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Artificial island

An artificial island is a human-constructed landmass formed in bodies of water through engineering methods such as dredging, land reclamation, or piling materials like sand, rock, or concrete, rather than arising from natural geological processes.^[1]^[2] These structures have been built for millennia, with prehistoric examples including crannogs—defensive dwellings on artificial islets in Scottish and Irish lochs dating back over 5,000 years—and the ancient ceremonial platforms of Nan Madol in Micronesia, constructed from basalt logs around 1,200 CE.^[3]^[4] In modern times, artificial islands serve diverse purposes, including expanding habitable land in densely populated regions, as seen in the Netherlands' Flevopolder created through polder reclamation; supporting infrastructure like Japan's Kansai International Airport built on a submerged flat; facilitating offshore oil extraction via gravel islands in Arctic waters; and enabling luxury real estate developments such as Dubai's Palm Jumeirah, which extends 5 kilometers into the Persian Gulf using dredged sand.^[5]^[6] Notable achievements include enabling urban expansion amid rising sea levels and limited natural land, with projects like Qatar's The Pearl-Qatar adding over 4 million square meters of premium real estate through dredging and reclamation techniques.^[7] However, controversies arise from environmental impacts, such as habitat destruction, altered sedimentation patterns, and threats to marine ecosystems, alongside geopolitical tensions exemplified by China's militarized artificial islands in the South China Sea, which have intensified territorial disputes despite lacking legal status under international law for generating exclusive economic zones.^[8]^[9] These developments highlight engineering ingenuity but underscore challenges in balancing human expansion with ecological and international stability.^[10]

Definition and Classification

Types and Purposes

Artificial islands are constructed to fulfill a range of practical objectives, including the expansion of arable or habitable land through reclamation, the development of infrastructure such as airports and ports, the extraction of natural resources like oil and gas, residential and commercial real estate projects, and military or strategic positioning.^[11] These purposes often overlap, as initial reclamation may support multiple subsequent uses, but the primary intent determines the design, scale, and engineering approach.^[12] Construction typically involves dredging, filling with sand or rock, and stabilization to create stable platforms amid challenging marine conditions.^[2] Land reclamation for agriculture and urban expansion forms one core type, aimed at countering limited natural land availability in densely populated or low-lying regions. The Flevopolder in the Netherlands exemplifies this, encompassing 970 km² of reclaimed land from the former Zuiderzee, primarily for agricultural production and housing new cities with a population exceeding 400,000 as of recent estimates.^[13] This purpose addresses population pressures and flood risks through systematic diking and drainage, yielding fertile polders that enhance food security and settlement capacity.^[11] Infrastructure development, particularly for transportation hubs, represents another major category, where islands provide space unfeasible on mainland sites due to geography or congestion. Kansai International Airport in Japan, operational since 1994, occupies an artificial island spanning about 4 km by 1.2 km in Osaka Bay, designed to handle over 30 million passengers annually and alleviate air traffic burdens on existing facilities.^[14] Similarly, port expansions utilize such islands to deepen harbors and accommodate larger vessels without disrupting coastal ecosystems or urban areas.^[11] Resource extraction platforms, often in offshore environments, enable access to hydrocarbons or minerals inaccessible from shore. Northstar Island in Alaska's Beaufort Sea, constructed as a gravel-filled caisson, supports oil production since October 2001, piping output to the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System via subsea lines, marking the first such facility in U.S. Arctic waters.^[15] These islands incorporate protective berms and monitoring to withstand ice and erosion, prioritizing operational efficiency in harsh conditions.^[1] Residential and commercial developments target luxury housing, tourism, and economic diversification, frequently in coastal tourist destinations. The Palm Jumeirah in Dubai, initiated in 2001 and substantially completed by 2006, comprises a palm-shaped reclamation of dredged sand for villas, hotels, and marinas, boosting real estate values and attracting high-end visitors.^[16] Such projects emphasize aesthetic engineering to create premium waterfront properties, though they demand ongoing maintenance against subsidence and currents.^[12] Military and strategic installations seek to project power, secure maritime claims, or establish forward bases in contested waters. Since 2013, China has dredged over 3,200 acres across features in the Spratly Islands of the South China Sea, equipping them with airstrips, radar, and missile systems to assert territorial control and enhance surveillance, amid disputes with neighboring states.^[17] These dual-use facilities, often starting as civilian outposts, facilitate rapid militarization but raise international concerns over environmental damage and freedom of navigation.^[18]^[19]

Construction Fundamentals

Artificial islands are primarily constructed through land reclamation processes that involve depositing and consolidating fill materials in marine or lacustrine environments to elevate the seabed above water level.^[20] The fundamental approach relies on hydraulic filling, where dredged sediments—typically sand, gravel, or silt—are transported as a slurry via pipelines from borrow areas and discharged within containment structures, allowing water to drain and solids to compact over time.^[21] Dry methods supplement this by mechanically placing larger aggregates like rock or earth using barges or excavators, though they are less common for large-scale projects due to higher labor and equipment demands.^[22] Site preparation forms the initial critical phase, requiring the removal of unstable overburden soils through dredging to expose a competent bedrock or firm stratum, preventing differential settlement and structural failure post-construction.^[23] Common dredging techniques include suction or cutter-head methods to excavate seabed material, which is then repurposed as fill or disposed to achieve the desired foundation depth, often 5–20 meters depending on water depth and geotechnical conditions.^[24] Containment bunds, constructed from imported rock or geotextile tubes, encircle the site to retain the fill and mitigate wave-induced erosion during buildup; these are engineered to withstand hydrodynamic forces, with slopes typically at 1:3 to 1:6 for stability.^[25] Fill materials are selected based on availability, grain size for drainage, and load-bearing capacity, with fine sands (0.06–2 mm diameter) preferred for hydraulic placement due to their pumpability and self-compaction properties, while coarser gravels provide skeletal support against liquefaction in seismic zones.^[26] Post-deposition, vibro-compaction or surcharging accelerates consolidation, reducing voids from 40–50% to under 20% over months, as excess pore water is expelled to achieve shear strengths exceeding 100 kPa for supporting infrastructure.^[27] Armoring the perimeter with quarried rock revetments (riprap of 0.5–2 m diameter) or concrete tetrapods follows, dissipating wave energy and curtailing longshore sediment transport that could undermine the island's edges.^[28] Geotechnical assessments underpin all phases, incorporating cone penetration tests and seismic profiling to model subsidence risks—often 1–5 meters initially from consolidation—and inform pile-driven foundations for buildings, extending 20–50 meters into the seabed for anchorage.^[29] These fundamentals prioritize shallow-water sites (under 20 m depth) to minimize material volumes, which can exceed 10 million cubic meters for islands spanning 1 km², while deeper constructions demand floating caissons or tension-leg platforms as alternatives, though these escalate costs by factors of 2–5 due to material and anchoring complexities.^[30]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Constructions

One of the earliest known forms of artificial islands are crannogs, constructed in the lakes and waterways of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales beginning in the Neolithic period around 3000 BCE or earlier.^[3]^[31] These structures involved driving wooden piles into shallow lake beds to form a foundation, then layering brushwood, stones, and timber to create stable platforms capable of supporting dwellings and fortifications.^[32] Over 600 crannogs have been identified in Scotland alone, with approximately 1,200 in Ireland, many dating to the Iron Age but with evidence of prehistoric origins predating Stonehenge by millennia.^[33]^[34] Archaeological findings suggest crannogs served defensive purposes, providing refuge from land-based threats, and later as elite residences hosting feasts and rituals.^[32]^[35] In the Americas, the Uros people of Lake Titicaca, spanning Peru and Bolivia, developed floating artificial islands using totora reeds, a technique with roots predating the Inca Empire in the 15th century CE.^[36]^[37] These islands were formed by bundling layers of cut reeds into thick mats anchored to the lake bottom with ropes, allowing mobility for defense against invaders such as the Incas; the structures could be repositioned or even set adrift if necessary. Historical accounts indicate the Uros inhabited these reed platforms for centuries, sustaining communities with fishing, reed-based crafts, and limited agriculture, though the practice's exact antiquity remains tied to oral traditions claiming origins before recorded history.^[38]^[39] Pre-modern fixed artificial islands emerged in maritime contexts, exemplified by Our Lady of the Rocks in Montenegro's Bay of Kotor, construction of which began in 1452 following the reported discovery of a Madonna icon on a submerged rock.^[40] Local seafarers expanded the site over centuries by piling rocks, sinking ships laden with stones, and building bulwarks, culminating in a small islet supporting a Roman Catholic church completed in 1630.^[41]^[42] This votive accumulation, driven by seafaring traditions of adding materials after safe voyages, demonstrates early intentional land creation in shallow bays for religious and cultural purposes, distinct from natural accretion.^[43] Such constructions highlight pre-industrial reliance on manual labor and local materials, contrasting with later mechanized reclamation.^[44]

Modern Reclamation Era (19th-20th Centuries)

