limbs to the trunk and provide attachment sites for muscles that enable arm movement.^[4] Each upper limb contains 30 bones: the humerus in the arm, the radius and ulna in the forearm, eight carpals in the wrist, five metacarpals in the hand, and 14 phalanges in the fingers.^[2] These structures facilitate precise dexterity and reach, essential for activities like tool use and object handling.^[3] In contrast, the pelvic girdle unites the two hip bones (each formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis) and connects to the sacrum, supporting the weight of the upper body and serving as a sturdy base for lower limb attachment.^[4] The lower limbs, with 30 bones each, include the femur (thigh), tibia and fibula (leg), patella (kneecap), seven tarsals in the ankle, five metatarsals in the foot, and 14 phalanges in the toes, enabling bipedal walking, running, and balance.^[2] Overall, the appendicular skeleton's design emphasizes flexibility and strength, differing from the more rigid axial skeleton by prioritizing functional adaptation for dynamic movement.^[4]

Overview

Definition and Etymology

The appendicular skeleton constitutes the portion of the human skeletal system comprising the bones of the upper and lower limbs along with their associated girdles, which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. This division contrasts with the axial skeleton, which forms the central core of the body including the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. In adult humans, the appendicular skeleton accounts for 126 of the total 206 bones in the body.^[4] Of these, the upper appendicular skeleton includes 64 bones, with 32 bones per upper limb including the pectoral girdle. The lower appendicular skeleton comprises 62 bones, consisting of 30 bones per lower limb plus the two bones of the pelvic girdle. These components are organized into the pectoral and pelvic girdles supporting the respective limbs.^[4]^[2] The term "appendicular" derives from the Latin appendicula, a diminutive form of appendix meaning "small appendage" or "that which hangs from." It entered English in the 1650s and anatomical contexts in the 19th century (first recorded 1839), underscoring the oppositional pairing with the "axial" skeleton. The nomenclature gained prominence in 19th-century anatomical texts.^[1]^[5]

Components and Organization

The appendicular skeleton is divided into two primary divisions: the upper appendicular skeleton, consisting of the pectoral girdle and the bones of the upper limbs, and the lower appendicular skeleton, comprising the pelvic girdle and the bones of the lower limbs. The upper division facilitates manipulation and reaching movements, enabling precise control of objects through flexible shoulder and arm articulations, while the lower division supports weight-bearing and locomotion, providing stability for upright posture and bipedal gait.^[6]^[7] The upper appendicular skeleton connects to the axial skeleton solely through the pectoral girdle at the sternoclavicular joint, where the medial end of each clavicle articulates with the manubrium of the sternum, allowing significant mobility while maintaining attachment to the trunk. In contrast, the lower appendicular skeleton attaches more robustly via the pelvic girdle at the sacroiliac joints, where the auricular surfaces of the sacrum (part of the axial skeleton) form synovial articulations with the ilia of the two hip bones, reinforced by strong ligaments to transmit forces from the lower limbs to the vertebral column. These attachment points ensure the appendicular components integrate with the central body axis for coordinated movement.^[8]^[9] Within each division, the bones form a serial chain of connections that promote segmented mobility. In the upper limb, the humerus articulates proximally with the glenoid cavity of the scapula at the glenohumeral joint, followed by distal connections to the radius and ulna at the elbow, and further linkages through the carpal, metacarpal, and phalangeal bones of the hand. Similarly, in the lower limb, the femur connects proximally to the acetabulum of the hip bone at the hip joint, then articulates distally with the tibia and fibula at the knee, extending to the tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones of the foot. This hierarchical arrangement of girdle-to-limb and intra-limb articulations creates a scaffold for leverage and range of motion.^[10]^[11] The appendicular skeleton exhibits bilateral symmetry, with nearly all of its 126 bones occurring in pairs—one on the left side and one on the right—to mirror the body's overall architecture and support balanced function. The pectoral girdles and upper limbs are fully paired, as are the pelvic girdles (two hip bones) and lower limbs, though the anterior pubic symphysis unites the hip bones midline without altering their paired origins. This organization ensures symmetrical load distribution and coordinated bilateral actions.^[7]^[9]

