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Advanced airway management

Advanced airway management encompasses a range of invasive techniques employed by trained healthcare professionals to secure and maintain a patent airway in patients unable to protect or maintain it independently, particularly in emergency, perioperative, and intensive care contexts. These methods surpass basic interventions such as manual maneuvers or simple adjuncts, incorporating procedures like endotracheal intubation, supraglottic airway device placement, and surgical airways to ensure effective oxygenation and ventilation.^[1] The primary goal of advanced airway management is to prevent life-threatening complications including hypoxemia, hypercapnia, aspiration, and respiratory arrest, especially in scenarios involving respiratory failure, trauma, cardiac arrest, or altered consciousness. Indications typically include a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8 or below, high aspiration risk, or the need for prolonged mechanical ventilation, with contraindications encompassing severe facial trauma or intact gag reflexes that could provoke vomiting during certain procedures.^[1]^[2] Key techniques include rapid sequence intubation using direct or video laryngoscopy to insert an endotracheal tube, confirmed via end-tidal capnography, chest auscultation, and imaging; supraglottic devices such as the laryngeal mask airway for quicker, less invasive control; and emergent surgical options like cricothyrotomy in "cannot intubate, cannot ventilate" situations. Recent innovations, including videolaryngoscopes for enhanced glottic visualization and AI-driven prediction of difficult airways with up to 80.5% accuracy, have improved success rates and reduced complications, as outlined in updated guidelines from bodies like the American Society of Anesthesiologists (2022) and the Difficult Airway Society (2025).^[1]^[3]^[4]

Introduction and Indications

Definition and Principles

Advanced airway management encompasses invasive or semi-invasive techniques designed to secure and protect the airway in patients experiencing inadequate ventilation or oxygenation, extending beyond basic maneuvers such as head-tilt/chin-lift or jaw thrust that rely solely on manual positioning and simple adjuncts.^[1] These methods typically involve specialized equipment and procedures, including endotracheal intubation and supraglottic devices, to establish a definitive airway when basic interventions fail to maintain patency or sufficient gas exchange.^[5] Core principles of advanced airway management prioritize maintaining oxygenation through preoxygenation and continuous oxygen delivery, preventing aspiration of gastric or oral contents via techniques like rapid sequence intubation and cricoid pressure, ensuring compatibility with positive pressure ventilation to facilitate mechanical support, and minimizing trauma to airway structures by limiting intubation attempts and using appropriate visualization tools.^[1] These principles aim to balance rapid airway control with the preservation of anatomical integrity, particularly in high-risk scenarios where delays can lead to hypoxia or barotrauma.^[5] The historical evolution of advanced airway management traces back to 19th-century innovations in basic oropharyngeal adjuncts, such as early rubber tubes for oral separation during anesthesia, progressing to pivotal milestones like William Macewen's 1878 description of orotracheal intubation using a metal tube to secure the airway under general anesthesia.^[6] By the early 20th century, endotracheal tubes evolved from rudimentary designs—such as rubber prototypes in the 1920s—to cuffed versions in the 1930s, enabling safer positive pressure ventilation and reducing aspiration risks during surgery.^[7] Physiological goals in advanced airway management focus on achieving a patent airway to support optimal tidal volume delivery, typically 6-8 mL/kg of ideal body weight during mechanical ventilation to prevent ventilator-induced lung injury, alongside end-tidal CO2 monitoring targets of 35-45 mmHg to confirm adequate ventilation and detect complications like tube displacement.^[8]^[9]

Clinical Indications

Advanced airway management is indicated in scenarios where basic airway support is insufficient to maintain adequate oxygenation, ventilation, or airway patency, particularly in life-threatening conditions. Absolute indications include apnea, where spontaneous breathing ceases entirely; severe hypoxemia, defined as oxygen saturation (SpO2) below 90% despite maximal supplemental oxygen; hypercapnia with respiratory acidosis, typically PaCO2 greater than 50 mmHg and pH less than 7.35; and impending airway obstruction, such as in anaphylaxis with angioedema or thermal burns involving the face and neck that risk progressive edema.^[1]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13] Relative indications encompass situations anticipating clinical deterioration or requiring controlled conditions, including trauma patients with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores of 8 or lower, where airway protection is compromised; procedural requirements for general anesthesia in surgery; and protective intubation in combative or obtunded patients at high risk of aspiration, such as those with vomiting or gastrointestinal bleeding.^[1]^[14] In these cases, advanced techniques escalate from initial pharyngeal adjuncts like oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airways if basic measures fail to stabilize the patient.^[1] A structured risk-benefit assessment is essential prior to intervention, weighing the potential for complications like hypoxia during the procedure against benefits in preventing further deterioration. Contraindications generally include intact airway reflexes in non-emergent settings, where less invasive options suffice, or severe anatomical distortion from trauma that precludes standard intubation without immediate surgical alternatives.^[1] Guidelines emphasize early intervention to mitigate risks, such as in sepsis or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), where delayed airway control can exacerbate multi-organ failure. The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) 2022 practice guidelines for difficult airway management underscore proactive strategies in high-risk patients, including those with sepsis or ARDS, to prioritize oxygenation and reduce procedural delays. Subsequent guidelines, such as the Difficult Airway Society 2025 guidelines, continue to emphasize these proactive strategies.^[15]^[4]

