Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Basic airway management

Basic airway management encompasses a range of non-invasive techniques and procedures designed to maintain or restore a patent airway, ensuring unobstructed airflow between the external environment and the lungs to support adequate oxygenation and ventilation in patients with respiratory compromise.^[1] These methods are fundamental in emergency medical care, first aid, and critical settings, where airway obstruction—often caused by the tongue, foreign bodies, or trauma—can rapidly lead to hypoxia and life-threatening complications if not addressed promptly.^[2] Unlike advanced airway management, which involves invasive interventions such as endotracheal intubation or surgical airways, basic approaches prioritize simple, equipment-minimal strategies accessible to a broad range of healthcare providers and lay rescuers.^[1] Key techniques in basic airway management include manual positioning maneuvers, such as the head-tilt/chin-lift to extend the neck and displace the tongue from the pharynx, and the jaw-thrust maneuver, which lifts the mandible forward without hyperextending the neck—particularly useful in suspected cervical spine injuries.^[3] Adjunctive devices like oropharyngeal airways (OPAs), which prevent the tongue from obstructing the oropharynx in unconscious patients without a gag reflex, and nasopharyngeal airways (NPAs), suitable for semi-conscious individuals or those with intact gag reflexes, further secure patency.^[4] For active obstructions, such as choking, interventions include alternating back blows and abdominal thrusts in adults and children, and back blows with chest thrusts in infants to expel foreign bodies.^[5] Suctioning of secretions or vomitus using devices like bulb syringes (limited to under 10 seconds in infants to avoid bradycardia) complements these efforts.^[1] When spontaneous breathing is inadequate, basic management extends to assisted ventilation via bag-valve-mask (BVM) devices, delivering tidal volumes of 500–600 mL at 10–12 breaths per minute in adults to provide positive-pressure support without intubation.^[4] These practices are guided by protocols from organizations like the American Heart Association 2025 guidelines, emphasizing rapid assessment (e.g., look-listen-feel for airflow) and adaptation to patient-specific factors, such as pediatric anatomy where the airway is narrower at the subglottis and more cephalad.^[1] Overall, effective basic airway management significantly improves survival outcomes in scenarios like cardiac arrest, trauma, or anesthesia induction by averting respiratory failure.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Basic airway management refers to simple, manual interventions designed to maintain or restore a patent airway without the use of advanced equipment, such as endotracheal tubes or mechanical ventilators, primarily in prehospital or first-aid settings to facilitate adequate oxygenation and ventilation.^[1] These techniques focus on non-invasive methods like head-tilt/chin-lift maneuvers or jaw thrust to open the airway passage between the lungs and the external environment, ensuring airflow and preventing hypoxia in emergencies.^[6] It forms the foundational step in basic life support (BLS), where the primary goal is to support spontaneous breathing or provide rescue breaths when it is inadequate.^[7] The core principles emphasize rapid assessment and intervention to prioritize oxygenation and ventilation, following standardized algorithms from organizations like the American Heart Association (AHA) and the Red Cross.^[6] These algorithms begin with confirming unresponsiveness, activating emergency response, and using maneuvers to clear obstructions while minimizing interruptions in chest compressions during CPR, with a compression-to-ventilation ratio of 30:2 for single rescuers.^[6] Airway patency is optimized by positioning the head and neck appropriately—such as the head-tilt/chin-lift for most patients or jaw thrust in cases of suspected cervical spine injury—while avoiding blind finger sweeps to prevent further obstruction.^[7] Monitoring for visible chest rise during rescue breaths (lasting about 1 second each) ensures effective ventilation, with the overarching aim to prevent complications like aspiration or hypoventilation.^[1] Historically, basic airway management evolved from early 20th-century first-aid protocols, including manual chest compressions demonstrated in animal models by Dr. George Crile in 1903, but gained modern standardization following the 1960 development of CPR by Drs. William Kouwenhoven, Peter Safar, and James Jude, which integrated mouth-to-mouth ventilation with external compressions.^[8] This breakthrough, endorsed by the AHA in 1963 and formalized in national training guidelines by 1966, shifted airway care from rudimentary techniques to evidence-based BLS practices that emphasize airway opening as the initial response in cardiac arrest.^[8] Key indications include foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) or choking, where signs such as weak coughing, inability to speak, or clutching the throat necessitate immediate clearance to restore airflow. Recent 2025 AHA refinements emphasize alternating cycles of 5 back blows and 5 abdominal thrusts for conscious adults and children with severe FBAO, or 5 chest thrusts for infants.^[9]^[10] It is also indicated in unconsciousness due to trauma or medical causes, such as reduced consciousness (e.g., Glasgow Coma Scale ≤8) or apnea, requiring airway support to maintain oxygenation during BLS.^[1] Respiratory arrest, characterized by absent or inadequate breathing, further prompts these interventions to prevent rapid deterioration into cardiac arrest.^[7]