Upper Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle

The pectoral girdle, also known as the shoulder girdle, forms the skeletal framework that connects the upper limbs to the axial skeleton, consisting of the paired clavicles and scapulae. This structure provides attachment points for muscles that enable a wide range of upper body movements while maintaining flexibility. Unlike the more rigid pelvic girdle, the pectoral girdle is designed for mobility rather than weight-bearing stability.^[12] The clavicle, or collarbone, is a slender, S-shaped long bone that lies horizontally across the superior thorax, serving as the sole bony connection between the upper limb and the axial skeleton. It features a medial sternal end, which is triangular and articulates with the manubrium of the sternum, and a lateral acromial end, which is flattened and connects to the scapula. The central shaft of the clavicle is curved, with the medial two-thirds convex anteriorly and the lateral third concave anteriorly, providing leverage for muscle attachments and protection for underlying neurovascular structures. In terms of sexual dimorphism, the male clavicle is typically longer, thicker, and more curved than the female counterpart, reflecting broader shoulder width in males, though these differences are minimal overall.^[13]^[13]^[13] The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a flat, triangular bone located on the posterior thoracic wall, contributing to the posterior aspect of the pectoral girdle. Its key features include the prominent spine, a ridge on the posterior surface that divides the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae; the acromion, a lateral extension of the spine that forms a bony shelf; the coracoid process, an anteriorly projecting hook-like structure for muscle and ligament attachments; and the glenoid cavity, a shallow oval depression on the lateral border that serves as the socket for the humerus. The scapula lacks direct bony articulation with the axial skeleton, instead relying on muscular suspensions such as the trapezius and serratus anterior for positioning.^[14]^[14]^[14] Articulations of the pectoral girdle include the sternoclavicular joint, where the clavicle meets the sternum, and the acromioclavicular joint, linking the clavicle to the scapula's acromion, forming an incomplete bony ring that enhances mobility. This open-ring configuration, combined with the scapula's ability to glide over the thoracic wall via the scapulothoracic articulation, permits extensive shoulder movements, including up to 180 degrees of arm circumduction. The girdle's design prioritizes range of motion over stability, allowing independent upper limb function while transmitting forces from the arms to the trunk.^[12]^[12]^[15]

Upper Limb Bones

The upper limb bones form a serial chain from the arm through the forearm to the hand, enabling precise manipulation and reach. These 30 bones per limb (excluding the pectoral girdle) articulate to support mobility, with the humerus connecting proximally to the scapula via the glenohumeral joint.^[16]^[17] The humerus is the single bone of the arm, extending from the shoulder to the elbow. Its proximal end features a smooth, rounded head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Immediately distal to the head lies the surgical neck, a narrowed region prone to fractures. Along the mid-shaft on the lateral side is the deltoid tuberosity, a roughened V-shaped ridge. At the distal end, the medial epicondyle projects prominently, while the smaller lateral epicondyle sits opposite. The distal humerus includes the pulley-shaped trochlea medially, which articulates with the ulna, and the rounded capitulum laterally, which articulates with the radius to form part of the elbow joint.^[16]^[17] The forearm consists of two parallel bones: the radius laterally and the ulna medially. The radius has a disc-shaped head proximally that articulates with the humerus's capitulum and the ulna's radial notch, forming the proximal radioulnar joint. This joint, along with the distal radioulnar joint where the ulna's head pivots against the radius's ulnar notch, allows for pronation and supination of the forearm. The ulna features the olecranon process proximally, a hook-like projection that inserts into the humerus's olecranon fossa during elbow extension and serves as a site for triceps attachment. Distally, the ulna tapers to a rounded head. These bones enable both hinge-like flexion/extension at the elbow and rotational movements.^[16]^[17] The hand contains 27 bones organized into the wrist, palm, and fingers. The wrist includes eight carpal bones arranged in two rows: the proximal row comprises the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform, while the distal row includes the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate. These short bones articulate with the forearm at the radiocarpal joint, where the distal radius meets the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum. The palm is formed by five metacarpal bones, numbered 1 to 5 from thumb to little finger, each with a proximal base, elongated shaft, and distal head. The fingers consist of 14 phalanges: the thumb has two (proximal and distal), while each of the other four digits has three (proximal, middle, and distal). This arrangement provides the dexterity essential for grasping and fine motor tasks.^[16]^[17]