Pharyngeal Airway Adjuncts

Oropharyngeal Airway

The oropharyngeal airway, also known as the Guedel airway, is a simple adjunct device consisting of a curved, semi-rigid plastic tube with a flange at one end, a tapered tip at the other, a central channel for airflow and suctioning, and a reinforced bite block section. It functions by displacing the tongue anteriorly to prevent it from falling against the posterior pharyngeal wall, thereby maintaining upper airway patency in patients at risk of obstruction. The device is available in sizes ranging from 000 to 6, corresponding to lengths of approximately 40 to 110 mm, with adult sizes typically measuring 80 to 100 mm. Proper sizing is achieved by placing the airway alongside the patient's face, with the distal tip aligned to the angle of the mandible and the flange at the corner of the mouth.^[16]^[17] For pediatric patients, an estimated length in centimeters can be calculated using the formula (age in years / 2) + 10, though anatomical measurement remains the primary method to ensure fit. Insertion requires the patient to be positioned in the sniffing posture (neck flexed and head extended, unless contraindicated by cervical spine injury), with the mouth opened using a tongue depressor or cross-finger technique. The airway is advanced with its tip pointed toward the roof of the mouth and then rotated 180 degrees counterclockwise as it passes the teeth, or alternatively, the tongue is displaced laterally with a tongue blade while inserting the tip directly downward; this avoids posterior tongue displacement, which could stimulate gagging or vomiting. The flange should rest against the lips when correctly placed, confirming adequate depth without impinging on the epiglottis.^[18]^[19]^[16] Indications for oropharyngeal airway use are limited to unconscious patients lacking a gag reflex, where it helps relieve soft tissue obstruction during bag-valve-mask ventilation, anesthesia induction, or resuscitation efforts such as cardiac arrest. It is particularly valuable in scenarios involving tongue prolapse, facilitating oxygenation and ventilation without requiring advanced skills. Contraindications include the presence of an intact gag reflex, which risks emesis and aspiration, as well as oral trauma, trismus limiting mouth opening, or pathologies at the base of the tongue that could exacerbate injury. Unlike nasopharyngeal airways, which may be suitable for semi-conscious patients with patent nasal passages, the oropharyngeal route is reserved for fully apneic or deeply obtunded individuals.^[16]^[19]^[17]

Nasopharyngeal Airway

The nasopharyngeal airway (NPA), also known as a nasal trumpet, is a soft, flexible hollow tube made of plastic or rubber, featuring a beveled distal end for smooth insertion and a proximal flange to secure it at the nostril and prevent displacement into the airway. It extends from the nostril through the nasopharynx to the posterior pharynx, displacing the tongue and soft palate to maintain patency in cases of partial obstruction. For adults, NPAs are available in sizes ranging from 12 to 34 French (Fr), corresponding to internal diameters of 4 to 11 mm, with appropriate length determined by measuring the distance from the nostril to the earlobe or tragus.^[20]^[21] Insertion begins with lubrication of the device to minimize mucosal trauma, followed by selection of the most patent nostril—typically the right, as it is often larger and straighter. The beveled tip is oriented with the concave side downward and advanced gently along the nasal floor in a posterior direction toward the ipsilateral ear, following the natural curvature to avoid contacting the turbinates; if resistance is met, slight rotation or withdrawal and reattempt may be necessary. Proper placement is confirmed by the flange resting snugly at the nostril and the absence of gagging or severe discomfort, with the distal tip ideally positioned just above the epiglottis.^[20]^[22] The NPA is primarily indicated for managing mild upper airway obstruction due to tongue fallback in patients who are sedated, semi-conscious, or experiencing seizures while maintaining spontaneous respirations, as it provides a conduit for airflow without requiring full unconsciousness. It serves as an effective temporizing measure prior to advanced interventions like endotracheal intubation, particularly in scenarios where oral access is limited. Additionally, it may be used adjunctively with bag-valve-mask ventilation to enhance seal and efficacy in non-intubated patients.^[20]^[23] Compared to the oropharyngeal airway, the NPA offers the advantage of better tolerance in alert or partially conscious patients, as it bypasses the oropharynx and avoids triggering the gag reflex, making it suitable for those with intact airway protective mechanisms or conditions like trismus. However, risks include epistaxis from nasal mucosal injury, occurring in approximately 5-10% of insertions, which can be mitigated by proper lubrication and technique.^[20]^[24] In pediatric patients, NPA sizing focuses on internal diameter, estimated by the formula: diameter (mm) ≈ (age in years / 4) + 4, ensuring an appropriate fit to avoid excessive pressure or inadequate patency; length is similarly measured from nostril to earlobe, with smaller sizes (e.g., 3-7 mm) used for infants and children to match anatomical proportions.^[25]