The Modern Reclamation Era marked a shift toward systematic, large-scale engineering projects to expand habitable land, driven by population growth, industrial needs, and flood mitigation in coastal regions. Advances in dredging, hydraulic filling, and embankment construction enabled the transformation of bays, estuaries, and shallow seas into usable terrain, often using locally sourced sediments or imported fill materials transported by rail or barge. These efforts prioritized practical utility over environmental concerns, yielding significant territorial gains but occasionally facing setbacks from natural forces like storms.^[45] In the Netherlands, the Zuiderzee Works exemplified ambitious hydraulic engineering for agricultural and defensive purposes. Planning began in the late 19th century, culminating in the Afsluitdijk dam's construction from 1927 to 1932, which sealed off the Zuiderzee inlet from the North Sea and facilitated the drainage of polders totaling approximately 1,650 square kilometers. The Wieringermeer polder, completed in 1930, added 20,500 hectares of farmland through systematic pumping and dyke reinforcement, demonstrating the feasibility of converting marine shallows into arable land via compartmentalized enclosure and dewatering. Subsequent polders like Noordoostpolder, drained by 1942, supported over 100,000 residents by mid-century, underscoring the project's role in national food security amid wartime pressures.^[46]^[47] Urban centers in North America pursued reclamation for residential and commercial expansion. Boston's Back Bay project, initiated in 1857, filled a 207-hectare tidal estuary using gravel hauled by rail from inland quarries, completing the core area by 1882 and enabling the development of a prestigious neighborhood with landmarks like Trinity Church. This effort relocated the Charles River shoreline westward by over a mile, employing wooden pile foundations to stabilize the imported fill against subsidence. In contrast, the 1927 Isola di Lolando venture in Miami Beach, Florida, aimed to create a 1,000-acre resort island via concrete sea walls and dredged sand but was abandoned after hurricane damage exposed vulnerabilities in subtropical conditions, leaving behind relic pilings as evidence of overambitious speculation.^[48]^[49] Asian port cities leveraged reclamation for colonial and industrial infrastructure. Hong Kong's Praya Reclamation Scheme, executed from 1897 to 1905, extended the northern shoreline of Hong Kong Island by 60 meters using granite seawalls and rubble fill, creating 25 hectares for government and commercial buildings amid rapid post-Opium War urbanization. Tokyo Bay's early 20th-century initiatives, including the Tsurumi Reclamation Association's 1912 efforts, generated over 1,000 hectares of industrial land through dredging and bunding, supporting factories and wharves as Japan's economy industrialized. These projects often relied on private consortia backed by tycoons like Eiichi Shibusawa, prioritizing economic output over ecological impacts such as siltation.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Engineering Methods

Land Reclamation Techniques

Land reclamation techniques for artificial islands typically involve elevating seabed or shallow water areas using fill materials, often contained by engineered barriers to withstand marine forces. These methods prioritize hydraulic processes for efficiency in large-scale offshore projects, where sediment is sourced from nearby borrow pits and deposited to form stable landmasses.^[20] The choice of technique depends on water depth, sediment availability, and environmental conditions, with hydraulic filling dominating modern constructions due to its scalability over dry methods, which rely on mechanical transport and are costlier in marine settings.^[22] Hydraulic filling, the predominant technique for offshore artificial islands, entails dredging sand or silt from seabed borrow areas using specialized vessels such as cutter suction or trailing suction hopper dredgers, then pumping it as a water-sediment slurry through floating pipelines to the site.^[53] At the reclamation area, the mixture is discharged within perimeter bunds—often constructed from rock or geotextile tubes—allowing water to drain while solids settle, forming a foundation that requires compaction and drainage to mitigate settlement.^[28] This method supplied over 90% of fill for an artificial drilling island in intermediate water depths via stationary suction dredges connected by pipelines, demonstrating its efficacy for remote sites.^[54] In the Punta Pacifica project in Panama, hydraulic filling followed rock dike construction, creating an 87-hectare island connected by bridge, with dredging operations ensuring precise elevation control.^[23] Polder reclamation, suited to shallower coastal or inland waters, involves encircling a water body with dikes or embankments to isolate it from tides, followed by pumping out water to expose and consolidate the seabed for agriculture or development.^[20] This technique underpinned the Netherlands' Zuiderzee Works, where systematic diking and drainage from the 1920s to 1970s reclaimed vast areas, including the Flevopolder—spanning 970 square kilometers and completed in 1968 as the world's largest continuous artificial island by land area.^[55] Unlike hydraulic methods, polders emphasize dewatering over fill importation, leveraging natural sedimentation post-drainage, though they demand robust dyke engineering to prevent breaches, as evidenced by historical floods prompting reinforced designs.^[56] Dry filling employs mechanical excavation and transport of earth, rock, or quarry materials by trucks or conveyors to build up land, often layering large foundation rocks before finer infill to achieve stability without hydraulic means.^[22] This approach is less common for expansive marine islands due to logistical challenges and higher costs in wet environments but serves as a baseline for smaller or inland reclamations, where fill is compacted in stages to required elevations using bulldozers and rollers.^[21] Rubble mound and rockfill containment complements filling techniques by forming protective perimeters or cores, where quarried rock is dumped to create sloping revetments that dissipate wave energy and retain hydraulic fill.^[23] In Arctic applications, such as offshore oil platforms, rockfill islands incorporate geotextiles for erosion control, with hybrid designs combining caisson shafts surrounded by rubble to enhance seismic and ice resistance.^[57] These structures prioritize gradated armor layers—larger stones on seaward slopes—to minimize displacement under hydraulic forces, as validated in coastal engineering manuals.^[58]

Alternative Construction Approaches

Gravel islands represent a primary alternative to dredging-based reclamation, particularly in shallow Arctic waters prone to ice loading. These structures are formed by hydraulically pumping gravel from barges to create a protective berm encircling a geotextile-lined core, which is then filled to elevate the surface above wave and ice action.^[59] Construction typically involves winter operations to minimize erosion, with islands designed to resist ice sheets up to 7 feet thick and open-water waves.^[60] First deployed in the U.S. and Canadian Beaufort Sea during the 1970s for exploratory drilling, this method provides a stable base for rigs without relying on deep-water platforms.^[59] Notable implementations include Mukluk Island, constructed in 1984 as the largest gravel island in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea at the time, spanning an exposed site with a diameter exceeding 1,000 feet.^[61] The Northstar Island, operational since 2001, covers approximately 60 acres and supports year-round oil production by Hilcorp, featuring a gravel berm reinforced against erosive forces from sea ice and storms.^[62] Similarly, the Liberty Project's gravel island, approved in 2010 and expanded for drilling, demonstrates scalability for production facilities in federal waters.^[63] These islands prioritize rapid assembly—often completed in months—over expansive land areas, suiting resource extraction where soil availability limits traditional fill methods.^[64] Caisson-based approaches offer another fixed-foundation alternative, utilizing large watertight chambers sunk to the seabed and filled for stability. The Caisson Retained Island (CRI) concept, developed in the 1980s, employs steel retaining walls backed by sand berms to form drilling platforms resistant to dynamic loads.^[65] In contemporary applications, such as offshore wind projects, concrete caissons weighing up to 22,000 tonnes each—measuring 58 meters long and 28 meters wide—are floated into position, ballasted with sand, and capped to create habitable surfaces.^[66] The Princess Elisabeth Island in the Belgian North Sea, initiated in 2024, incorporates 23 such caissons sunk to form a 2-square-kilometer foundation for energy infrastructure, highlighting adaptability to deeper waters unsuitable for gravel.^[67]^[68] Floating platforms provide a mobile or semi-permanent option, constructed from modular concrete pontoons or steel hulls moored in place. These systems, patented for large-scale use, assemble multiple monolithic units to achieve expansive surfaces without seabed disturbance.^[69] Suitable for small-to-medium areas, they accommodate wave motion via flexible moorings but face scalability challenges for permanent habitation due to stability limits in high winds or currents.^[70] Repurposed military platforms, like those forming the Principality of Sealand since 1967, exemplify early non-reclamation adaptations, though they rely on pre-existing structures rather than de novo construction.^[70] Overall, these methods excel in niche environments—gravel for ice-prone shallows, caissons for fixed energy hubs, and floats for transient needs—but incur higher per-unit costs than reclamation in benign conditions.^[70]

Notable Examples

Largest by Land Area

The Flevopolder, forming the core of Flevoland province in the Netherlands, stands as the world's largest artificial island by land area, encompassing approximately 970 square kilometers.^[71]^[13] This reclaimed land was engineered through the Zuiderzee Works, a series of projects initiated to convert the former Zuiderzee inlet into freshwater lakes and arable territory.^[72] The polder's creation involved damming the Zuiderzee with the Afsluitdijk completed in 1932, followed by the selective drainage of enclosed basins.^[73] Construction of the Flevopolder specifically began after the partial reclamation of the Noordoostpolder in the 1940s, with Northern Flevoland drained starting in 1959 and Southern Flevoland in 1963.^[74] Pumping stations removed water from the IJsselmeer, lowering levels to expose the seabed, which was then reinforced with dikes and soil consolidation measures to prevent subsidence.^[75] By 1968, the Southern Flevoland polder was fully dry, enabling agricultural development and urban planning; the province of Flevoland was formally established on January 1, 1986.^[76] Today, it supports over 400,000 residents in cities like Almere and Lelystad, with land primarily used for farming, housing, and nature reserves.^[77] While extensive reclamations exist elsewhere—such as China's cumulative 13,500 km² of added land since the 1950s—these often integrate with mainland coastlines rather than forming discrete islands.^[78] The Flevopolder's isolation within the IJsselmeer, connected only by causeways and bridges, qualifies it uniquely as an island, distinguishing it from peninsular extensions like those in Bahrain or South Korea.^[79] Its engineering exemplifies Dutch mastery of hydraulic works, with ongoing maintenance addressing soil subsidence rates of 1-2 cm annually in peat areas.^[80]