Lower Appendicular Skeleton

Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle, also known as the hip girdle, consists of two innominate bones, or os coxae, one on each side of the body, which together form a robust bony structure that connects the axial skeleton to the lower limbs.^[18] Each innominate bone is formed by the fusion of three primary bones: the ilium superiorly, the ischium posteriorly and inferiorly, and the pubis anteriorly.^[19] The ilium is the largest and most superior portion, featuring a broad, fan-shaped body with a prominent superior margin called the iliac crest and a posterior indentation known as the greater sciatic notch.^[18] The ischium forms the posteroinferior part, including the ischial tuberosity, a roughened projection that supports body weight during sitting.^[19] The pubis constitutes the anteromedial section, with its bodies meeting at the midline pubic symphysis, a fibrocartilaginous joint reinforced by an interposed disc.^[19] Laterally, the three bones converge to form the acetabulum, a deep, cup-shaped cavity that serves as the socket for articulation with the head of the femur.^[18] The pelvic girdle articulates with the axial skeleton primarily through the sacroiliac joints, which are bilateral compound joints between the auricular surfaces of the ilium and the sacrum, combining synovial and syndesmotic elements for limited motion.^[19] These joints are stabilized by strong ligaments, such as the anterior and posterior sacroiliac ligaments, enabling the transfer of upper body weight to the lower limbs while maintaining stability.^[18] The pubic symphysis provides midline connection between the two pubic bones, contributing to the overall rigidity of the structure.^[19] The complete bony ring formed by the two innominate bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx enhances this stability, distinguishing the pelvic girdle from the more mobile pectoral girdle and supporting upright posture in bipedal humans.^[18] The pelvis is divided into the false pelvis (or greater pelvis) superiorly, which is broader and lies above the pelvic brim, and the true pelvis (or lesser pelvis) inferiorly, which is narrower and encloses pelvic organs below the brim.^[19] This division underscores the girdle's role in weight-bearing and enclosure. Sex differences in pelvic morphology are pronounced, with the female pelvis generally wider to accommodate childbirth; for instance, females exhibit a broader pelvic inlet and outlet, a subpubic angle greater than 80 degrees, and a wider greater sciatic notch compared to males, who have a narrower pelvis with a subpubic angle less than 70 degrees and a deeper sciatic notch.^[18] These adaptations reflect evolutionary pressures balancing bipedal locomotion with reproductive needs.^[19]