Extraglottic Airway Devices

Supraglottic Devices

Supraglottic devices are airway management tools positioned above the glottis to facilitate ventilation without entering the trachea, with the laryngeal mask airway (LMA) serving as the prototypical example. Developed by Archie Brain in 1983 and first described in clinical trials in 1985, the LMA consists of an inflatable cuff attached to a curved airway tube that forms a low-pressure seal around the laryngeal inlet when properly positioned in the hypopharynx.^[26] Available in sizes 1 through 6 to accommodate pediatric and adult patients, the device is inflated to a cuff pressure of 20-40 cmH₂O to achieve an oropharyngeal leak pressure typically ranging from 20-30 cmH₂O, enabling effective positive pressure ventilation while minimizing mucosal trauma.^[27] Insertion of the classic LMA involves passing the deflated cuff blindly over the tongue into the hypopharynx, followed by inflation of the cuff to secure the seal against the periglottic structures, a technique that requires minimal patient manipulation and can be performed by trained non-anesthesiologists.^[27] Second-generation variants enhance functionality; for instance, the LMA ProSeal incorporates a dedicated gastric drain tube running parallel to the airway channel, allowing aspiration of gastric contents and separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts to reduce regurgitation risk during positive pressure ventilation.^[28] Similarly, the i-gel employs a non-inflatable, thermoplastic elastomer cuff molded to mimic the anatomy of the pharynx, larynx, and perilaryngeal tissues, providing a compression-free seal without the need for cuff inflation and simplifying insertion in dynamic scenarios.^[29] These devices find primary applications in elective general anesthesia for short- to intermediate-duration procedures, as a rescue option following failed tracheal intubation attempts, and for short-term ventilation in emergency settings such as cardiac arrest or trauma resuscitation.^[30] In routine anesthesia, supraglottic devices support spontaneous or controlled ventilation with low complication rates, while in emergencies, they enable rapid airway establishment by prehospital providers. A 2021 network meta-analysis of randomized trials reported first-attempt insertion success rates exceeding 95% for LMAs and similar devices in patients with non-difficult airways, underscoring their reliability in optimized conditions.^[31] Despite their advantages, supraglottic devices have limitations, including suboptimal sealing during high-pressure ventilation exceeding 20 cmH₂O, which can lead to inadequate tidal volumes or barotrauma, and an inherent risk of gastric insufflation from positive pressure, potentially complicating abdominal distension in non-fasted patients.^[32] These constraints position supraglottic devices as a Plan B intervention in difficult airway algorithms, bridging to more invasive techniques when initial ventilation fails.^[33]

Esophageal and Dual-Lumen Devices

Esophageal and dual-lumen devices are extraglottic airways designed for blind insertion, featuring dual lumens to facilitate ventilation regardless of whether the distal end enters the trachea or esophagus. These devices include the Combitube, introduced in 1987 by Frass et al. as an advancement over earlier esophageal obturators, and the King Laryngeal Tube (King LT), a disposable alternative approved for use in 2003. Both consist of a dual-tube structure with proximal and distal inflatable cuffs and a pharyngeal balloon to seal the oropharynx and permit ventilation through opposing pathways if placement is esophageal.^[34]^[35] The mechanism relies on blind nasoor orotracheal insertion, where the longer esophageal lumen (typically marked in blue for the Combitube) directs the distal tip into the esophagus in most cases, while the shorter tracheal lumen aligns with the glottis for potential tracheal entry. If esophageal placement occurs, ventilation proceeds through the tracheal lumen's pharyngeal perforations, bypassing the esophagus, with the distal cuff sealing it to prevent gastric insufflation. The Combitube is available in sizes 37 Fr for small adults (under 5 feet tall) and 41 Fr for adults over 5 feet, while the King LT offers sizes from 0 (neonatal) to 5 (adult >5 feet 10 inches), all latex-free and single-use. A key feature is the ability to perform a blind exchange to an endotracheal tube using a dedicated introducer, minimizing disruption in unstable patients.^[36]^[37] These devices are primarily used in prehospital emergencies, cardiac arrest scenarios, and cases of difficult airway anatomy where visualization techniques fail, serving as reliable backups to supraglottic devices when ventilation is inadequate. They are particularly valued in out-of-hospital settings for rapid deployment by emergency medical technicians without advanced intubation training, with insertion success rates exceeding 90% in multiple studies. Esophageal placement occurs in over 95% of blind insertions, with tracheal placement being rare.^[38]^[39]^[40] Placement confirmation involves auscultation for bilateral breath sounds, observation of chest rise, and end-tidal capnography to verify ventilation, supplemented by a self-inflating bulb test on the esophageal lumen to detect air aspiration if tracheal. The Combitube's introduction in 1987 has been associated with improved oxygenation in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, with studies showing comparable arterial oxygen partial pressure (PaO2) to endotracheal intubation (71.3 mmHg vs. 70.2 mmHg).^[41]^[36] The King LT similarly demonstrates high first-pass success (96.5%) in meta-analyses, enhancing outcomes in resource-limited environments.^[42]