Urban and Residential Developments

Artificial islands designed for urban and residential purposes address land scarcity in coastal regions, enabling population expansion through land reclamation and innovative engineering. These developments often integrate high-density housing, infrastructure, and amenities to support self-sustaining communities, though they require substantial investment and environmental mitigation.^[81] The Palm Jumeirah in Dubai exemplifies luxury residential development on an artificial island, constructed from 2001 to 2006 by Nakheel Properties using 94 million cubic meters of sand dredged from the Persian Gulf and stabilized with rock. Covering 5.72 square kilometers, it includes approximately 4,000 villas, 2,000 waterfront apartments, and townhouses across its fronds and crescent, catering to high-net-worth residents with private beaches, marinas, and hotels like the Atlantis. As of 2022, it supported around 25,550 permanent residents in over 10,000 units, though estimates vary up to 80,000 including transient populations, reflecting its role in Dubai's real estate-driven growth.^[82]^[83]^[84] In the Maldives, Hulhumalé represents a pragmatic urban reclamation effort to counter Malé's extreme density of over 100,000 people per square kilometer. Reclaimed starting in 1997 from a nearby reef flat and officially opened in 2004, the 4-square-kilometer Phase 1 island features mid-rise apartments, schools, hospitals, and green spaces designed for 30,000 residents, with actual occupancy reaching about 20,000 by 2020. Phase 2, expanded to 244 hectares since 2015, targets an additional 145,000 inhabitants by 2035 through sustainable features like elevated infrastructure against sea-level rise and 30% solar power reliance, managed by the state-owned Housing Development Corporation.^[85]^[86]^[87] Flevoland, the Netherlands' largest polder and artificial landmass at 970 square kilometers, was drained between 1950 and 1968 as part of the Zuiderzee Works, transforming the former Zuiderzee inlet into arable and urban territory. It hosts planned cities like Almere, established in 1976 and grown via modular expansion to accommodate suburban families with efficient public transport and green belts, and Lelystad, the provincial capital founded in 1967 featuring residential neighborhoods around a central business district. These developments prioritize flood-resistant design with dikes and pumping stations, supporting a provincial population exceeding 400,000 in integrated urban-rural settings.^[88]^[89]

Airport and Infrastructure Islands

Artificial islands engineered for airports address land scarcity in coastal regions by providing expansive runways and terminals isolated from urban congestion. These structures often involve massive land reclamation or landfill over seabed, demanding robust foundations to mitigate subsidence and seismic risks. Notable examples include facilities in Japan and Hong Kong, where such islands handle millions of passengers annually, while infrastructure islands in Arctic waters support resource extraction under extreme conditions.^[14]^[90] Kansai International Airport, located in Osaka Bay, Japan, stands as the pioneering major airport constructed entirely on an artificial island, opening on September 4, 1994, after a $20 billion investment. The initial island covers 510 hectares, expanded later to approximately 1,055 hectares total, formed by depositing 430 million cubic meters of clay and soil atop unstable seabed layers. Despite engineering efforts like sand compaction and deep walls, the island has subsided up to 11.5 meters due to clay layer compression, incurring ongoing stabilization costs exceeding initial projections. In 2024, it served over 30 million passengers, underscoring its role as a key East Asian aviation hub.^[91]^[92]^[93] Hong Kong International Airport occupies a 12.48 square kilometer artificial island formed by flattening the existing Chek Lap Kok and Lam Chau islets and reclaiming surrounding seabed, with construction completing in 1998 at a cost of about HK$20.5 billion for the initial phase. This expansion enabled two runways and capacity for 71 million passengers yearly, ranking it among the world's busiest airports by cargo and passenger volume. Reclamation involved over 1 billion cubic meters of fill material, with environmental measures including seawalls to minimize marine disruption, though the project displaced local ecosystems and required precise leveling for operational safety.^[90]^[94] Other aviation examples include Japan's Chubu Centrair International Airport, opened in 2005 on a reclaimed artificial island near Nagoya, spanning significant area to serve as a regional hub with integrated rail links. In China, the Dalian Jinzhouwan International Airport, under development as of 2025, aims to become the largest artificial island airport at 20 square kilometers, incorporating advanced anti-subsidence technologies drawn from prior projects.^[79]^[95] For non-aviation infrastructure, Northstar Island in Alaska's Beaufort Sea exemplifies resource-focused artificial islands, a 5-acre gravel structure built 6 miles offshore from Prudhoe Bay for oil production starting in 2001. Constructed by dredging and piling gravel to elevate above ice floes, it supports drilling platforms enduring Arctic temperatures and currents, producing from reservoirs discovered in the 1990s under federal and state oversight. This facility, the first such offshore site north of barrier islands, highlights engineering adaptations like reinforced berms for spill containment, though operations face regulatory scrutiny over environmental risks.^[62]^[96]

Military and Strategic Installations

![Subi Reef, an artificial island developed by China with military installations in the Spratly Islands][float-right] During World War II, the United Kingdom constructed the Maunsell Sea Forts as artificial island-like platforms to bolster coastal defenses against German air and naval incursions. Completed in 1942, these structures consisted of seven army forts in the Thames Estuary and three navy forts in the Mersey Estuary, each comprising interconnected steel towers mounted on concrete legs sunk into the seabed, armed with anti-aircraft guns and searchlights capable of accommodating up to 265 personnel per fort.^[97]^[98] Designed by civil engineer Guy Maunsell, the forts intercepted approximately 22% of incoming Luftwaffe bombers heading to London, demonstrating the strategic utility of offshore man-made fortifications in denying aerial access.^[99] One such platform, HM Fort Roughs, later became the basis for the micronation of Sealand after being decommissioned in the 1950s.^[100] In the contemporary era, the most extensive use of artificial islands for military purposes has occurred in the South China Sea, where China has engineered over 3,200 acres of new land across seven Spratly Island reefs since 2013 through dredging and reclamation.^[17] These outposts, including Mischief Reef (expanded to 1,330 acres with a 2,800-meter runway completed in 2016), Subi Reef, and Fiery Cross Reef, feature dual-use infrastructure such as deep-water ports, radar arrays, missile silos for anti-ship and surface-to-air systems, and hangars supporting fighter jets and bombers.^[101]^[19] In March 2022, U.S. Indo-Pacific Command Admiral John Aquilino reported that China had fully militarized at least three of these islands, equipping them with offensive capabilities that extend power projection across the region.^[18] By 2025, satellite imagery confirmed deployments of nuclear-capable H-6 bombers on these bases, enhancing strategic deterrence and surveillance in disputed waters.^[102] Other claimant states have pursued smaller-scale reclamations with military elements. Vietnam has reclaimed land on eight Spratly outposts as of March 2025, creating facilities including helipads and troop barracks to assert sovereignty, though totaling significantly less area than China's efforts.^[103] These installations underscore artificial islands' role in geopolitical contests, enabling persistent presence, rapid response, and area denial in contested maritime domains, while raising concerns over environmental degradation and escalation risks from concentrated military assets.^[104]

Contemporary Projects

Middle Eastern Initiatives

The United Arab Emirates has pioneered large-scale artificial island construction in the Persian Gulf, primarily through Dubai's ambitious reclamation projects aimed at boosting tourism and real estate. Nakheel Properties developed the Palm Jumeirah, an 5.6 square kilometer palm-shaped island completed in 2006 using 94 million cubic meters of dredged sand and rock, featuring luxury villas, hotels like the Atlantis, and beaches that extended Dubai's coastline by 520 kilometers across multiple projects.^[105]^[106] Contemporary efforts include the revival of stalled initiatives under the Dubai 2040 Urban Master Plan. Palm Jebel Ali, originally initiated in 2002 but halted around 2008, was relaunched in 2023 with construction resuming to create a larger 13.4 square kilometer island designed to host 80 hotels and residential units, positioning it as the world's largest man-made island upon completion.^[107]^[108] Similarly, Dubai Islands (formerly Deira Islands), relaunched in 2022, encompasses five interconnected islands spanning 14 square kilometers for mixed-use development including 80 hotels, emphasizing waterfront luxury and economic diversification.^[109]^[107] In Saudi Arabia, NEOM's Sindalah represents a key contemporary initiative, transforming a Red Sea island into a 84 square kilometer luxury yachting hub with marinas, golf courses, 381 hotel rooms, and retail facilities, set to open in October 2024 as the first physical destination in the NEOM giga-project to attract high-end tourism and investment.^[110]^[111] Bahrain is pursuing five new artificial islands by the end of the decade through land reclamation, adding urban areas for housing and commerce amid chronic land shortages, though these efforts have raised concerns over fishery depletion from altered marine habitats.^[112] These projects leverage dredging and rock armoring techniques, driven by economic visions like Saudi Vision 2030, but face challenges including construction delays and environmental scrutiny.^[113]

Asian Expansions

In Asia, contemporary artificial island projects primarily address land scarcity, urban expansion, and strategic interests, with China, Singapore, and the Maldives leading in scale and innovation. China's land reclamation in the South China Sea has created approximately 3,000 acres of artificial land across seven Spratly reefs between December 2013 and October 2015, enabling military installations including runways, radar systems, and port facilities.^[114] Satellite imagery from 2025 reveals ongoing enhancements at sites like Mischief Reef, where dredging and construction have transformed reefs into fortified bases with aircraft hangars and missile systems, extending China's operational reach.^[101] ^[115] Vietnam has intensified its own reclamations in the Spratlys, generating about 70% of China's artificial land area by March 2025 through dredging at eight sites including Collins Reef and Barque Canada Reef, with projections indicating potential parity or exceedance soon due to accelerated filling rates.^[116] These efforts support coast guard patrols and resupply operations amid territorial disputes.^[117] Separately, China initiated a 2025 tourism-focused artificial island along the Shenzhen-Zhongshan Link bridge, spanning several hectares with planned resorts and recreational facilities, set for trial operations in December and full opening thereafter.^[118] Singapore's land reclamation has added over 140 square kilometers since 1965, with recent projects emphasizing sustainability; in September 2025, main construction concluded on 800 hectares at Pulau Tekong's northwest, marking the nation's first below-mean-sea-level reclamation using reduced-sand techniques that halved material needs while incorporating polders for flood control.^[119] Future plans target additional sites like Tuas and Long Island for industrial and residential use by 2030.^[120] The Maldives continues expanding Hulhumalé, an artificial island initiated in 1997 over a 4-square-kilometer lagoon via seabed sand pumping, with Phase II (completed 2016) housing 60,000 residents and Phase III (ongoing as of 2024) adding 1,000 hectares for 250,000 people to alleviate Malé's overcrowding, incorporating elevated infrastructure against sea-level rise.^[87] ^[121] In Indonesia, a 160-hectare private artificial island off Jakarta's coast, constructed via dredging and embankment, supports commercial development and was awarded to a consortium in the early 2020s.^[122] These initiatives reflect pragmatic responses to population pressures and geopolitical dynamics, though they raise concerns over marine ecosystem disruption from sediment plumes and habitat loss.^[114]