Importance and Indications

Basic airway management is critically important because compromise of the airway can lead to severe hypoxia within 4 to 6 minutes, resulting in irreversible brain damage or death if not addressed immediately.^[11] This underscores its position as the first priority in the ABC (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) protocol for emergency assessment and resuscitation, where securing a patent airway precedes efforts to support breathing and circulation.^[6] In unconscious patients, untreated airway obstruction further exacerbates outcomes in cardiac arrest scenarios by accelerating hypoxia and hypercarbia, which can precipitate or worsen arrest.^[12] Foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) alone accounts for approximately 5,500 deaths annually in the United States, ranking as the fourth leading cause of unintentional injury death.^[13] These fatalities highlight the public health burden, particularly as unconscious airway obstruction in such cases often leads to poorer neurological recovery and higher mortality during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA).^[14] Indications for basic airway management include acute FBAO in both conscious and unconscious victims, where immediate intervention is required to dislodge the obstruction and restore airflow.^[14] Non-obstructive causes, such as tongue fallback in unconscious patients due to loss of muscle tone, also necessitate prompt action to prevent complete airway occlusion.^[15] Additionally, it serves as a vital bridge to advanced airway techniques in settings like OHCA, where initial basic measures stabilize oxygenation until professional care arrives.^[6] Effective basic airway management significantly improves survival in choking incidents, with bystander interventions achieving success rates of approximately 48% in relieving obstructions, with 1-month survival rates of 61% in cases receiving such interventions (compared to 37% without), per a 2024 Japanese registry study aligned with AHA guidelines (2020 update with 2025 refinements to choking protocols).^[16]^[12]^[5]

Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Upper Airway Structures

The upper airway comprises the anatomical structures from the nares to the larynx, serving as the initial conduit for air entry into the respiratory system.^[17] Key components include the nose, pharynx, larynx, tongue, and soft palate, which collectively facilitate airflow while protecting the lungs from aspiration.^[17] The nose, extending from the external nares to the posterior choanae, consists of the nasal cavity lined with mucosa and turbinates that warm, humidify, and filter inspired air through turbulent flow.^[17] Posterior to the nasal cavity lies the nasopharynx, a passageway above the soft palate that conducts air from the nose toward the oropharynx.^[17] The oropharynx, bounded superiorly by the soft palate and inferiorly by the hyoid bone, is shared with the oral cavity and serves as a common pathway for both air and food.^[17] Inferiorly, the hypopharynx (or laryngopharynx) extends from the hyoid to the cricoid cartilage, connecting the oropharynx to the esophagus and larynx.^[17] The larynx, positioned between the hypopharynx and trachea, acts as a protective gateway with its cartilaginous framework.^[18] The epiglottis, a leaf-shaped elastic cartilage attached to the thyroid cartilage, folds over the laryngeal inlet during swallowing to prevent aspiration.^[18] Within the larynx, the vocal cords (true vocal folds) form the glottis, the narrowest point of the upper airway, enabling phonation and providing a sphincteric mechanism to guard against foreign material entry.^[18] The tongue, a muscular hydrostat in the oral cavity, occupies much of the oropharynx during rest and aids in bolus propulsion while influencing airway dimensions.^[17] The soft palate, a muscular aponeurosis with the uvula, elevates during swallowing to seal the nasopharynx and directs contents toward the oropharynx.^[17] These structures play a critical role in separating the respiratory and digestive tracts: during deglutition, coordinated elevation of the soft palate and epiglottis diverts food into the esophagus while maintaining airway patency.^[17] Typical cross-sectional diagrams illustrate the airway path from nostrils through the pharynx to the trachea, highlighting the progressive narrowing and the tongue's posterior position as a potential space-occupying element.^[17] Common sites of obstruction in the upper airway include the oropharynx, where the tongue can fall back against the posterior pharyngeal wall, and the laryngopharynx, where foreign bodies may lodge above the glottis.^[17] Physiologically, normal upper airway airflow resistance is less than 1 cmH₂O/L/s, reflecting low impedance under typical conditions.^[19] Patency is primarily maintained by tonic activity of pharyngeal dilator muscles, such as the genioglossus, which is robust in conscious states but diminishes during sleep or unconsciousness.^[20]

Mechanisms of Obstruction

Airway obstruction can be classified as partial or complete based on the degree of airflow blockage. Partial obstruction permits some air movement, allowing the affected individual to cough or speak, whereas complete obstruction results in no audible air exchange, rendering the airway silent and preventing effective ventilation.^[21]^[22] Obstructions are further categorized as mechanical, involving extrinsic blockages such as foreign bodies or vomit, or anatomical, stemming from intrinsic factors like tongue displacement or tissue swelling within the upper airway structures.^[23] Foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) occurs when inhaled objects or food particles lodge in the airway, with the size and shape determining the site of impaction—larger items often obstruct the larynx or trachea in adults, while smaller particles may reach the bronchi. In adults, food items like meat or nuts are common culprits, frequently lodging proximally due to the relatively larger airway diameter compared to children. Aspiration risks are notably higher in children under 3 years old, who account for the majority of cases owing to their exploratory behavior, immature dentition, and narrower airways that facilitate distal migration of objects.^[24]^[25] Beyond FBAO, other mechanisms include loss of pharyngeal muscle tone in unconscious individuals, where relaxation allows the tongue to fall posteriorly against the pharynx, occluding the airway—a primary cause in sedated or anesthetized patients. Anaphylaxis can induce rapid laryngeal and pharyngeal edema, compromising airway patency in up to 50-60% of severe cases through inflammatory swelling that narrows the upper airway.^[26]^[27] Physiologically, any obstruction elevates the work of breathing by increasing respiratory muscle effort to overcome resistance, potentially leading to fatigue and respiratory failure if prolonged. In complete obstruction, arterial oxygen partial pressure (PaO₂) declines rapidly, often falling below 60 mmHg within 1-2 minutes due to absent gas exchange, hastening hypoxemia and tissue oxygen deprivation.^[28]^[29]