Lower Limb Bones

The lower limb bones form the skeletal framework of the thigh, leg, and foot, comprising 30 bones per limb excluding the pelvic girdle, which collectively support weight-bearing, propulsion, and balance during locomotion.^[2] These structures are adapted for enduring compressive forces, with robust proximal elements transitioning to more flexible distal segments to facilitate efficient gait and terrain adaptation.^[20] In the thigh, the femur serves as the longest and strongest bone in the human body, extending from the hip to the knee and providing leverage for powerful leg movements.^[21] Its proximal end features a rounded head that articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle at the acetabulofemoral joint, connected by a narrowed neck vulnerable to fractures under torsional stress.^[20] Laterally, the greater trochanter forms a prominent projection for attachment of gluteal muscles, while the medial lesser trochanter anchors the iliopsoas; posteriorly, the linea aspera runs as a roughened ridge along the shaft for adductor and hamstring muscle origins.^[20] Distally, the medial and lateral condyles articulate with the tibia, enabling knee flexion and stability during weight transfer.^[21] The patella, or kneecap, is a small, triangular sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle anterior to the knee joint. It articulates with the patellar surface of the femur's distal end, protecting the joint from direct compression and increasing the leverage of the quadriceps during knee extension.^[20] The leg consists of the tibia and fibula, two parallel bones that articulate proximally with the femur and distally with the foot, distributing forces while allowing subtle movements for shock absorption.^[20] The tibia, the larger medial weight-bearing bone, features a proximal tibial plateau with medial and lateral condyles that receive the femoral condyles at the knee joint, supported by the tibial tuberosity for quadriceps attachment.^[21] Its distal end expands into the medial malleolus, forming the medial ankle prominence and articulating with the talus.^[20] The fibula, a slender lateral bone, primarily stabilizes the ankle without direct weight-bearing; its proximal head articulates with the tibia at the proximal tibiofibular joint, and the distal lateral malleolus extends inferiorly to brace the ankle laterally.^[21] These tibiofibular joints permit slight rotation to accommodate foot inversion and eversion during locomotion.^[20] The foot's skeletal components include seven tarsal bones, five metatarsals, and 14 phalanges, forming a resilient platform for balance and propulsion.^[22] The tarsals, located in the posterior foot, consist of the talus (articulating superiorly with the tibia and fibula at the ankle joint, covered by about 60% cartilage for smooth motion), the calcaneus (the largest tarsal, bearing approximately 50% of body weight and serving as the heel's attachment for Achilles tendon), the navicular (medial, articulating with the talus and three cuneiforms), the cuboid (lateral, connecting to the calcaneus and fourth/fifth metatarsals), and the three cuneiforms (medial, intermediate, and lateral, wedged between navicular and metatarsals).^[22] These bones form flexible joints like the subtalar and transverse tarsal to adapt to uneven surfaces.^[22] The five metatarsals, numbered 1 to 5 from medial to lateral, are elongated bones with bases articulating to tarsals, shafts for muscle attachments, and heads forming the ball of the foot; the first metatarsal includes sesamoid bones for enhanced stability during push-off.^[22] The phalanges include 14 toe bones: two in the hallux (proximal and distal) and three in each of the other four toes (proximal, middle, distal), enabling fine grip and flexion.^[20] The foot's arches—medial longitudinal (supported by the talus, calcaneus, navicular, three cuneiforms, and first three metatarsals for shock absorption), lateral longitudinal (formed by the calcaneus, cuboid, and fourth/fifth metatarsals for rigidity), and transverse (along the tarsometatarsal joints for lateral stability)—collectively distribute weight, store elastic energy, and enhance propulsion efficiency during walking and running.^[22]

Functions and Clinical Relevance

Role in Locomotion and Manipulation

The upper appendicular skeleton plays a pivotal role in enabling prehensile manipulation and precise object handling through coordinated movements at its key joints. The shoulder complex, formed by the glenohumeral joint, facilitates wide abduction and adduction (up to 180° and 50°, respectively), allowing the arm to reach and position objects in three-dimensional space, while the elbow joint supports flexion (approximately 150°) and extension for bringing items close to the body. Wrist circumduction, combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (ranges of 70-80°, 70°, 20-30°, and 30-50°), enhances dexterity for rotational adjustments, and finger opposition—particularly the thumb's ability to oppose the other digits—enables secure gripping and fine motor tasks like tool use. The humerus serves as a primary lever in these actions, amplifying force during activities such as throwing, where rapid extension and rotation generate high velocities for projectile propulsion.^[4]^[23]^[24] In contrast, the lower appendicular skeleton is optimized for bipedal locomotion, supporting efficient weight transfer and forward propulsion during gait. Hip extension (up to 20° beyond neutral) at the acetabulofemoral joint, driven by gluteal muscles, propels the body forward from heel strike, while knee flexion (peaking at 60° during swing phase) and extension maintain stride length and stability. Ankle plantarflexion (about 20°) during push-off generates the primary propulsive force, complemented by dorsiflexion (10-20°) to clear the foot and absorb impact at initial contact, ensuring smooth progression. Weight-bearing is achieved through compressive forces along the femur (up to 3-4 times body weight in stance) and precise tibial alignment with the femur, which minimizes lateral deviation and distributes loads axially for endurance in upright walking.^[25]^[26]^[27] The appendicular skeleton integrates these functions to balance mobility and stability, with the upper limbs exhibiting near-360° rotational freedom at the shoulder for versatile manipulation, compared to the lower limbs' approximately 180° sagittal-plane dominance at the hip for controlled bipedal support. This dichotomy reflects an evolutionary transition from quadrupedal locomotion in early primates, where limbs were symmetrically load-bearing, to human bipedalism, which emphasized pelvic tilt (anterior rotation of 10-15°) to reposition the center of gravity over the hips, freeing the upper extremities for manipulative tasks while adapting the lower for efficient, energy-saving gait.^[4]^[28]^[27]