European and Other Reclamations

In the Netherlands, the Marker Wadden project, launched in 2016, constructs an artificial archipelago in the Markermeer lake using dredged sand, clay, and sludge from the lakebed to foster ecological recovery in a degraded freshwater system. Covering an initial 1,000 hectares with plans to expand to 10,000 hectares of islands, wetlands, and shallows, the first island opened to the public in March 2018, promoting sedimentation that has already increased water clarity and supported bird populations exceeding 100 species. This initiative counters historical over-drainage effects from prior reclamations by mimicking natural delta formation, yielding measurable biodiversity gains such as doubled fish biomass in adjacent waters within five years.^[123]^[124]^[125] Denmark's Lynetteholm, approved by parliament in June 2021, reclaims 1.1 square kilometers as a peninsula in Copenhagen Harbour via dredging and embankment, designed to house 35,000 residents across mixed-use developments while serving as a storm surge barrier projected to protect 25% of the city's waterfront from floods up to 2 meters high. Construction began in 2023, incorporating 60 hectares of parks and sustainable drainage to mitigate runoff, though critics, including environmental groups, contend it risks disrupting marine habitats and exacerbating subsidence in soft seabed soils, based on hydrological models showing potential long-term elevation loss of 0.5 meters per decade without reinforcement. Proponents cite integrated impact assessments demonstrating net carbon sequestration through afforestation offsetting construction emissions by 20%.^[126]^[127] Offshore energy hubs represent another European trend, with Denmark's North Sea artificial island, feasibility confirmed in 2021, positioned 80 kilometers from shore to aggregate power from up to 200 wind turbines, enabling export of 10 gigawatts—sufficient for 10 million households—via high-voltage cables to multiple countries. Belgium's Princess Elisabeth Island, 45 kilometers offshore, broke ground in 2024 as a concrete caisson-based platform connecting 3-5 gigawatts from future farms, with grid operator Elia forecasting operational status by 2028 to reduce transmission losses by 30% compared to dispersed substations. These projects leverage modular construction to minimize seabed disturbance, drawing on engineering data from pilot monopile foundations showing stability under 10-meter waves.^[128]^[129]^[130] Monaco's Mareterra extension, initiated in the early 2020s, reclaims 6 hectares through vibrated concrete block placement and infill, expanding the principality's land area by 2.5% to accommodate residential and commercial space amid chronic scarcity, with completion targeted for 2027 incorporating seawater cooling systems that recycle 40% of urban heat.^[131] Outside Europe, smaller-scale reclamations occur in African coastal cities like Luanda, Angola, where lagoon infilling added 500 hectares between 2000 and 2020 for port expansion, guided by satellite-derived bathymetry confirming minimal erosion rebound due to revetment stabilization. In the Americas, projects remain limited, with Rio de Janeiro reclaiming 100 hectares from Guanabara Bay since 2010 for infrastructure, though evaluations indicate variable sediment retention rates of 70-85% post-construction.^[132]

Economic and Strategic Advantages

Economic Contributions

Artificial islands have facilitated substantial economic growth by providing expandable land for premium real estate, tourism infrastructure, and resource extraction in space-constrained coastal regions.^[133] Reclamation projects enable the development of high-value properties and facilities that generate revenue through sales, leasing, and visitor spending, often yielding returns that exceed initial construction costs over time.^[134] The Palm Jumeirah in Dubai exemplifies residential and tourism-driven contributions, with its $12 billion construction investment catalyzing billions in subsequent revenue from property sales, luxury resorts, and heightened visitor inflows.^[82] This development has elevated Dubai's profile as a global tourism hub, drawing international investors and supporting ancillary sectors like hospitality and construction, thereby diversifying the economy away from oil dependency.^[135] Property values on the island have appreciated significantly, underscoring the long-term fiscal returns from engineered land expansion.^[82] Airport islands like Kansai International in Japan bolster trade and connectivity, handling over 25 million passengers annually and contributing to regional GDP through logistics, commerce, and induced tourism.^[136] In fiscal year 2024, Kansai Airports reported operating revenues surging 31% year-over-year, with operating profits reaching 30.6 billion yen ($201 million), driven by record international arrivals and freight volumes.^[137] Such facilities mitigate mainland constraints, enabling efficient air traffic that sustains manufacturing exports and business travel in the Kansai economic corridor.^[136] Resource-oriented islands, such as Northstar in Alaska's Beaufort Sea, have extracted over 100 million barrels of oil since production began in 2001, injecting royalties, taxes, and jobs into local and state economies amid harsh offshore conditions.^[62] Peak output in 2009 recovered 88% of recoverable reserves, providing a stable revenue stream for Alaska's petroleum sector despite fluctuating global prices.^[138] In the Netherlands, polder reclamations like those forming Flevoland have added arable and urban land, supporting agriculture, housing, and industry in a densely populated nation, with socio-economic gains from reduced urban pressure and expanded productive capacity.^[55] These projects have historically enabled scalable food production and residential expansion, contributing to national output through efficient land use in low-lying coastal zones.^[139]

Geopolitical and Security Benefits

Artificial islands provide states with strategic footholds in contested maritime domains, enabling the projection of military power and assertion of sovereignty beyond natural landmasses. In regions like the South China Sea, where vital sea lanes carry approximately one-third of global maritime trade, such constructions facilitate the establishment of airfields, deep-water harbors, and radar installations that enhance surveillance and rapid response capabilities.^[140]^[141] China's island-building campaign on features such as Subi Reef, Fiery Cross Reef, and Mischief Reef, initiated between 2013 and 2015, exemplifies these benefits by incorporating runways exceeding 3,000 meters, hangars for up to 24 fighter aircraft, and facilities for anti-ship missiles, thereby extending operational reach into the western Pacific. These outposts generate superior situational awareness through persistent intelligence collection, outpacing mobile assets like ships or aircraft in coverage endurance.^[142]^[141]^[143] From a security perspective, artificial islands serve as denial mechanisms, complicating adversary access and bolstering deterrence by hosting coastal defense systems and logistics hubs that sustain prolonged operations. Although the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Article 60(8) explicitly denies artificial islands territorial seas or exclusive economic zones, their militarization creates de facto control zones, pressuring rivals to recalibrate naval strategies and invest in countermeasures.^[144]^[145]^[146] Geopolitically, these installations counterbalance rival influences, as seen in China's efforts to offset U.S. naval dominance by maintaining a forward presence that safeguards claimed sovereignty and secures resource access amid overlapping territorial assertions. Similar dynamics appear in Vietnam's expansions on Spratly features, which integrate anti-ship artillery and rocket systems to fortify defensive postures against encroachment. This approach underscores how artificial islands transform low-value reefs into high-utility assets for enduring strategic advantage, independent of legal entitlements under international regimes.^[147]^[148]^[117]

Environmental Assessments

Observed Impacts

Construction of artificial islands through dredging, filling, and reclamation has led to widespread disruption of marine benthic habitats, with empirical data showing burial of coral reefs and seagrass beds under millions of cubic meters of sediment. In the South China Sea, activities from 2013 to 2015 converted approximately 3,000 acres of reefs into land, destroying biodiverse ecosystems that functioned as fish nurseries and reducing regional fisheries productivity by smothering larvae and altering migration patterns. Satellite and in-situ measurements indicate dredging elevated suspended sediment loads by factors of 10-100 times background levels, decreasing water clarity and chlorophyll-a concentrations, which impaired photosynthesis in phytoplankton and corals over distances of several kilometers.^[149]^[150]^[151] Similar effects occurred during Palm Jumeirah's development in Dubai, where dredging and rock placement from 2001 onward buried extensive oyster beds, coral patches, and seagrass fields spanning thousands of square meters, directly asphyxiating benthic organisms and shifting local biodiversity toward sediment-tolerant species. Post-construction monitoring revealed heightened turbidity persisting for years, alongside a 7.5% rise in ambient water temperatures due to reduced circulation, which compounded thermal stress on surviving reefs already vulnerable to regional warming. These alterations also interrupted longshore sediment transport, accelerating beach erosion on adjacent coastlines by up to 20% in affected zones.^[152]^[153]^[154] Geomorphological changes extend to subsidence in islands founded on unconsolidated marine clays, as evidenced by Kansai International Airport's ongoing settlement of over 11.5 meters since 1994, driven by load-induced consolidation that compresses underlying sediments at rates of 2-5 cm annually in unreinforced areas. This not only endangers structural integrity but also mobilizes fine particles into surrounding waters, potentially exacerbating local sedimentation and habitat infilling. In contrast, Dutch polders like Flevoland, reclaimed in the mid-20th century, experienced initial ecological losses from wetland drainage and saltwater exclusion, reducing migratory bird habitats and native aquatic flora, though subsequent afforestation and reserve management in areas like Oostvaardersplassen have fostered secondary woodland and grazer ecosystems, albeit with lower overall species diversity than pre-reclamation seas.^[155]^[156]^[55] Hydrological disruptions are pronounced in atoll settings, such as Maldives reclamations since the 2010s, where infilling restricted lagoon flushing, elevating salinity fluctuations and nutrient trapping that promoted algal overgrowth and degraded fringing reefs. Community and environmental reports document unmitigated shoreline erosion on neighboring islands, with sand bypassing rates halved post-construction, alongside increased flooding from impeded tidal exchanges. Across cases, construction leachates and operational runoff have introduced heavy metals and organics, with studies detecting elevated contaminant levels in sediments near artificial islands, correlating to bioaccumulation in fish tissues. While some structures incidentally aggregate fish as artificial reefs, quantitative assessments show net habitat loss dominates, with recovery timelines exceeding decades absent intervention.^[157]^[158]^[159]