Patient Assessment

Conscious Patients

In conscious patients, airway assessment begins with rapid recognition of potential obstruction to determine patency and urgency. The primary algorithm involves observing for the universal choking sign—clutching the throat with one or both hands—and directly asking the patient, "Are you choking?" to elicit a verbal response.^[12] This initial step helps classify the obstruction as mild or severe, guiding subsequent actions.^[12] Mild airway obstruction is characterized by the ability to cough forcefully, speak, or breathe, often allowing the patient to maintain oxygenation without immediate collapse.^[12] In contrast, severe obstruction manifests as a weak or absent cough, inability to speak or breathe effectively, and signs such as cyanosis.^[12] Additional clinical indicators include inspiratory stridor, a high-pitched sound due to turbulent airflow in the upper airway; paradoxical breathing, where the chest and abdomen move in opposite directions during respiration; and increased use of accessory muscles, such as the sternocleidomastoid, indicating heightened respiratory effort.^[30]^[22]^[31] Vital signs may reveal tachycardia exceeding 100 beats per minute from sympathetic activation or declining oxygen saturation below 92%, signaling progressive hypoxia.^[32]^[31] A brief history is essential to contextualize the obstruction, focusing on recent intake of food or liquids, potential trauma to the head or neck, and known allergies that could precipitate anaphylaxis-related swelling.^[33]^[34]^[35] Symptoms persisting beyond 10 seconds of distress warrant heightened vigilance, as even partial blockages can escalate.^[36] Decision points hinge on obstruction severity per American Heart Association guidelines: mild cases often resolve spontaneously through effective coughing and require monitoring for progression, while severe cases demand immediate intervention to prevent unconsciousness.^[12] Foreign body airway obstruction remains a leading cause in conscious adults, underscoring the need for prompt evaluation.^[12] In pediatric patients, assessment should account for anatomical differences, such as a relatively larger tongue and narrower airway. Children may not display the universal choking sign; instead, evaluate the ability to cry or speak phrases for mild obstruction, or inability to cry, cough, or breathe for severe. Follow age-specific protocols in the American Heart Association's 2025 Pediatric Basic Life Support guidelines.^[37]

Unconscious Patients

In the evaluation of airway patency in unconscious patients, initial safety measures are paramount to protect both the rescuer and the patient. Before approaching, confirm that the scene is safe from hazards such as traffic, fire, or violence.^[6] Once safe, assess responsiveness by gently shaking the patient's shoulders and shouting a question like "Are you okay?" for no more than 10 seconds; lack of response confirms unconsciousness. This step aligns with the ABC (Airway, Breathing, Circulation) protocol emphasized in basic life support guidelines.^[6] Next, perform a targeted airway and breathing assessment using the look-listen-feel technique for up to 10 seconds: observe for chest or abdominal rise and fall, listen for breath sounds near the mouth and nose, and feel for air movement on the cheek. Key airway-specific signs of compromise include absent or paradoxical chest rise, indicating potential complete obstruction, and abnormal sounds such as snoring (from soft tissue collapse) or gurgling (from secretions or blood).^[38] A visible foreign body in the mouth or oropharynx should be noted immediately.^[36] If trauma is suspected—such as from a fall, motor vehicle collision, or assault—apply manual in-line stabilization of the cervical spine to minimize movement during assessment, avoiding hyperextension or rotation of the neck.^[39] Available basic tools aid in quantifying airway status without delaying care. Pulse oximetry, if accessible, measures peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), with a target above 94% indicating adequate oxygenation in most cases; values below this suggest hypoxemia requiring intervention. Advanced imaging like X-rays or CT scans is not used in basic prehospital or first-responder settings, as it is impractical and delays life-saving actions.^[36] Differentiating obstruction types guides urgency: suspect foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) in cases of sudden collapse immediately following eating or choking, often with rapid progression to unresponsiveness.^[40] In contrast, non-obstructive airway compromise, such as from opioid overdose or sedative effects, typically shows gradual onset with progressive respiratory depression and loss of consciousness.^[1] For pediatric unconscious patients, the look-listen-feel technique remains key, but consider higher respiratory rates (e.g., 20-30 breaths per minute in infants) and anatomical factors like a more anterior larynx. Adhere to the American Heart Association's 2025 Pediatric Basic Life Support guidelines for age-appropriate evaluation.^[37]