Tracheal Intubation

Preparation and Conventional Techniques

Preparation for tracheal intubation begins with ensuring optimal patient oxygenation and hemodynamic stability to minimize risks during the procedure. Preoxygenation (peroxygenation) is performed for 3-4 minutes using a tight-fitting mask with 100% oxygen (FiO2 1.0) or ideally high-flow nasal oxygen (HFNO) at 50-70 L/min to denitrogenate the lungs, achieve end-tidal oxygen concentrations above 90%, and extend safe apnea time through apneic oxygenation, which is continued during the procedure.^[43] Intravenous access is established, and continuous monitoring includes pulse oximetry (SpO2), blood pressure, electrocardiogram (ECG), and capnography to track oxygenation, hemodynamics, and ventilation.^[44] Rapid sequence induction (RSI) is the standard approach for facilitating intubation in most clinical scenarios, involving the sequential administration of an induction agent followed by a neuromuscular blocker, as outlined in the 2025 Difficult Airway Society (DAS) guidelines.^[43] Common induction agents include etomidate at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg intravenously, which provides rapid onset without significant hemodynamic depression, or propofol at 1.5-2.5 mg/kg, adjusted based on patient hemodynamics and comorbidities.^[45]^[46] For paralysis, succinylcholine is typically dosed at 1-1.5 mg/kg intravenously, offering fast onset (30-60 seconds) and short duration (8-15 minutes).^[47] These medications are prepared in labeled syringes and administered promptly after preoxygenation to achieve unconsciousness and muscle relaxation within 45-60 seconds.^[48] Essential equipment for tracheal intubation includes a videolaryngoscope as the first-line device per 2025 DAS guidelines for enhanced glottic visualization and higher first-pass success rates, with an endotracheal tube (ETT) of 7.0-8.0 mm internal diameter for adults (typically 7.0-7.5 mm for females and 7.5-8.0 mm for males), a malleable stylet to shape the ETT, suction apparatus, a 10 mL syringe for cuff inflation, and adhesive tape for securing the tube.^[43]^[44]^[48] All devices must be checked for functionality, including light intensity on the laryngoscope and cuff integrity on the ETT, prior to use. Direct laryngoscopy may be used as an alternative when videolaryngoscopy is unavailable. The preferred technique aligns the oral, pharyngeal, and tracheal axes for optimal glottic visualization using videolaryngoscopy (see Advanced Visualization Techniques subsection), limiting attempts to a maximum of 3+1 (three by the primary operator plus one by a senior clinician) to minimize complications.^[43] If the glottic view is obscured using video, escalation to alternative methods may be considered. In routine cases, videolaryngoscopy achieves first-attempt success rates of over 90%, influenced by operator experience and patient anatomy, though rates can vary based on clinical setting.^[49]