Mitigation Measures and Data-Driven Evaluations

Mitigation measures for environmental impacts of artificial island construction typically encompass pre-construction environmental impact assessments (EIAs), sediment control techniques such as silt curtains and regulated dredging volumes, and post-construction habitat restoration efforts including artificial reefs and mangrove planting.^[160] ^[159] These strategies aim to curb sedimentation, turbidity, and benthic habitat disruption, which arise primarily from dredging marine sediments—often exceeding millions of cubic meters per project.^[152] In regions like the Persian Gulf, additional recommendations include using dredged material for beach nourishment rather than disposal and integrating nature-based solutions to enhance biodiversity resilience.^[161] Data-driven evaluations reveal mixed effectiveness of these measures. For Dubai's Palm Jumeirah, completed in 2006 after dredging approximately 94 million cubic meters of sand, EIAs and monitoring under the Equator Principles were implemented, yet satellite-derived analyses using Landsat-7 and Landsat-8 imagery from 2000–2020 documented sustained increases in sea surface temperature by up to 1.5°C and turbidity levels, alongside burial of marine wildlife and altered sediment transport patterns that persisted beyond construction.^[152] ^[162] These outcomes indicate that while some localized habitats formed along the island's fringes, broader ecological degradation outweighed mitigations, with no full reversal of initial benthic smothering effects observed in follow-up benthic surveys.^[163] At Japan's Kansai International Airport, built on a reclaimed island opened in 1994, comprehensive EIAs predicted and monitored impacts on water quality, noise, and sedimentation during phased construction involving over 180 million cubic meters of fill; mitigation included water quality targets and pollution controls, which post-opening data showed reduced certain effluents, such as nitrogen discharges by targeted percentages through wastewater treatment upgrades.^[164] ^[165] However, subsidence exceeding 10 meters in some areas by 2023 has compounded long-term risks to adjacent ecosystems via altered tidal flows, underscoring limitations in geotechnical mitigations despite data from ongoing environmental reports.^[166] Cross-project analyses, such as those in the Maldives and Gulf states, highlight systemic shortfalls: despite advocated measures like reduced dredging and real-time monitoring, empirical studies report unmitigated biodiversity losses, including coral coverage declines of 20–50% in proximity to sites, attributable to enforcement gaps and underestimation of cumulative dredging scales in initial EIAs.^[167] ^[159] Overall, while EIAs provide predictive baselines, post-construction data consistently demonstrate that mitigations rarely achieve full ecological offsets, necessitating adaptive, enforcement-strengthened frameworks informed by longitudinal remote sensing and biological surveys.^[168]

Legal Frameworks

Domestic and Sovereignty Issues

Under domestic laws of coastal states, artificial islands constructed within territorial seas or exclusive economic zones (EEZs) fall under the regulatory jurisdiction of the constructing state, which exercises sovereign rights over the structures themselves, including ownership, permitting, and operational control, distinct from the underlying seabed or water column.^[169] This authority stems from national legislation implementing international obligations, such as those under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), where artificial islands lack the status of natural islands and generate no territorial sea or EEZ of their own.^[170] For instance, in the Netherlands, reclaimed polders—such as those formed through the Zuiderzee Works, including the Afsluitdijk completed in 1932— are treated as integral sovereign territory, subject to full national administrative, property, and civil laws, with no separate sovereignty status.^[171] Sovereignty assertions over artificial islands become contentious when private entities or micronations attempt to claim independence beyond state waters, typically failing due to lack of international recognition and overriding domestic claims by proximate states. The Principality of Sealand, established in 1967 on the Roughs Tower—a World War II-era British sea fort located approximately 7 nautical miles off the English coast, outside then-applicable territorial limits—declared itself sovereign, issuing passports and currency, yet no state has recognized it as independent.^[172] The United Kingdom has not incorporated it as territory but intervened in incidents, such as the 1968 occupation and 1978 events, treating disputes as matters of British criminal law applicable extraterritorially, with courts in 1968 declining jurisdiction over actions there on the basis it lay beyond national boundaries.^[173] Similarly, the Republic of Minerva, an artificial island assembled from dredged materials in the Pacific in 1972 on Minerva Reefs, proclaimed sovereignty but was annexed by Tonga in 1973 under its domestic claims to adjacent waters, illustrating how nearby states enforce sovereignty via national legislation without broader recognition.^[174] In jurisdictions like the People's Republic of China, domestic statutes explicitly vest sovereignty and ownership of artificial islands in the state, even in disputed areas. Articles 247 and 328 of China's Civil Code (effective January 1, 2021) affirm state ownership over maritime spaces and uninhabited islands, including constructed ones, while the 1992 Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone codifies claims integrating such features into national territory for administrative and security purposes.^[175] This approach prioritizes state control over private or foreign interests, with construction permits issued under centralized authority, though it has prompted domestic legal debates on resource rights and environmental compliance.^[176] Domestic challenges also encompass property rights and governance, where artificial islands may involve mixed public-private ownership but remain subordinate to state sovereignty. In the United Arab Emirates, developments like Dubai's Palm Jumeirah (construction began 2001) are state-licensed private projects, yet full jurisdictional sovereignty resides with federal and emirate laws, including taxation and land-use regulations, without granting the landmass independent status.^[177] Attempts to circumvent domestic sovereignty, such as floating platforms proposed for high seas autonomy, face barriers under national laws prohibiting unauthorized claims and UNCLOS freedoms limited to construction without territorial extension.^[178] Overall, empirical cases demonstrate that while states domestically assert comprehensive control, sovereignty over artificial islands hinges on effective occupation and legal integration, rarely extending to de facto independence absent mutual recognition.^[179]

International Law and Disputes

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982 and ratified by 169 parties including China and the Philippines, governs artificial islands primarily through Articles 60 and 87. Article 60 stipulates that artificial islands, installations, and structures in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) do not possess the status of islands and thus generate no territorial sea, contiguous zone, EEZ, or continental shelf of their own, though the coastal state exercises exclusive jurisdiction over their construction, operation, and safety.^[170] On the high seas, Article 87 permits states the freedom to construct artificial islands, subject to due regard for the rights of others and international law.^[180] These provisions limit the legal effects of artificial islands compared to natural features capable of sustaining human habitation or economic life, which may generate maritime zones under Article 121.^[180] Disputes over artificial islands most prominently arise in the South China Sea, where China has constructed over 3,200 acres of artificial land on seven disputed features in the Spratly Islands since 2013, including Mischief Reef and Subi Reef, transforming low-tide elevations into militarized outposts.^[145] These actions overlap with EEZ claims of the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Brunei, exacerbating territorial and maritime boundary conflicts rooted in China's "nine-dash line" assertions, which lack precise coordinates and exceed UNCLOS entitlements.^[181] In the 2016 arbitral award under UNCLOS Annex VII in Philippines v. China, a tribunal constituted under the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that features like Mischief Reef are low-tide elevations incapable of generating maritime zones even after reclamation, and China's construction within the Philippines' EEZ violated Manila's sovereign rights to resources and marine environment protection.^[182] The tribunal further invalidated China's historic rights claims beyond UNCLOS limits and found no evidence of island status for the features under Article 121(3).^[182] China rejected the 2016 award as lacking jurisdiction and binding force, continuing dredging and infrastructure development, which has heightened regional tensions and prompted freedom of navigation operations by the United States and allies to challenge excessive claims.^[183] Vietnam and the Philippines have protested specific reclamations, such as Vietnam's 2014 opposition to Chinese activities near Vanguard Bank, invoking UNCLOS obligations for environmental impact assessments, though enforcement remains inconsistent due to power asymmetries and non-compliance with compulsory dispute settlement.^[184] Absent mutual agreement, UNCLOS provides mechanisms like compulsory arbitration, but voluntary adherence varies, underscoring challenges in applying uniform rules to state practice where strategic interests prevail over legal constraints.^[182]

Emerging Trends and Challenges

Technological Advancements

Advancements in dredging technology have revolutionized artificial island construction by enabling efficient extraction and placement of vast quantities of seabed materials for land reclamation. Modern trailing suction hopper dredgers, equipped with automated positioning systems and high-capacity pumps, can relocate millions of cubic meters of sand annually from borrow areas to form stable foundations, as demonstrated in projects off Jakarta where dual jumbo dredgers sourced local sand for hydraulic filling.^[122] These vessels incorporate GPS and real-time monitoring to optimize deposition, reducing operational time and material loss compared to earlier manual methods.^[185] Recent integrations of AI-driven controls further enhance precision in sediment handling, allowing adaptive responses to varying seabed conditions and minimizing over-dredging.^[186] Geotechnical innovations complement dredging by addressing soil stability in reclaimed areas, particularly for soft marine deposits prone to consolidation settlement. Techniques such as siphon drainage and aerosol-assisted consolidation accelerate pore water expulsion, achieving up to 50% faster settlement rates than traditional methods, thereby enhancing load-bearing capacity for infrastructure like runways or buildings.^[187] Hydraulic filling followed by vibro-compaction or stone columns reinforces the substrate against seismic and wave-induced stresses, permitting construction in waters up to 75 meters deep where wave heights exceed 10 meters.^[28] These methods, refined through finite element modeling of soil-structure interactions, have supported durable islands in high-exposure environments, such as North Sea energy platforms with multi-gigawatt foundations laid since 2021 approvals.^[67] Emerging floating artificial island technologies shift from fixed reclamation to modular, buoyant platforms, offering scalability and resilience in deeper or dynamic seas. Developments under the EU's Horizon 2020 Space@Sea project (grant 774253, initiated 2018) feature rectangular concrete floaters, 45-95 meters per side, connected via flexible moorings and designed for multi-use applications including habitation, aquaculture, and offshore wind integration.^[188] Nonlinear hydrodynamic analyses ensure these very large floating structures (VLFS) withstand extreme conditions, with heuristic optimization for module shapes reducing costs by 20-30% over traditional polders.^[189] Prototypes emphasize prefabricated assembly for rapid deployment, as in proposed Black Sea extensions combining LNG terminals and wind farms, prioritizing low seabed disturbance.^[188]