Management in Conscious Patients

Initial Response and Self-Relief

In basic airway management for conscious adults experiencing choking, the initial response begins with rapidly assessing the severity of the foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO). Mild obstruction is indicated if the victim can cough forcefully, speak, or breathe, in which case they should be encouraged to continue coughing to attempt natural expulsion of the object. Severe obstruction is confirmed by the victim's inability to cough, speak, or breathe effectively, at which point they should immediately signal for emergency assistance by calling 911 or equivalent services while preparing for self-relief measures.^[41]^[42] For victims alone with severe FBAO, self-relief techniques focus on generating subdiaphragmatic pressure to dislodge the obstruction. The primary method is the self-administered abdominal thrust, also known as the self-Heimlich maneuver, where the victim forms a fist with one hand, places the thumb side against the abdomen just above the navel but below the ribcage, grasps the fist with the other hand, and thrusts inward and upward in a sharp motion. An alternative is the chair thrust, in which the victim leans over the back of a chair, table edge, or railing and presses their abdomen forcefully against it to mimic the thrust effect. Studies using pressure sensors in human subjects demonstrate that both self-administered abdominal thrusts and chair thrusts generate intrathoracic pressures comparable to or exceeding those produced by a rescuer, indicating their potential effectiveness in solitary scenarios.^[43]^[44] Encouraging voluntary coughing is a foundational self-relief strategy for mild or early severe cases, as a forceful cough can produce intrathoracic pressures exceeding 200 cmH₂O, sufficient to dislodge many foreign bodies through dynamic airway compression and high-velocity airflow.^[45] Victims should be advised to take a deep breath if possible and cough repeatedly with maximum effort to leverage this physiologic mechanism. These self-relief techniques are not suitable for infants under 1 year or pregnant individuals, as abdominal thrusts may cause harm in these populations; pregnant victims should instead use chest thrusts if assisted, and infants require specialized maneuvers. If self-relief fails after two cycles of 5 thrusts each, the victim must prioritize activating emergency services and avoid further attempts to prevent exhaustion or worsening obstruction.^[46]^[47]

Assisted Maneuvers

Assisted maneuvers for foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) in conscious adults involve rescuer-delivered physical interventions designed to increase intrathoracic pressure and create a pressure gradient to expel the obstructing object. These techniques are indicated when the victim exhibits severe choking signs, such as inability to cough, speak, or breathe effectively, following initial self-relief attempts. Standard protocols emphasize a systematic approach to maximize efficacy while minimizing injury risk.^[12] Back blows consist of delivering five firm blows between the victim's shoulder blades using the heel of the hand, with the victim positioned leaning forward to allow gravity to assist expulsion. This maneuver aims to dislodge the foreign body by generating a sudden increase in intrathoracic pressure through impact on the back. Studies indicate that back blows are associated with favorable outcomes in FBAO relief compared to other interventions, with overall bystander intervention success rates, including back blows, around 48%.^[12]^[16]^[48] Abdominal thrusts, commonly known as the Heimlich maneuver, involve standing behind the victim, placing a fist just above the navel with the other hand clasped around it, and delivering five quick upward thrusts into the abdomen. These thrusts generate substantial intra-abdominal and intrathoracic pressure, typically around 40 mmHg, to force air from the lungs and expel the obstruction. For obese individuals or those in late pregnancy, where encircling the abdomen may be difficult, abdominal thrusts are modified to chest thrusts: five inward thrusts at the base of the sternum, performed similarly to but shallower than cardiopulmonary resuscitation compressions.^[12]^[44]^[12] The recommended sequence alternates cycles of five back blows followed by five abdominal (or chest) thrusts, repeating until the object is expelled, the victim can cough or breathe, or becomes unresponsive, at which point cardiopulmonary resuscitation is initiated. This approach aligns with the 2025 American Heart Association guidelines, which incorporate International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation consensus without substantive changes from prior iterations regarding conscious adult FBAO management. After each cycle, the rescuer should reassess the victim's airway patency and vital signs.^[12]^[12] These maneuvers carry risks, including rib fractures or internal injuries, and are contraindicated in individuals with known esophageal or abdominal pathologies due to the potential for perforation. Anti-choking devices may serve as adjuncts in some scenarios but are not a primary replacement for these manual techniques.^[47]^[47]