Common Disorders and Injuries

The appendicular skeleton is susceptible to various disorders and injuries due to its role in supporting movement and bearing weight. In the upper appendicular skeleton, clavicle fractures are among the most common, accounting for up to 10% of all fractures and often occurring in the midshaft region. These fractures typically result from falls onto the shoulder or outstretched arm, sports-related collisions, or traffic accidents, with diagnostic confirmation via X-ray imaging showing displacement or comminution. Risk factors include younger age in active individuals and, for nonunion complications, advanced age, female gender, and smoking. Rotator cuff injuries, involving tears or tendinopathy in the muscles and tendons stabilizing the shoulder joint, frequently arise from scapular stress due to repetitive overhead motions or acute trauma, leading to pain and reduced mobility. Diagnosis involves physical exams like the empty can test and MRI for tear extent, with risk factors encompassing age over 40, occupations involving overhead work, and biomechanical imbalances such as scapular dyskinesis. Carpal tunnel syndrome, caused by compression of the median nerve within the carpal tunnel formed by the wrist's carpal bones, often stems from repetitive wrist flexion or prior fractures altering tunnel space. Symptoms include numbness and tingling, diagnosed through electromyography and nerve conduction studies, with risk factors like female sex, obesity, and prolonged hand-intensive activities. In the lower appendicular skeleton, femoral neck fractures represent a prevalent injury, particularly in the elderly, where osteoporosis weakens the bone, making it prone to breaks from minor falls. These intracapsular fractures disrupt blood supply to the femoral head, diagnosed via X-rays or MRI, and carry high risks of avascular necrosis; osteoporosis-related bone density loss, advanced age, and female gender are key risk factors. Tibial stress fractures, common among runners, develop from repetitive high-impact loading causing microdamage accumulation in the tibia. Diagnosis relies on MRI to detect early bone edema, as plain films may appear normal initially, with risk factors including sudden increases in training volume, low bone mineral density, and female athlete triad components like energy deficiency. Hallux valgus, or bunion deformity, involves lateral deviation of the big toe due to first metatarsal misalignment and medial deviation of the metatarsophalangeal joint. This condition causes pain and callus formation, diagnosed clinically and via weight-bearing X-rays measuring hallux valgus angle, with risk factors such as tight or high-heeled footwear, genetic predisposition, and hyperpronation of the foot. General disorders affecting the appendicular skeleton include osteoarthritis, a degenerative condition prevalent in weight-bearing joints like the hips, knees, and ankles, where cartilage breakdown leads to pain, stiffness, and bone spurs from chronic mechanical stress and inflammation. Diagnosis uses X-rays showing joint space narrowing, with risk factors including age, obesity, prior joint injury, and genetic factors. Congenital anomalies such as polydactyly, characterized by extra phalanges or digits in the hands or feet, arise from genetic mutations disrupting limb bud development during embryogenesis. These are often preaxial (thumb side) or postaxial, diagnosed prenatally via ultrasound or postnatally by physical exam and imaging, and may require surgical correction if functional impairment occurs. Across these conditions, shared risk factors include advancing age, which diminishes bone density and repair capacity; high-impact or repetitive physical activity, increasing overuse injury likelihood; and nutritional deficiencies, notably vitamin D, which impairs calcium absorption and bone mineralization, elevating fracture and deformity risks in both children and adults.