Prospective Global Developments

In Dubai, the Naïa Island project involves land reclamation to create a new artificial island featuring luxury villas and amenities, with Dutch firm Van Oord commencing dredging operations in August 2025 to expand the coastline.^[190] This follows expansions like Palm Jebel Ali, projected among the world's largest artificial islands by area upon completion.^[191] In the Maldives, Projekt Delfin plans three new resort islands by 2025, adding tourist capacity amid land scarcity, with reclamation techniques drawing dredged sand to form stable foundations.^[192] The government also advances a floating city initiative targeted for 2027, comprising modular platforms designed for 20,000 residents to address sea-level rise vulnerabilities.^[193] South Korea's Oceanix Busan prototype, a UN-Habitat endorsed floating city, aims for initial construction in 2025 at a cost exceeding $200 million, housing up to 10,000 in self-sustaining hexagonal modules powered by solar and wave energy.^[194] ^[195] The design incorporates flood-resilient infrastructure, with platforms rising on pontoons to adapt to tides, positioning it as a scalable model for coastal urbanization.^[196] In China, the West Artificial Island of the Shenzhen-Zhongshan Link mega-project entered trial tourism operations in October 2025, with full opening in December, facilitating connectivity across the Pearl River Delta via integrated bridges and tunnels.^[197] ^[198] Hainan's Ocean Flower Island, under development since earlier phases, targets completion as the largest artificial island globally, emphasizing entertainment and residential zones.^[199] Geopolitically, Vietnam has accelerated reclamation in the Spratly Islands since early 2025, generating approximately 70% of China's prior land area across eight new sites by March, enhancing outposts for resource access and territorial assertion.^[116] ^[103] Seasteading efforts, such as the Seasteading Institute's modular platforms, remain conceptual with active proposals like Atlas Island in Florida, but flagship initiatives like French Polynesia's floating city were indefinitely postponed due to regulatory hurdles.^[200] These developments underscore engineering feasibility for habitation and infrastructure, though scalability hinges on cost reductions in dredging and modular construction, with environmental data indicating potential for localized ecosystem disruption absent mitigation.^[201]