Management in Unconscious Patients

Airway Opening Techniques

In unconscious patients without evidence of breathing or a pulse, basic airway opening techniques are essential to relieve anatomical obstruction primarily caused by the tongue falling back against the pharynx. These maneuvers are performed after confirming unresponsiveness and initiating the chain of survival, such as calling for help and checking for breathing.^[12] The head-tilt chin-lift maneuver is the standard technique for opening the airway in unconscious patients without suspected cervical spine injury. It involves placing one hand on the patient's forehead to gently tilt the head backward while using the fingers of the other hand under the bony portion of the lower jaw to lift the chin upward, thereby displacing the tongue forward and away from the posterior pharynx to visualize an open airway. This position aligns the oral, pharyngeal, and tracheal axes to facilitate ventilation, typically achieved by extending the head to a neutral or sniffing position.^[49]^[50] The jaw-thrust maneuver is an alternative or preferred method, particularly when cervical spine injury is suspected, as it minimizes neck movement. Performed by placing the tips of the fingers from both hands behind the angles of the mandible and applying bilateral upward traction to displace the jaw forward, this technique lifts the tongue without extending the neck. The rescuer kneels above the patient's head for optimal leverage, ensuring the chin does not move posteriorly.^[49]^[12] These maneuvers are highly effective for restoring upper airway patency in cases of tongue-related obstruction. They are integrated into basic life support protocols, where the airway is maintained open during delivery of rescue breaths—two breaths after every 30 chest compressions in adult CPR.^[12] Common errors include over-extension of the head during the head-tilt chin-lift, which can paradoxically occlude the airway by compressing soft tissues or misaligning the axes, and insufficient lift leading to incomplete tongue displacement. Training programs emphasize practicing neutral head positioning and visual confirmation of pharyngeal patency to avoid these pitfalls.^[51]^[52] According to the American Heart Association's 2025 Basic Life Support guidelines, the jaw-thrust is recommended over head-tilt chin-lift for patients with suspected trauma to protect the cervical spine, though the head-tilt chin-lift may be used if the jaw-thrust proves ineffective.^[12]^[12]

Foreign Body Removal

In cases where foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) is suspected as the cause of collapse in an unconscious adult victim, rescuers should immediately activate the emergency response system and initiate basic life support with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), beginning with 30 chest compressions.^[6]^[12] Following the compressions, rescuers open the airway using a head-tilt/chin-lift or jaw-thrust maneuver, visually inspect the mouth for any visible foreign object, and—if one is seen—remove it using a finger sweep with the hooked index finger to avoid pushing the object deeper.^[6]^[14] Blind finger sweeps are contraindicated in unconscious patients, as they may lodge the object further into the airway or cause injury.^[6]^[14] Two rescue breaths are then attempted; if the chest does not rise, rescuers should reposition the head, reattempt breaths, and repeat the mouth check and sweep if necessary before resuming the cycle of 30 compressions and 2 breaths.^[6] This modified CPR protocol continues in cycles until the foreign body is expelled, the victim shows signs of life, or advanced medical help arrives, integrating airway opening techniques between checks to maintain patency.^[6]^[12] Chest compressions in this sequence are particularly effective for FBAO removal, as they generate sufficient intrathoracic pressure to mimic the force of abdominal thrusts used in conscious victims.^[12] If a victim becomes unresponsive following initial maneuvers for conscious FBAO, rescuers should lower the person to the ground, call emergency medical services, and proceed directly to this CPR-based removal protocol per American Heart Association guidelines.^[6] In pediatric cases, the protocol requires age-specific modifications, such as using back blows and chest thrusts for infants instead of standard adult compressions, to avoid ineffective or harmful application.

Airway Adjuncts

Oropharyngeal Devices

Oropharyngeal airways (OPAs), also known as Guedel airways, are semicircular plastic devices designed to maintain airway patency by holding the tongue forward and preventing it from obstructing the posterior pharynx in unconscious patients.^[15] These adjuncts feature a flange that rests against the lips, a curved body that follows the contour of the hard palate and tongue, and a distal tip that terminates near the base of the tongue, with a central channel allowing passage of air or suction catheters.^[15] Available in adult sizes 0 through 6 (corresponding to lengths of approximately 40 to 110 mm), selection is based on anatomical measurement from the corner of the mouth to the angle of the mandible or earlobe to ensure proper fit without excessive pressure on soft tissues.^[53] OPAs are indicated primarily for unconscious patients lacking a gag reflex, where manual airway maneuvers alone are insufficient to prevent tongue fallback, particularly during bag-valve-mask (BVM) ventilation or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).^[54] They serve as a basic adjunct following initial airway opening techniques, such as the head-tilt chin-lift or jaw-thrust maneuver, to facilitate effective oxygenation and ventilation in settings like cardiac arrest or sedation-related airway compromise.^[15] Contraindications include conscious or semiconscious patients with an intact gag reflex, as well as those with known oral trauma, loose teeth, or structural abnormalities that could exacerbate injury.^[53] Insertion begins with confirming patient unconsciousness and absence of gag reflex, followed by selecting the correct size via the mouth-to-earlobe measurement.^[15] The OPA is lubricated and initially positioned upside down (tip toward the roof of the mouth) to glide over the tongue without pushing it posteriorly; it is then advanced while rotating 180 degrees to align the curve with the pharyngeal anatomy, ensuring the flange seats against the teeth or lips.^[53] Alternative techniques include using a tongue depressor to depress the tongue or inserting laterally and rotating 90 degrees, but the standard rotational method minimizes soft tissue trauma.^[15] Post-insertion, airway patency is verified by unobstructed airflow and absence of gurgling sounds during ventilation; the device may be secured with tape if prolonged use is anticipated.^[54] Potential complications include induction of vomiting and aspiration if a gag reflex is present, as well as trauma to teeth, lips, or oropharyngeal structures from improper sizing or forceful insertion.^[15] An oversized OPA may cause laryngospasm or epiglottis displacement, while an undersized one risks inadequate tongue displacement and persistent obstruction.^[53] These risks underscore the need for trained personnel and contraindication in patients with facial or oral injuries. Evidence supports the efficacy of OPAs in enhancing BVM ventilation during resuscitation; a retrospective study of in-hospital cardiac arrests found that BVM with airway adjuncts like OPAs improved neurological outcomes compared to BVM alone (odds ratio 3.52, 95% CI 1.07-11.5).^[55] American Heart Association guidelines endorse OPAs for unconscious patients without gag reflex to aid ventilation, noting their role in preventing tongue-related obstruction, though specific manikin-based quantification of tidal volume gains varies across studies and is generally reported as clinically significant improvements in airflow delivery.^[54]