Advanced Visualization Techniques

Advanced visualization techniques in airway management employ optical technologies to enhance glottic exposure during tracheal intubation, surpassing the limitations of direct laryngoscopy by providing indirect, magnified views of the laryngeal inlet. These methods are particularly valuable in scenarios with anatomical challenges, such as limited mouth opening or cervical spine immobility, where traditional line-of-sight visualization may fail. By integrating cameras, fiberoptics, or hybrid systems, clinicians achieve superior anatomical orientation, reducing intubation attempts and complications. Videolaryngoscopy is now recommended as the first-line technique for tracheal intubation by the 2025 DAS guidelines.^[43]^[50] Video laryngoscopy represents a cornerstone of these techniques, utilizing devices equipped with hyperangulated blades and integrated cameras that display real-time images on an external screen. Prominent examples include the GlideScope, which features a 60-degree angled blade for improved alignment with the glottic axis, and the McGrath series, offering a portable, adjustable eyepiece or monitor for ergonomic viewing. These systems consistently yield better glottic visualization, with Cormack-Lehane grade 1 views achieved in approximately 95% of cases compared to 70% with direct laryngoscopy, thereby facilitating easier tube passage without excessive force.^[51]^[52] Fiberoptic bronchoscopy provides a flexible alternative for precise navigation through complex airways, employing a slender endoscope—typically with an outer diameter of 3.6 mm for adults—that is advanced via the nasal or oral route to visualize and intubate the trachea. This technique is especially suited for anticipated difficult airways, where it can be performed awake with topical anesthesia or under sedation to maintain spontaneous ventilation and avoid complete airway collapse. The bronchoscope's steerable tip allows threading of the endotracheal tube over the scope, minimizing trauma in patients with upper airway pathology.^[53]^[54] Hybrid devices, such as the C-MAC videolaryngoscope, bridge direct and indirect approaches by incorporating standard Macintosh-style blades with embedded cameras, enabling clinicians to switch seamlessly between conventional laryngoscopy and video-assisted views. This versatility supports training and rescue intubations, as the familiar blade shape reduces the learning curve while the video feed enhances laryngeal exposure in up to 90% of challenging cases. The system's modular design, including reusable or disposable blades, further promotes its adoption in diverse clinical settings.^[55] Key procedural nuances optimize the efficacy of these visualization tools. Application of anti-fog solutions, such as warmed saline or commercial agents, to the lens prevents condensation obscuring the view, while positioning the screen at eye level ensures ergonomic alignment and reduces neck strain during prolonged attempts. In obese patients with a body mass index greater than 30, video laryngoscopy significantly boosts first-pass intubation success by approximately 25%, attributed to better elevation of anterior airway structures and reduced reliance on optimal patient positioning.^[56]^[57]^[58] Recent advancements as of 2024 incorporate artificial intelligence into video laryngoscopy systems for real-time vocal cord detection, using machine learning algorithms to analyze live feeds and highlight glottic landmarks with over 90% accuracy. These AI-assisted platforms, such as those developed for emergent intubations, automate larynx identification and provide predictive alerts for misalignment, enhancing decision-making in high-stakes environments. Such innovations play a supportive role in difficult airway prediction by integrating visual data with algorithmic risk assessment.^[59]^[60]

Alternative Intubation Methods

Alternative intubation methods encompass non-visualization techniques employed in specialized or rescue scenarios where standard laryngoscopy is infeasible, such as in cases of limited neck mobility, poor visualization due to anatomy, or emergency settings. These approaches rely on tactile, transillumination, or guidewire guidance to achieve tracheal tube placement, offering viable options in predicted difficult airways.^[61] The lightwand technique utilizes transillumination for blind intubation. A lighted stylet is inserted into the endotracheal tube, advanced orally or nasally toward the glottis, and directed by observing the glow of light through the anterior neck, which confirms tracheal entry when the illumination appears midline and inferior to the thyroid cartilage. This method is particularly advantageous in low-light environments or patients with cervical spine immobility, as it avoids neck extension and minimizes manipulation. Studies demonstrate high efficacy, with overall success rates exceeding 99% and mean intubation times around 9 seconds in elective settings, while reducing the number of attempts compared to direct laryngoscopy in simulated difficult airways. In intensive care unit contexts, lightwand intubation has been associated with shorter procedure durations and lower hemodynamic perturbations, supporting its role as an efficient alternative.^[62]^[61]^[63]^[64] Retrograde intubation involves threading a flexible guidewire through a needle puncture in the cricothyroid membrane, advancing it superiorly into the oropharynx to rail the endotracheal tube over it for tracheal placement. This percutaneous approach facilitates intubation in anticipated difficult cases by bypassing glottic visualization, with the wire retrieved orally to guide the tube downward. Success rates approximate 80-90% in predicted difficult airways, outperforming direct laryngoscopy in scenarios with limited mouth opening or distorted anatomy, and it maintains high skill retention among practitioners. The technique requires minimal equipment—a needle, wire, and tube—and is effective even after failed conventional attempts.^[65]^[66]^[67] Digital intubation employs tactile guidance, where the practitioner inserts a gloved finger into the oropharynx to palpate and advance the endotracheal tube through the glottis blindly, relying on anatomical landmarks in the hypopharynx. It is reserved for deeply sedated or paralyzed patients to avoid biting risks, and is most suitable for edentulous adults or infants with soft, compliant tissues where visualization is obscured by blood or secretions. Success rates vary but reach up to 90% in rescue scenarios following failed laryngoscopy, though it demands operator familiarity to mitigate risks like trauma.^[68] To support oxygenation during such intubation attempts, a needle-catheter can be placed through the cricothyroid membrane for transtracheal jet ventilation, delivering high-pressure oxygen bursts to maintain saturation in "cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate" situations. This facilitates safer progression of alternative intubation by providing temporary ventilation without interrupting the procedure. Success in oxygenation is reported at over 95% when initiated promptly, serving as a bridge to definitive airway control.^[69] These methods integrate into difficult airway algorithms as rescue options when primary techniques fail, enhancing overall management strategies in high-risk patients.^[65]