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Grappling with Gravel - Alaska Business Magazine
These artificial gravel islands establish a stable foundation for industry activity while protecting the tundra, allowing Alaska operators to both access ...Missing: platforms | Show results with:platforms
[66]
The Caisson Retained Island | OTC Offshore Technology Conference
May 6, 1985 · The Caisson Retained Island (CRI) is a platform for drilling rigs, consisting of a sand berm, steel retaining structure, and sand fill. It uses ...
[67]
First Building Blocks Set for World's First Artificial Island in Belgian ...
Apr 30, 2025 · Each caisson weighs approximately 22,000 tonnes and measures 58 metres in length, 28 metres in width, and between 23 metres and 32 metres in ...
[68]
Building the massive foundations for a $3.9bn North Sea artificial ...
Oct 1, 2024 · The island's foundations use 23 large caissons, 57m long, 30m high, 30m wide, 22,000 tonnes each, floated to sea, and sunk by sand. The core ...
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World's First Energy Island Starts Taking Shape - Video
Apr 23, 2024 · The first of the 23 caissons being built for Princess Elisabeth Island in Vlissingen, the Netherlands, is almost finished and will be immersed in the North Sea ...<|separator|>
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How We Built the World's Largest Artificial Floating Island?
The floating foundation system patented by HSB Marine was developed to construct very large floating structures, thanks to the large area obtained by combining ...
[71]
Platforms vs artificial islands – which works best for who?
Aug 7, 2013 · Rarely used in the oil and gas industry, artificial islands provide an interesting new option, but what works best for which operators and in what conditions?
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The Largest Artificial Islands In The World
Spanning an area of 970 square kilometers, Holland's Flevopolder is the largest artificial island in the world.
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The World′s Biggest Man Made Islands - Discovery UK
Jul 25, 2023 · The world's largest artificial island was named after the ancient Lake Flevo and is believed to have a population of around 400,000 people.
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List of Top 10 Largest Artificial Islands in the World
Oct 7, 2025 · List of Top 10 Largest Artificial Islands in the World · 1. Flevopolder (Netherlands) · 2. Yas Island (United Arab Emirates) · 3. Kansai ...Missing: 1800-2000 | Show results with:1800-2000<|separator|>
[75]
Flevoland and Delta Works - Destination: History
Feb 12, 2023 · The Dutch drained lakes and even part of the North Sea to create what is now Flevoland, which as it turns out is the largest artificial island in the world.<|separator|>
[76]
How the Netherlands created the largest artificial island! The story ...
Oct 9, 2025 · Explore the remarkable story behind Flevopolder, the world's largest artificial island, built by the Dutch with brilliant engineering and ...
[77]
The world's largest man-made island that's twice as big as Sheffield
Mar 16, 2025 · This incredible 374.5-square-mile island holds the title of the world's largest artificial island, covering an area twice the size of the city of Sheffield.
[78]
(a) World's largest artificial island: Flevopolder, 970 km 2
(a) World's largest artificial island: Flevopolder, 970 km 2 ; (b) reclaimed areas of Bahrain; (c) Kansai International Airport (Mesri and Funk 2015); (d) ...<|separator|>
[79]
Reclaiming land from the sea: A solution to climate change or an ...
Jul 1, 2021 · According to numerous studies and official publications, China is the country with the most reclaimed land. It has added 13,500 square ...
[80]
10 Largest Artificial Islands in the World, No. 2 Will Surprise You!!
it's an ...
[81]
Land Reclamation in the Netherlands 1300 Vs 2000 - Brilliant Maps
Jan 17, 2025 · All the yellow areas have been reclaimed in the 1800s and 1900s, for example the Haarlemmermeerpolder in 1852 and the Zuidplaspolder in 1840.
[82]
A look at 10 new artificial islands - DOMUS
Aug 4, 2021 · Ten examples of artificial islands across the world, from the proposed or still under construction ones to the recently opened.
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Palm Jumeirah Facts - Dubai Sotheby's International Realty
The Human Scale. Today, approximately 80,000 people live on the Palm Jumeirah across more than 10,000 residential units, making it one of the most densely ...
[84]
Palm Jumeirah Community Guide – Luxury Island Living in Dubai
Total Area, Approx. 5.72 km² (≈ 600 football pitches) ; Population, ~25,550 permanent residents (2022) ; Residential Units, ~10,000+ units (1,800–2,000 villas; ...Missing: size | Show results with:size
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10 Facts about Palm Jumeirah - Dubai - fam Properties
May 9, 2020 · 10 interesting facts about the world's largest man-made island. It covers 5.72 sq. km. an area that is equal to 600 football pitches.Missing: size | Show results with:size
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The Maldives' artificial islands could alleviate its housing crisis
Jun 14, 2024 · In 2004, the government inaugurated Hulhumalé, a 4-square-kilometre artificial island built just north of Malé to relieve acute housing ...
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Hulhumalé, Maldives: Monumental climate adaptation effort raises ...
Feb 25, 2022 · Phase 2, with a planned population of 145,000 will extend over 244 hectares and aims to be fully completed by 2035. Hulhumalé hosts numerous ...
[88]
A new island of hope rising from the Indian Ocean - BBC
Sep 10, 2020 · Hulhumalé aims to tick boxes with regard to sustainable urban development too, including drawing around a third of its energy from solar power ...
[89]
The history of Flevoland - Museum Batavialand
The province includes six municipalities: Almere, Dronten, Lelystad, Noordoostpolder, Urk and Zeewolde. Since then, Flevoland has developed into a dynamic ...From Flevo Lake To Zuiderzee · An Important Trade Artery · The Zuiderzee: A Sea Full Of...
[90]
Flevoland, Geography and history - CIRCABC
The population is concentrated in the urban districts (95%). Almere is situated in the west and during the period 1992-2002, its population almost doubled ( ...
[91]
Hong Kong International Airport - Institution of Civil Engineers
Hong Kong International Airport (Chek Lap Kok) opened in 1998, built on reclaimed land, handles 71 million passengers yearly, and is the 8th busiest globally. ...
[92]
Osaka Kansai International: 5 Fast Facts About The Japanese ...
Sep 3, 2024 · It opened on September 4, 1994, at a cost of around $20 billion, and is now the third-busiest airport in Japan. It took over from the ...
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https://www.kansai-airports.co.jp/en/efforts/our-tech/kix/sink/sink2.html
[94]
[KIX] Why Settlement Occurs | Kansai Airports
The settlement of the seabed and sand compression make up the overall settlement process under the artificial islands of KIX. How the clay settles down <How the ...<|separator|>
[95]
Project Overview | Three Runway System
The project includes reclaiming land, building a new 3800m runway, a 2600m APM, a new T2 concourse, expanding terminal 2, and a new baggage system.<|separator|>
[96]
World's largest artificial island airport taking shape in China
May 13, 2025 · The new Dalian Jinzhouwan International Airport will cover a massive island area of 20 square kilometers (7.72 square miles).
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BP Exploration (Alaska) (BPXA) - Northstar
ABOUT THE NORTHSTAR PROJECT. Northstar is a joint Federal/State of Alaska unit located in the Beaufort Sea about 12 miles northwest of Prudhoe Bay.
[98]
The abandoned 'alien' forts off Britain's coast - BBC
Mar 1, 2016 · The Maunsell Forts, built to defend against air raids during WWII, are located seven miles off the British coast and are now decommissioned.
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Inside the Abandoned World War II Sea Forts Off the UK Coast
Dec 16, 2019 · The Maunsell Army and Navy forts were built and placed in the Thames Estuary in 1942 to help protect London from airstrikes and sea raids during ...Missing: artificial | Show results with:artificial<|separator|>
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Royal Marines Man Island Sea Forts
Aug 8, 2023 · The Maunsell Forts are armed towers built in the Thames and Mersey estuaries during the Second World War to help defend the United Kingdom.
[101]
Sealand: A peculiar 'nation' off England's coast - BBC
Jul 5, 2020 · The micronation, in fact a solitary World War Two-era anti-aircraft platform, was first erected in 1942 as HM Fort Roughs, an armed sea fort ...
[102]
Satellite Photos Show China Turning Artificial Island Into Military Base
Aug 28, 2025 · Known in Beijing as Meiji Reef and in Manila as Panganiban Reef, the artificial island provides key support to Chinese forces as they expand ...
[103]
China Is Transforming the South China Sea Into a Massive Military ...
Aug 6, 2025 · New satellite photos show China has placed nuclear-capable bombers on its fortified islands in the South China Sea, putting Australia and ...
[104]
No Islet Left Behind: Vietnam Reclaims Land at Every Remaining ...
Aug 22, 2025 · As of March 2025, Vietnam had created about 70 percent as much artificial land in the Spratlys as China had. Reclamation at these eight new ...
[105]
Intelligence reveals scale of China's base-building in the South ...
Jul 29, 2025 · China has built a 3,200-hectare network of island military bases in the South China Sea, some of which are now capable of launching nuclear ...
[106]
Dubai's Man-Made Islands: What You Need to Know - Travel + Leisure
Sep 28, 2025 · The city's human-made archipelagos, all in various stages of development: Palm Jumeirah, Dubai Islands, Palm Jebel Ali, The World Islands, and Bluewaters ...
[107]
The Palm and World Islands of Dubai - Dredge Brokers
With two of the islands now completed, Dubai has lofty plans for its palm-shaped, manmade creations. And with an additional 323 miles (520 kilometers) of luxury ...Dredging: The Key To Dubai's... · Dubai's Palm Islands · Dredging Expands The...
[108]
These Dubai Projects Were Left For Dead – Now They're Back - Skift
Aug 13, 2024 · Palm Jebel Ali was revived in 2023 and hopes for 80 hotels upon completion. Dubai Islands was resurrected in 2022, and also plans 80 hotels.
[109]
Man-Made Islands 101: Palm Jebel Ali in Dubai | Al Marwan
Oct 11, 2025 · Palm Jebel Ali, a visionary project under the Dubai 2040 Urban Master Plan, is set to become the world's largest man-made island.
[110]
Dubai's New Islands: The Next Frontier in Waterfront Luxury and ...
Sep 14, 2025 · Formerly known as Palm Deira and Deira Islands, the Dubai Islands project was relaunched in 2022 by Nakheel, promising a visionary five island ...<|separator|>
[111]
Sindalah: A luxury island in the Red Sea - NEOM
Discover Sindalah, NEOM's luxury island resort and global yachting hub. Sindalah features spectacular golf, fine dining and world-class shopping.
[112]
What Causes Saudi Arabia to Beat UAE, Qatar, Oman, and Bahrain ...
Dec 9, 2024 · Major projects like NEOM's Sindalah Island and The Red Sea Project are transforming Saudi Arabia into a hub for luxury resorts, eco-tourism ...Missing: contemporary | Show results with:contemporary
[113]
Bahrain lacks land, so it's building more: lavish artificial islands
Aug 31, 2022 · This Persian Gulf nation of 1.8 million people prepares to build five new artificial islands containing five new cities by the end of the decade.Missing: contemporary | Show results with:contemporary<|separator|>
[114]
Gulf states have spent billions to build cities in the sea - The Economist
Jun 9, 2022 · Fishermen in Bahrain say land-reclamation has damaged their livelihoods by depleting fish stocks, forcing them to work farther out at sea. This ...Missing: contemporary | Show results with:contemporary
[115]
China's Island Building in the South China Sea
The building of these artificial islands will almost certainly lead to increased Chinese fishing in the surrounding waters, which could raise the risk of a ...
[116]
Satellite Images Show China's Expansion in the South China Sea
May 2, 2025 · Subi Reef is another one of China's artificial islands outfitted with a military base. Side by side satellite images of Subi Reef in 2004 ...Missing: installations | Show results with:installations
[117]
Vietnam island building in Spratlys may soon surpass China's ...
Aug 22, 2025 · "As of March 2025, Vietnam had created about 70% as much artificial land in the Spratlys as China had," it said. "Reclamation at these eight new ...
[118]
The Ripple Effects of Vietnam's Island-Building in the South China Sea
Mar 31, 2025 · Since China completed the expansion of its own artificial island bases in 2017, it has used those ports to operate continuous coast guard ...
[119]
https://www.dredgingtoday.com/2025/09/09/breaking-news-singapore-wraps-up-first-below-sea-level-land-reclamation-at-pulau-tekong/
[120]
Singapore wraps up first below-sea-level land reclamation at Pulau ...
Sep 9, 2025 · Singapore has reclaimed about 800 hectares of land at the north-western tip of Pulau Tekong, with the completion of main construction works ...
[121]
Future-Ready: Where SG's Next Reclaimed Estates May Rise
Aug 5, 2025 · Explore Singapore?s upcoming reclaimed estates and how they may reshape the property landscape. Find out what buyers and investors should ...<|separator|>
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The Maldives is racing to create new land. Why are so many people ...
Apr 24, 2024 · The island of Gulhifalhu lies just west of the capital, Malé. A reclamation project started in 2020 is filling in half the atoll. The island of ...
[123]
Artificial island off the coast of Jakarta, Indonesia - Boskalis
The project includes the construction of an island with underwater landscaping. The Marker Wadden are natural islands that will be developed in the Markermeer ...Missing: types | Show results with:types
[124]
Marker Wadden - English version - Natuurmonumenten
Marker Wadden is one of the biggest nature restoration projects in western Europe. Aiming to restore an area of up to 100 square kilometres.
[125]
Marker Wadden - Rijkswaterstaat
A new project in the Markermeer: Marker Wadden creates a new group of islands from sand, clay and sludge, from that same lake. Read more about the project.
[126]
Marker Wadden - Rewilding Europe
Marker Wadden will boost biodiversity in the Netherlands. The project is aiming to restore an area of up to 100 square kilometres. One of the largest freshwater ...
[127]
Artificial island Lynetteholm to be built in Copenhagen harbour
Jun 7, 2021 · The Danish parliament has approved the building of Lynetteholm, an artificial island that will house 35000 people and protect Copenhagen ...
[128]
Why Climate Activists Want to Stop Denmark's New Island-City | TIME
Mar 22, 2023 · Lynetteholm, a one square mile artificial island, is being built to shield the low-lying Danish capital from storm surges, which are intensifying as sea levels ...Missing: contemporary | Show results with:contemporary
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New artificial island : a beacon of the clean energy transition in ...
Feb 10, 2021 · Denmark is aiming to build the first-ever artificial wind energy island, expected to provide electricity for up to 10 million households.Missing: contemporary | Show results with:contemporary
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A world's first: we build the first artificial energy island | Jan De Nul
May 7, 2024 · High voltage grid operator Elia has therefore decided to build an artificial energy island off the Belgian coast: the Princess Elisabeth Island.
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Are artificial islands the future of wind power? - AVEVA
Dec 5, 2024 · Construction of the artificial island involves building 23 enormous concrete caissons, each weighing about 22,000 tonnes, which will ...
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Monaco's new €2bn neighbourhood rising out of the sea - BBC
May 17, 2025 · Built on reclaimed land, Monaco's new Mareterra district blends cutting-edge sustainability with scenic sea views, offering a fresh way to ...
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Mapping 21st Century Global Coastal Land Reclamation - 2023
Feb 9, 2023 · One of the most striking features of 21st-century coastal land reclamation is the construction of artificial islands. Increasingly, cities ...
[134]