Nasopharyngeal Devices

Nasopharyngeal airways (NPAs), also known as nasal trumpets, are soft, flexible, trumpet-shaped tubes constructed from plastic or rubber that serve as adjuncts to maintain upper airway patency by displacing the tongue and soft palate from the posterior pharynx.^[56] These devices are sized in French (Fr) units based on outer diameter, with adult sizes typically ranging from 24 to 32 Fr, corresponding to internal diameters of approximately 6 to 8 mm, and lengths of 100 to 120 mm to reach from the nostril to the pharynx.^[57] Prior to insertion, the NPA must be lubricated with a water-soluble gel, often containing lidocaine, to reduce mucosal trauma.^[58] Indications for NPA use include patients who are unconscious or semi-conscious but retain an intact gag reflex, where the device helps prevent airway obstruction from the tongue or soft tissues without eliciting vomiting.^[56] NPAs are particularly preferred over oropharyngeal airways in cases of facial or oral trauma, trismus (limited mouth opening), or when oral access is restricted, such as in angioedema or macroglossia, as they provide a nasal route for airway support.^[58] They are commonly employed as a temporizing measure in prehospital or tactical settings to facilitate bag-valve-mask ventilation prior to advanced interventions like intubation.^[59] The insertion technique begins with selecting the nostril that allows the greatest airflow, confirmed by occlusion testing, to ensure patency.^[58] The lubricated NPA is then advanced bevel-side down along the nasal floor at a 45-degree angle toward the occiput, applying gentle rotational pressure if resistance is encountered, until the flange rests at the nostril entrance; the appropriate depth is estimated as the distance from the tip of the nose to the angle of the jaw or tragus of the ear.^[56] Post-insertion, the device should be secured and monitored for effectiveness in improving airflow, with removal if it causes distress or obstruction.^[59] Complications of NPA placement primarily include epistaxis, occurring in approximately 10-20% of cases due to mucosal irritation or vessel trauma, with higher risk in patients on anticoagulants or with friable nasal tissues.^[60] Other risks encompass turbinate fracture, sinusitis, and vomiting in more conscious patients, though gagging is minimal compared to oral devices.^[56] NPAs are contraindicated in suspected basilar skull fractures, severe coagulopathy, or active nasal bleeding to avoid intracranial insertion or exacerbation of hemorrhage.^[58] Evidence supports NPAs as well-tolerated adjuncts, with studies indicating superior patient acceptance over oropharyngeal airways in semi-conscious individuals due to reduced gagging, and their routine use in prehospital manual ventilation linked to improved oxygenation and neurologic outcomes (odds ratio 3.52).^[56]^[59] The National Association of Emergency Medical Services Physicians (NAEMSP) endorses NPAs in tactical and prehospital protocols for displacing obstructing tissues during airway management, emphasizing proper sizing and assessment to optimize efficacy.^[59]