References

[1]
Anatomy, Appendicular Skeleton - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 21, 2024 · The appendicular skeleton comprises the upper and lower extremities. The shoulder and hip are important limb segments connecting the appendicular and axial ...
[2]
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones) - SEER Training Modules
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones) · Femur (2) · Tibia (2) · Fibula (2) · Patella (2) · Tarsals (14) · Metatarsals (10) · Phalanges (28).
[3]
Types of Skeletal Systems - OpenEd CUNY
The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs (which function to grasp and manipulate objects) and the lower limbs (which permit ...
[4]
Lab 5
The axial skeleton is comprised of the vertebral column and ribs, whereas the appendicular skeleton consists of the appendages used for locomotion.<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
Appendicular - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
1650s, from Latin appendicula "a little addition, small appendage," diminutive of appendix (see appendix) + -ar. In anatomy, opposed to axial.Missing: skeleton | Show results with:skeleton
[6]
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/8-introduction
[7]
Ch. 8 Introduction - Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax
### Summary of Appendicular Skeleton Organization
[8]
The Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton - UH Pressbooks
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones that make up your upper limbs (arms) and lower limbs (legs). The axial skeleton is attached to the upper limbs ( ...Missing: components | Show results with:components
[9]
8.1 The Pectoral Girdle - Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax
### Summary of Pectoral Girdle Attachment to Axial Skeleton and Sternoclavicular Joint
[10]
8.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis - Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax
### Summary of Pelvic Girdle Attachment to Axial Skeleton and Sacroiliac Joint
[11]
8.2 Bones of the Upper Limb - Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax
### Summary: How the Humerus Connects to the Scapula
[12]
8.4 Bones of the Lower Limb - Anatomy and Physiology 2e | OpenStax
### Summary: How the Femur Connects to the Pelvis
[13]
Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Shoulder - StatPearls - NCBI
The shoulder girdle is composed of the clavicle and the scapula, which articulates with the proximal humerus of the upper limb.
[14]
Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Clavicle - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
It serves as a connection between the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, and each of these structures forms the pectoral girdle.Missing: mobility | Show results with:mobility
[15]
Anatomy, Back, Scapula - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The scapula or shoulder blade is the bone that connects the clavicle to the humerus. The scapula forms the posterior of the shoulder girdle.
[16]
The Pectoral Girdle – Anatomy & Physiology - UH Pressbooks
The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula, which serve to attach the upper limb to the sternum of the axial skeleton.
[17]
Bones of the Upper Limb – Anatomy & Physiology - UH Pressbooks
The upper limb has 30 bones: the humerus, ulna, radius, 8 carpal, 5 metacarpal, and 14 phalanx bones.
[18]
Anatomy Tables - Bones of the Upper Limb
metacarpal bones, the bones located between the carpal bones and the phalanges of the hand, there are a total of five metacarpal bones in the hand; the ...
[19]
The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis – Anatomy & Physiology - UH Pressbooks
Because of the obvious differences between female and male hip bones, this is the one bone of the body that allows for the most accurate sex determination.
[20]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Pelvic Joints - NCBI - NIH
Mar 6, 2023 · The pelvis joints include the pubic symphysis and the lumbosacral, sacroiliac, and sacrococcygeal joints. The bony pelvis also articulates with the lower limb.
[21]
Bones of the Lower Limb – Anatomy & Physiology - UH Pressbooks
There are 30 bones in each lower limb. These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, seven tarsal bones, five metatarsal bones, and 14 phalanges. The femur is ...
[22]
Bones of the Lower Limb | UAMS Department of Neuroscience
metatarsals, the bones located between the tarsal bones and the phalanges, there are five metatarsal bones in the foot. base, the proximal end of the metatarsal ...
[23]
Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Foot Bones - StatPearls - NCBI
The forefoot contains the phalanges and metatarsals. The midfoot consists of the five tarsal bones, three cuneiforms, the navicular, and the cuboid. The ...
[24]
Biomechanics of the Upper Limb - Northwestern Scholars
Jan 1, 2018 · Upper limb function allows for complex task accomplishment in reaching, prehension, and manipulation. The upper limb can be examined as a ...
[25]
[PDF] BIOMECHANICS OF THE UPPER LIMB - Semantic Scholar
Dec 26, 2016 · This chapter discusses upper limb biomechanics according to the main joint functions of motion, stability, and strength, and addresses ...
[26]
Biomechanics of Normal Gait | PM&R KnowledgeNow
Mar 20, 2025 · In normal gait, the heel contacts the ground first. The hip is flexed, the knee is nearly fully extended, and ankle is at neutral. This phase is ...
[27]
Human Lower Limb Joint Biomechanics in Daily Life Activities
Feb 10, 2020 · This work summarizes the sagittal hip, knee, and ankle joint biomechanics for a broad range of daily movements, based on previously published literature.
[28]
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/humanbiomechanics/chapter/introduction-ch-7/
[29]
2.1. The Skeleton – Biomechanics of Human Movement
In contrast, the upper skeleton has greater mobility and ranges of motion ... The appendicular skeleton is made up of all bones of the upper and lower limbs.