[PDF] Economically and Socially, Land Reclamation Pays | IADC Dredging
The economic impact of these projects on Dubai has been quite remarkable and has clearly given Dubai a central role in the tourist industry. The importance of ...
[135]
Artificial Islands & Reclamation: Worth the Cost? - Hilokal
Oct 9, 2024 · An artificial island is a man-made island, referring to islands created by reclamation rather than natural processes. An artificial island ...
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11 Fascinating Facts About Palm Jumeirah in Dubai
Sep 11, 2025 · This palm-shaped miracle is one of the largest artificial islands in the world. It's a haven for luxury living and a home to five-star hotels, ...
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[PDF] PRESS RELEASE FY2024 Consolidated Financial Results
Jun 17, 2025 · In the fiscal year under review, operating revenues increased by 31%, operating profit increased by 30.6 billion yen, ordinary profit ...
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Kansai airports log profit surge thanks to record tourist numbers
Dec 12, 2024 · Operating profit for the period soared to 30.6 billion yen ($201 million), about 2.4 times higher than the same period last year, while net profit jumped to 16 ...
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Oil & gas field profile: Northstar Unit (Northstar) Conventional Oil ...
The Northstar Unit (Northstar) conventional oil field recovered 88.25% of its total recoverable reserves, with peak production in 2009. Based on economic ...
[140]
[PDF] Does Reclamation Pay? Assessing the Socio-Economic Effects of ...
Reclamation projects' social and economic effects are unclear, but they can be advantageous for cities, and the value comes from the services and ...
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[PDF] The Strategic Impact of China's Artificial Islands in the South China ...
Oct 20, 2020 · expanded its military assets in this highly strategic area, through which one-third of global maritime trade passes” (Chellaney 2018, para. 4). ...
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China's Artificial Islands Are Bigger (And a Bigger Deal) Than You ...
Sep 21, 2016 · China has been dredging up coral reefs and creating artificial islands in the South China Sea with the purpose of enforcing their claims to “indisputable ...
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Fortified South China Sea artificial islands project Beijing's military ...
Nov 6, 2022 · China has further fortified its artificial islands in the South China Sea, with more buildings, radars and aircraft hangars to help project power across the ...
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America Can Deal with China's Artificial Island Bases
Feb 6, 2020 · China's outposts in the Spratlys are a strategic liability for Beijing. They are hard to defend, and the United States has a number of options to attack them ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
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Space, Maritime Security, and Geopolitics in the South China Sea
Aug 12, 2025 · Artificial islands serve primarily to achieve intelligence dominance, not to project conventional firepower. These islands are far more valuable ...
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Massive Island-Building and International Law
Jun 15, 2015 · Furthermore, it would be illegal for China or any country to claim sovereignty over the newly created artificial islands at these locations.
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[PDF] Artificial Islands and Territory in International Law
Jul 11, 2019 · Artificially created islands are a contemporary reality, created and used for military and nonmilitary purposes. Analysis.
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Geo political implications of the South China Sea disputes
Sep 27, 2024 · Additionally, the islands and shoals would provide space for military bases, enabling China to counter US dominance and influence in the region ...
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Countries building Artificial islands for economic progress ...
In modern times artificial islands are usually formed by land reclamation, but some are formed by the incidental isolation of an existing piece of land ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
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[PDF] China's Island Building in the South China Sea: Damage to the ...
Apr 12, 2016 · China built islands by depositing sand and gravel, burying coral reefs and destroying them. Sediment can also smother marine life.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
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Evidence of Environmental Changes Caused by Chinese Island ...
Mar 28, 2019 · This paper quantifies environmental effects of island-building operations in the South China Sea, which result from dredging and can negatively impact marine ...
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Deep Blue Scars: Environmental Threats to the South China Sea
Dec 18, 2023 · China has played the largest role, destroying or severely damaging at least 21,183 acres of coral reef—and likely much more—through island ...
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The Marine Environmental Impacts of Artificial Island Construction ...
The Palm Jumeirah has buried and asphyxiated wildlife, increased turbidity, and changed the alongshore sediment transport. It has also created habitat.
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Dubai's artificial islands have high environmental cost - Mongabay
Aug 23, 2005 · Construction activity is damaging the marine habitat, burying coral reefs, oyster beds and subterranean fields of sea grass, threatening local ...
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Land reclamation: a little-known environmental catastrophe
Dec 13, 2022 · Researchers found the water temperature around the Palm had increased by 7.5%. Reefs degrade in these conditions. Warming waters also cause sea ...
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Osaka airport is sinking into the sea at an alarming rate
Apr 5, 2025 · The airport is sinking due to subsidence, built on reclaimed land with a complex soil structure, and has sunk over 11.5 meters since ...
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Unexpected Excessive Settlements: Kansai International Airport ...
Ocean-reclaimed platforms are, however, seriously affected by settlements that may cause severe damages to buildings, highways, airport runways, harbors, and ...
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“We Still Haven't Recovered”: Local Communities Harmed by ...
Oct 18, 2023 · This report describes how the Maldives government's failure to consult local communities and to adequately mitigate the impact of reclamation and other ...
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Artificial islands can cause water quality degradation, erosion, pollution, and harm to seagrass and coral, and may change sea wave and sediment patterns.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
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Recommendations and Strategies to Mitigate Environmental ... - MDPI
These artificial island development projects led to severe environmental degradation of the marine ecosystem, in which the most prominent species reported, are ...
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The role of environmental impact assessment in the sustainable ...
Based on the empirical assessment, an inductive approach was also used to develop new holistic strategies for the sustainable development of artificial islands.
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(PDF) Recommendations and Strategies to Mitigate Environmental ...
Apr 15, 2022 · Artificial island development (AID) to tackle rampant urbanization on scarce land puts all marine biodiversity at huge risk and is recognized as ...
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Assessment of Palm Jumeirah Island's Construction Effects on the ...
Feb 18, 2022 · Climate change stressors like rising and warmer seas, increased storms and droughts, and acidifying oceans are rapidly threatening coastal ...
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[PDF] The Marine Environmental Impacts of Artificial Island Construction
The Palm Jumeirah has buried and asphyxiated wildlife, increased turbidity, and changed the alongshore sediment transport. It has also created habitat along its ...
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The Kansai International Airport project and environmental impact ...
This paper outlines the environmental impact assessment regarding construction of Kansai International Airport and environmental monitoring during construction.
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[PDF] Kansai International Airport Environmental Management Project
The project aims to create a pollution-free airport, with 44 targets to reduce environmental impact, including noise, air, and water quality, and recycling.
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[PDF] Environmental Report
The report conveys initiatives to reduce environmental impacts, aiming for net zero emissions by 2050, and to become a Zero Waste Airport by 2050.
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How land reclamations can work with nature - DHI Blog
Jan 6, 2022 · There are many methods to make reclamation more sustainable and these include long-term data collection through surveys and remote sensing, and ...
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Artificial Islands, Installations, and Structures
Jul 15, 2024 · The UNCLOS defines the competence of the coastal State to regulate artificial islands, installations, and structures in its maritime zones.
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Part V: Exclusive Economic Zone - UN.org.
8. Artificial islands, installations and structures do not possess the status of islands. They have no territorial sea of their own, and their presence does not ...Missing: domestic | Show results with:domestic
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Protective Dikes and Land Reclamation, The Netherlands
The Dutch built protective dikes to save land from disappearing and to protect from flooding after draining marshes, making them unique in land reclamation.
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https://legacy.geog.ucsb.edu/the-principality-of-sealand/
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The Principality of Sealand | UC Geography
No other state explicitly recognizes the sovereignty of Sealand, but judges in a couple British court cases have refused to rule on it because it was outside ...
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Artificial Islands and Territory in International Law
The article argues that artificial islands can be considered territory if they meet certain criteria, and can be sovereign territory, despite not generating a ...
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Jul 9, 2024 · Articles 247 and 328 of the Civil Code stipulate that the State owns maritime areas and uninhabited islands and that the State protects the ...
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The (Potentially) Legal Basis for China's Sovereignty Claims to Land in
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[PDF] Artificial Islands and Territory in International Law
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Floating Sovereign Tech Island Paradises? On the Legal Framework ...
Nov 13, 2023 · Article 87 UNCLOS recognizes the the freedom of all States 'to construct artificial islands and other installations permitted under ...
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Jan 22, 2015 · The argument for Sealand's sovereignty is about more than the future of the platform-nation.
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[PDF] United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
of artificial islands, installations, structures and safety zones. 7. Artificial islands, installations and structures and the safety zones around them may ...
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Aug 21, 2023 · Multiple Asian governments assert sovereignty over rocks, reefs, and other geographic features in the heavily trafficked South China Sea (SCS).
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The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of Philippines v. The ...
China adopted a position of non-acceptance and non-participation in the proceedings. The Permanent Court of Arbitration served as Registry in this arbitration.
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Jul 11, 2024 · The Tribunal firmly rejected any PRC territorial or maritime claim to areas determined by the Tribunal to be part of the Philippines' exclusive economic zone.
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Dredging in Land Reclamation: A Step-by-Step Overview
Jan 22, 2025 · Innovations in dredging technology have significantly enhanced the efficiency and sustainability of land reclamation projects. Modern equipment, ...Missing: 2020-2025 | Show results with:2020-2025<|control11|><|separator|>
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Evolution of Dredging Technology: Traditional to Modern
Sep 19, 2025 · From hand-dug channels to AI-powered dredge machines, the evolution of dredging technology showcases the industry's remarkable progress—and the ...
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Advancements in Drainage Consolidation Technology for Marine ...
In parallel, novel techniques such as siphon drainage, aerosol-assisted consolidation, and osmosis-based drainage show promise for sustainable applications.
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Floating islands to work and live on | Space at Sea Project - CORDIS
Oct 22, 2020 · Large, artificial floating islands are potentially cheaper, more sustainable and more flexible than new land created through poldering or infilling.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Frontiers | Editorial: Advances in multi-use floating islands
### Summary of Advances in Multi-Use Floating Islands
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Dutch dredging company Van Oord to build island near Dubai
Aug 22, 2025 · Dutch dredging company Van Oord has secured a contract for the land reclamation of Naïa Island Dubai, a new artificial island development ...
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Top 5 largest artificial islands in the world in 2025 - WION
Oct 9, 2025 · 1. Flevopolder. Flevopolder is the world's largest artificial island, covering around 970 square kilometres in the Netherlands. Built to reclaim ...
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New artificial islands project on the go in Maldives : Projekt Delfin
A new artificial islands project development for tourists, called Projekt Delfin, is scheduled for 2025 in Maldives with 3 new resorts.Missing: global | Show results with:global
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Oceanix, Busan: The World's 1st Sustainable Floating City Prototype
Dec 11, 2024 · To counteract the threat of rising sea levels, the Maldivian government plans to establish a floating city by 2027. It is a series of ...
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South Korea Builds MASSIVE $200M City On Water! - YouTube
Mar 25, 2025 · Imagine cities of the future not on land—but floating sustainably on water! Oceanix Busan, South Korea's groundbreaking floating city, ...
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News – Oceanix
Check out the world's first FLOATING CITY! Flood-proof Oceanix – backed by the UN... South Korea hopes to build sustainable floating city by 2025 · 7 ...
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The world's first floating city costing £484m and will be home to ...
Feb 8, 2025 · Floating city built over water. Oceanix Busan is due to be completed in 2025 (Image: Oceanix). DON'T MISS: Phosphine in Venus' clouds could be ...
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World's growing number of artificial islands offer new ... - MiNDFOOD
Feb 10, 2024 · Developers say Ocean Flower Island in the southern Chinese province of Hainan will become the largest artificial island in the world. Dubbed the ...
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New islands are being built at sea – but they won't help millions ...
Mar 20, 2024 · The city government has recently announced five more artificial islands “to open up the city”, and claims that the new islands generate and attract wealth.