References

[1]
Airway Management - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 19, 2025 · Airway management ensures an open passage for airflow between the lungs and the environment, which is essential for adequate oxygenation and ventilation.
[2]
Airway Management: What Is It, When It Is Required, and More
Airway management is the assessment, planning, and series of medical procedures required to maintain or restore an individual's ventilation, or breathing.
[3]
Airway Establishment and Control - Critical Care Medicine
Airway management includes clearing the upper airway, maintaining an open passage, and methods like head positioning, abdominal thrusts, and back blows.
[4]
Airway management - Knowledge @ AMBOSS
May 15, 2025 · Airway management is the practice of evaluating, planning, and using a wide array of medical procedures and devices for the purpose of maintaining or restoring ...Missing: authoritative sources
[5]
Part 7: Adult Basic Life Support
The chapter addresses the important elements of adult basic life support including initial recognition of cardiac arrest, activation of emergency response, ...
[6]
Guideline 4 – Airway
Airway Management. Airway management is required to provide an open airway when the person: is unconscious; has an obstructed airway; needs rescue breathing ...
[7]
History of CPR | American Heart Association CPR & First Aid
American physician and respiratory researcher Dr. James Elam becomes the first person to prove that expired air is sufficient to maintain adequate oxygenation.
[8]
Adult & Child Choking: Symptoms and First Aid | Red Cross
### Summary of Key Indications for Basic Airway Management
[9]
Cerebral Hypoxia - BrainFacts
Brain cells are extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation and can begin to die within five minutes after oxygen supply has been cut off. When hypoxia lasts for ...
[10]
Part 7: Adult Basic Life Support: 2025 American Heart Association ...
Oct 22, 2025 · The chapter addresses the important elements of adult basic life support including initial recognition of cardiac arrest, activation of ...
[11]
https://www.brainfacts.org/diseases-and-disorders/neurological-disorders-az/diseases-a-to-z-from-ninds/cerebral-hypoxia
[12]
Foreign Body Airway Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 17, 2024 · Foreign-body airway obstruction (FBAO) is the 4th leading cause of unintentional death and a leading cause of accidental deaths in children ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Etiology · Treatment / Management
[13]
Oropharyngeal Airway - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
In this position, the tongue may prevent an individual from breathing. This sometimes happens when a person becomes unconscious because the muscles in the jaw ...
[14]
The effects of bystander interventions for foreign body airway ...
Apr 4, 2024 · The overall success rate of bystander interventions was 48.4% (n = 93/192). About half (48.2%, n = 196/407) survived to 1-month and 23.8% ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
Anatomy, Airway - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Sep 15, 2025 · The larynx, situated between the pharynx and trachea, consists of 9 cartilages: 3 unpaired (thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis) and 3 paired ( ...Missing: tongue | Show results with:tongue
[16]
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Larynx - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The superior-most region of the larynx is the epiglottis, which is attached to the hyoid bone connected to the inferior part of the pharynx. The inferior aspect ...
[17]
Physiology, Airflow Resistance - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Normal resistance is about 1cm HO/L/sec, mild obstructive disease is around 5cm HO/L/sec, and severe obstructive disease will have airway resistance of 10+ ...Missing: cmH2O/ | Show results with:cmH2O/
[18]
Neuroanatomical Basis of State-Dependent Activity of Upper Airway ...
Sep 10, 2018 · The major cause of OSA is the sleep-related reduction of upper airway muscle tone that leads to airway obstructions in individuals with ...
[19]
Airway Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Upper airway obstruction may be acute or chronic. Upper airway obstruction may also be partial or complete, with complete obstruction indicating a total ...
[20]
Airway Obstruction • LITFL Medical Blog
Jul 1, 2024 · Airway obstruction can be incomplete or complete. Complete obstruction of the upper airway occurs when there is inability to talk, cough or ...
[21]
Airway Obstruction: Causes, Signs & Treatment - Cleveland Clinic
Aug 15, 2025 · Airway obstruction is blockage of airflow to your lungs. It makes it hard to breathe, speak and swallow.
[22]
Foreign Bodies of the Airway - Medscape Reference
Aug 7, 2023 · Despite improvements in medical care and public awareness, approximately 3000 deaths occur each year from foreign body aspiration, with most ...
[23]
Foreign Body Aspiration: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Mar 5, 2024 · Children, especially those aged 1-3 years, are at risk for foreign body aspiration because of their tendency to put everything in their mouths ...
[24]
Basic airway management in adults - UpToDate
Jun 11, 2024 · These include prolapse of the tongue into the posterior pharynx and loss of muscular tone in the soft palate [4,5].
[25]
Outpatient Emergencies: Anaphylaxis - PMC - NIH
Upper airway edema, 50–60. Flush, 45–55. Dyspnea, wheeze, 45–50. Dizziness ... airway measures improves survival rates of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.
[26]
PulmCrit - Optimizing the respiratory drive to avoid failure - EMCrit
Dec 4, 2017 · The combination of obesity plus airflow obstruction causes a dramatic increase in the work of breathing, which is the dominant physiologic ...
[27]
Hypoxia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Mar 4, 2024 · Hypoxia occurs when oxygen is insufficient at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis, stemming from various causes such as hypoventilation.
[28]
Upper Airway Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Upper airway obstruction can be partial or complete. A partial obstruction can be chronic or acute. Therefore, it is crucial to take a good history and perform ...
[29]
Chapter 10 Respiratory Assessment - Nursing Skills - NCBI Bookshelf