Confirmation of Placement

Confirmation of endotracheal tube (ETT) placement is essential immediately following intubation to ensure the tube is positioned in the trachea rather than the esophagus, thereby preventing hypoxia and other complications. The primary method for verification is end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) detection using waveform capnography, which displays a characteristic rectangular waveform with a plateau phase during expiration, confirming tracheal placement when a persistent plateau is observed with each ventilation cycle.^[70] This technique is recommended by major guidelines due to its high sensitivity and specificity, with studies demonstrating 100% accuracy in distinguishing tracheal from esophageal intubation in controlled settings. The 2025 DAS guidelines recommend a two-point confirmation including waveform capnography and direct visualization of tube passage through the cords.^[43]^[71] Quantitative capnography provides additional confirmation, where an initial ETCO2 value of 30-40 mmHg is typical for proper tracheal placement, whereas esophageal intubation shows an initial low reading (often <10 mmHg) that rapidly drops to near zero after a few breaths due to depleted gastric CO2.^[72] For definitive confirmation, a sustained ETCO2 plateau greater than 10 mmHg over at least six consecutive breaths indicates reliable tracheal positioning.^[73] Secondary clinical methods include observing symmetric bilateral chest rise with ventilation, which suggests adequate lung inflation, and auscultation to confirm equal breath sounds over both lung fields while auscultating the epigastrium for absence of sounds, indicating no gastric insufflation.^[74] Chest radiography serves as a definitive imaging adjunct, verifying optimal ETT tip position 3-5 cm above the carina to avoid right mainstem bronchus intubation.^[75] Point-of-care ultrasound offers a rapid, non-invasive alternative, detecting bilateral lung sliding signs or comet-tail artifacts indicative of pleural movement with ventilation.^[76] In low-output states such as cardiac arrest, capnography may yield false negatives due to reduced pulmonary blood flow and minimal CO2 production, necessitating prioritization of clinical signs like chest rise and auscultation over ETCO2 alone.^[77] Adapted confirmation checks, such as capnography and auscultation, apply to supraglottic devices but focus on detecting ventilation without requiring tracheal specificity.^[74]

Surgical Airway Access

Cricothyrotomy

Cricothyrotomy is an emergency surgical procedure to establish an airway by accessing the cricothyroid membrane when noninvasive or less invasive methods fail, serving as a critical intervention in the "cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate" (CICO) scenario.^[78] It is indicated after failed attempts at endotracheal intubation and extraglottic device ventilation, particularly in cases of upper airway obstruction due to trauma, hemorrhage, or swelling. It serves as a critical intervention in CICO scenarios to prevent irreversible hypoxic damage.^[78]^[43] This technique is preferred over tracheostomy in acute settings for adults and adolescents due to its relative speed and accessibility, though it requires immediate expertise to minimize risks like bleeding or infection.^[78] The procedure begins with identifying key anatomical landmarks: the thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple) superiorly and the cricoid cartilage inferiorly, with the cricothyroid membrane (CTM) located between them, approximately 9-10 mm in height and 2 cm below the laryngeal prominence in adults.^[78] A "laryngeal handshake" palpation technique—from the sternal notch upward—confirms the CTM position, especially useful in distorted anatomy.^[43] For the surgical approach, a vertical skin incision (2-3 cm) is made over the midline neck, followed by a horizontal incision through the CTM using a scalpel; a finger is then inserted to palpate the trachea, a bougie guide is advanced inferiorly, and a small cuffed endotracheal tube (typically 6.0 mm internal diameter) is railroaded over it into the trachea.^[78] Placement is confirmed via end-tidal capnography, auscultation, and chest rise, with the tube secured using ties.^[78] Two primary types exist: the open surgical cricothyrotomy, which involves direct incision and dilation for tube insertion, and the percutaneous method, often using a needle-based Seldinger technique with guidewire dilation.^[78] Surgical cricothyrotomy achieves higher success rates of 89-100% in trained hands, compared to 60-75% for percutaneous approaches, which are faster in some simulations (28 seconds vs. 123 seconds) but carry higher risks of tracheal injury or misplacement.^[79]^[80] Ultrasound guidance enhances accuracy for both, particularly in obese patients or those with anatomical variations, by improving CTM identification and reducing vascular injury risks.^[78] Post-procedure, the airway is monitored continuously with pulse oximetry and capnography, while bleeding is controlled with direct pressure or hemostatic agents; antibiotics may be administered prophylactically if contamination occurred.^[78] The cricothyrotomy tube is typically converted to a tracheostomy within 24-72 hours to avoid subglottic stenosis, though recent meta-analyses suggest routine conversion may not always be necessary if the airway stabilizes without complications.^[81]^[82] Training emphasizes simulation-based practice to achieve proficiency, with studies showing that mastery learning models enable clinicians to reach 95% success rates after targeted sessions, including ultrasound integration as highlighted in recent guidelines.^[83]^[84] The 2024 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) consensus, informing American Heart Association updates, underscores cricothyrotomy for trained rescuers in failed airway scenarios during cardiac arrest, promoting interprofessional simulations to reduce procedural errors.^[84]

Tracheostomy

A tracheostomy is a procedure that establishes a direct airway through an incision in the anterior trachea, typically below the cricoid cartilage, to facilitate prolonged mechanical ventilation or bypass upper airway obstruction in critically ill patients.^[85] Performed electively or semi-urgently in intensive care settings, it contrasts with emergent interventions by allowing planned access for long-term management, often after initial endotracheal intubation.^[86] This approach improves patient comfort, reduces sedation requirements, and supports weaning from ventilatory support compared to prolonged oral intubation.^[87] Indications for tracheostomy include failure to wean from mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory failure, anticipated prolonged ventilation exceeding 7 to 10 days, and upper airway obstruction from causes such as tumors or severe edema.^[86]^[85] In the ICU, it is commonly used for patients with neuromuscular disorders or post-surgical needs where extubation is unlikely within the short term, aiming to shorten overall ventilatory dependence.^[88] Tracheostomy may also serve as a conversion from cricothyrotomy when extending emergency access for longer-term use.^[85] The open surgical technique begins with a horizontal skin incision midway between the cricoid cartilage and sternal notch, followed by dissection through subcutaneous tissues to expose the trachea.^[85] A vertical or horizontal incision is made between the second and third tracheal rings to avoid the cricoid, with stay sutures placed for traction if needed; the tract is then dilated, and a cuffed tracheostomy tube—such as a Shiley model in adult sizes 6 to 8, featuring an inner cannula for cleaning—is inserted and secured.^[85]^[89] This method ensures stable placement but requires operating room resources. Percutaneous tracheostomy offers a bedside alternative using dilatational techniques, particularly the Ciaglia Blue Rhino kit, which involves Seldinger-guided needle insertion into the trachea between the second and third rings, serial dilation with a hydrophilic dilator, and tube placement.^[90] Bronchoscopic guidance is recommended to confirm positioning and avoid posterior tracheal wall injury, reducing procedural time and complications in intubated ICU patients.^[91] This approach is suitable for semi-urgent cases with anticipated ventilation beyond 7 days, often performed within 48 hours of indication.^[90] Complications of tracheostomy include early bleeding, occurring in approximately 2 to 5 percent of cases due to vascular disruption during incision or dilation.^[92] Late complications encompass tracheal stenosis, with rates of 1 to 20 percent depending on technique and follow-up duration, often resulting from granulation tissue or ischemia at the stoma site.^[93]^[94] Decannulation criteria focus on upper airway patency, assessed via the cuff leak test—deflating the cuff and measuring expiratory leak volume to detect edema or obstruction—along with adequate cough strength and secretion clearance.^[95] Evidence from 2024 randomized and cohort trials supports early tracheostomy (within 10 days of intubation) in ICU patients, demonstrating a reduction in ventilator dependence by 5 to 7 days and ICU length of stay by approximately 5.8 days compared to delayed placement.^[96] These benefits are attributed to facilitated weaning and lower sedation needs, though mortality impact remains neutral.^[96] Such findings underscore tracheostomy's role in optimizing resource use for prolonged airway management.^[97]