Pursed-lip breathing, nasal flaring, audible breathing, intercostal retractions, anxiety, and use of accessory muscles are signs of respiratory difficulty.Missing: tachycardia | Show results with:tachycardia
[30]
Vital Sign Assessment - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 1, 2023 · It appears in cardiopulmonary arrests, airway obstructions, the overdose of narcotics, and benzodiazepines. The depth of breathing is also a ...
[31]
SAMPLE: Secondary Assessment Acronym | Osmosis
Apr 11, 2025 · The “S” refers to signs and symptoms; the “A” refers to allergies; “M” refers to medications the patient takes; “P” stands for past medical ...
[32]
Trauma Assessment - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Once the airway is secured or maintained by the patient, breathing and ventilation should be assessed. This involves visual inspection of the patient's chest, ...
[33]
Food Allergies Clinical Presentation: History and Physical ...
May 13, 2024 · Signs and symptoms · Oropharyngeal pruritus · Angioedema (eg, laryngeal edema) · Stridor · Dysphonia · Cough · Dyspnea · Wheezing · Nausea.
[34]
Airway Assessment - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 4, 2023 · A thorough but brief airway assessment is essential for patients requiring advanced airway management.
[35]
Airway management in trauma - PMC - NIH
Listen: Listen to patient attempting to talk but failing to do so, abnormal breath sounds associated with snoring, gurgling, stridor and crackles. Asymmetrical ...
[36]
Airway management in cervical spine injury - PMC - PubMed Central
Patients with known or suspected cervical spine injury may require emergent intubation for airway protection and ventilatory support or elective intubation for ...
[37]
Part 13: Pediatric Basic Life Support | Circulation
Nov 2, 2010 · Foreign-Body Airway Obstruction (Choking) Sudden onset of respiratory distress in the absence of fever or other respiratory symptoms (eg, ...Missing: eating | Show results with:eating
[38]
Choking: First aid - Mayo Clinic
If the person becomes unconscious, start standard cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with chest compressions and rescue breaths. To clear the airway of an ...
[39]
Heimlich maneuver on self Information | Mount Sinai - New York
Researchers in one small study found that self-administered thrusts over the back of a chair generated greater pressures than self-administered conventional ...
[40]
Choking on a foreign body: a physiological study of the ... - Thorax
In 12 supine cadavers, mean airway pressure was 40.8 cm H2O for chest and 26.4 cm H2O for abdominal thrusts.5 In six anaesthetised and intubated healthy adult ...
[41]
Heimlich Maneuver - Cleveland Clinic
Healthcare providers don't recommend the Heimlich maneuver for use on infants 12 months or younger. Instead, you should use backslaps (back blows) on babies. To ...
[42]
Abdominal Thrust Maneuver - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The abdominal thrust maneuver, also known as the Heimlich maneuver, is used to treat upper airway obstructions caused by foreign bodies.
[43]
https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/special-topic/heimlich-maneuver-on-self
[44]
Evaluation of basic life support interventions for foreign body airway ...
May 31, 2024 · Conclusions: Back blows are associated with improved outcomes compared to abdominal thrusts and chest compressions. These data can inform ...
[45]
Part 3: Adult Basic and Advanced Life Support: 2020 American ...
Oct 21, 2020 · If a spinal injury is suspected or cannot be ruled out, providers should open the airway by using a jaw thrust instead of head tilt–chin lift. 2 ...
[46]
How To Do Head Tilt–Chin Lift and Jaw-Thrust Maneuvers
Tilt the patient's head back by pushing down on the forehead. · Place the tips of your second and third fingers under the chin and pull up on the mandible (not ...
[47]
How To Do Head Tilt–Chin Lift and Jaw-Thrust Maneuvers
Tilt the patient's head back by pushing down on the forehead. · Place the tips of your second and third fingers under the chin and pull up on the mandible (not ...
[48]
How to Perform the Head Tilt-Chin Lift | Step-by-Step Guide
One of the most frequent errors is over-extending the neck, which can close the airway instead of opening it. This is particularly dangerous in children and ...
[49]
How to Perform the Head Tilt Chin Lift Maneuver
Oct 6, 2025 · The head tilt–chin lift is a quick and effective way to open the airway of an unconscious person when there is no suspected neck or spinal ...
[50]
How To Insert an Oropharyngeal Airway - Critical Care Medicine
Use an oropharyngeal airway only if the patient is unconscious or minimally responsive because it may stimulate gagging, which poses a risk of aspiration.Missing: evidence AHA
[51]
Part 7.1: Adjuncts for Airway Control and Ventilation | Circulation
Nov 28, 2005 · Oropharyngeal airways should be reserved for use in unconscious (unresponsive) patients with no cough or gag reflex and should be inserted only ...
[52]
Bag-valve-mask ventilation with airway adjuncts improves ... - PubMed
Bag-valve-mask ventilation with airway adjuncts improved the neurological outcome (OR 3.52, 95%CI 1.07, 11.5).
[53]
Nasopharyngeal Airway - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jan 30, 2024 · Basic airway management in children and adults includes assessing and managing airway patency, oxygen delivery, and ventilation.
[54]
Nasopharyngeal airway - LITFL
Oct 6, 2024 · Nasopharyngeal airway (NPA) ... diameter in mm (range from 2–9 mm in half sizes); commonly 6–7 mm in an adult female and 7–8 mm for an adult male.<|separator|>
[55]
How To Insert a Nasopharyngeal Airway - Critical Care Medicine
Indications for Nasopharyngeal Airway ... Nasopharyngeal airways are better tolerated and are preferred for patients who are obtunded with intact gag reflexes.Missing: evidence NAEMSP
[56]
Prehospital Manual Ventilation: An NAEMSP Position Statement and ...
Jan 10, 2022 · Bag-valve-mask ventilation with airway adjuncts improves neurological outcomes of in-hospital cardiac arrest. Intern Med. 2012;51(12):1517 ...
[57]
PR07: Nasopharyngeal Airway - BCEHS Handbook
Epistaxis is the most common complication of nasopharyngeal airway placement. This risk is higher in individuals who are taking anticoagulant medications ...Missing: evidence NAEMSP