Difficult Airway Management

Airway Assessment and Predictors

Airway assessment involves evaluating anatomical and clinical factors to predict potential difficulties in intubation or ventilation before proceeding with advanced techniques. This pre-procedure evaluation helps clinicians anticipate challenges and prepare appropriate resources, reducing risks such as hypoxia or failed airway management. Common bedside assessments focus on visible and measurable features of the upper airway and neck.^[98] One widely used bedside tool is the Mallampati score, which classifies airway visibility based on the structures seen when the patient opens their mouth and protrudes the tongue. A score of class 3 (soft palate and base of uvula visible) or class 4 (only hard palate visible) is associated with increased risk of difficult intubation, with a sensitivity of 0.51 and specificity of 0.87 for prediction.^[99] Another key measure is the thyromental distance, the straight-line distance from the thyroid notch to the mentum (chin tip) with the head in neutral position; a distance less than 6 cm indicates a higher likelihood of difficult laryngoscopy due to reduced space for glottic visualization.^[100] Neck mobility assessment evaluates the ability to extend the atlanto-occipital joint; limitation to less than 35 degrees of extension impairs alignment of the oral, pharyngeal, and laryngeal axes, predicting intubation challenges, particularly in patients with cervical spine issues.^[98] The LEMON mnemonic provides a structured approach to bedside airway evaluation, particularly in emergency settings. It stands for Look externally (assess for facial trauma, edema, or masses that may distort anatomy); Evaluate the 3-3-2 rule (mouth opening accommodates three fingers, thyromental distance three fingers, and hyoid-to-mandible distance two fingers); Mallampati (as described above); Obstruction (check for signs like stridor, hoarseness, or dysphagia indicating upper airway narrowing); and Neck mobility (test extension and rotation for limitations). This mnemonic integrates multiple predictors to estimate overall risk, with the 3-3-2 rule approximating 5 cm, 6-7 cm, and 3-4 cm, respectively, for easier intubation.^[101] Advanced imaging-based predictors offer higher precision, especially in high-risk populations. Ultrasound measurement of pretracheal soft tissue thickness, such as the distance from skin to epiglottis greater than 2.8 cm, correlates with difficult airways in obese patients by indicating excess anterior neck fat impeding laryngoscope access.^[102] Similarly, computed tomography (CT)-derived hyomental distance ratio (hyomental distance in extension divided by neutral position) below 1.2 predicts difficult intubation, with sensitivity up to 88% and specificity 60%, performing better in non-obese individuals.^[103] The incidence of unanticipated difficult intubation varies by setting: approximately 1-3% in routine anesthesia cases, rising to 10-20% in emergency departments due to factors like trauma or hemodynamic instability.^[104]^[105] Recent advancements include 2023 machine learning models that integrate clinical parameters like Mallampati score and thyromental distance, achieving up to 85% prediction accuracy for difficult airways, outperforming traditional methods in validation studies; as of 2025, models such as Random Forest and Gradient Boosting have reached up to 90% accuracy when incorporating imaging data. These models briefly inform integration into broader difficult airway algorithms for proactive planning.^[106]^[107]^[108]

Algorithms and Strategies

Standardized algorithms for difficult airway management provide structured decision-making frameworks to enhance patient safety during anticipated or unanticipated challenges in securing the airway. These protocols emphasize pre-assessment, sequential escalation of techniques, and contingency planning to minimize hypoxia and complications. Widely adopted guidelines, such as those from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA), integrate evidence-based steps for initial evaluation and progressive interventions.^[15] The 2022 ASA Difficult Airway Algorithm begins with an initial assessment using a pre-intubation decision tool to evaluate risks including difficult mask ventilation, aspiration potential, apnea tolerance, and feasibility of emergency invasive access; this guides whether to proceed with awake or asleep techniques.^[109] For asleep management, Plan A involves the primary intubation technique, such as direct laryngoscopy or videolaryngoscopy, with a maximum of three attempts by the primary clinician followed by one backup attempt, prioritizing oxygenation throughout.^[15] If intubation fails but ventilation succeeds, Plan B employs a supraglottic airway device for oxygenation and potential as a conduit for intubation. Plan C addresses failed ventilation by limiting further attempts, considering reversal of anesthesia to awaken the patient, or transitioning to invasive options. Plan D activates emergency front-of-neck access, such as surgical cricothyrotomy, as a last resort.^[109] The Vortex Approach offers an alternative cognitive tool for emergency airway management, visualizing options as a funnel to facilitate iterative decision-making under stress. It promotes "best efforts" at non-surgical techniques—face mask ventilation, supraglottic airway insertion, and tracheal intubation—while maintaining apneic oxygenation, with up to three optimized attempts per technique before escalating.^[110] If all fail, it declares "Can't Intubate, Can't Oxygenate" (CICO) status and proceeds to front-of-neck rescue, such as scalpel cricothyrotomy, using a "ready-set-go" sequence for team coordination; successful oxygenation shifts focus to stabilization and planning. This iterative model, encompassing direct laryngoscopy, supraglottic devices, awake techniques, and surgical access, supports multidisciplinary use across settings.^[111] Key strategies within these algorithms include awake intubation for predicted difficult airways, utilizing topical anesthesia and sedation to maintain spontaneous breathing and airway patency.^[15] A "double setup" prepares parallel intravenous induction and surgical teams to enable rapid transition if non-surgical methods fail. Transtracheal jet ventilation serves as a temporary oxygenation bridge during CICO scenarios, delivering oxygen at 50 psi (or 30 psi in children) via a cricothyroid puncture to sustain saturation until definitive access.^[112] Extubation planning incorporates risk stratification to prevent airway obstruction, particularly in patients with prolonged intubation. The cuff leak test assesses for laryngeal edema by measuring expiratory volume with the endotracheal cuff deflated; a cuff leak volume exceeding 10% of tidal volume indicates low risk for post-extubation stridor and supports safe removal. Global variations in algorithms reflect regional emphases, such as the European Society of Anaesthesiology's guidelines, which mandate continuous capnography monitoring throughout airway management to confirm tube placement, detect ventilation failure, and guide decisions in real-time.^[113] In November 2025, the Difficult Airway Society (DAS) released updated guidelines emphasizing a linear algorithm for intubation (Plan A), supraglottic airway device ventilation (Plan B), facemask ventilation (Plan C), and front-of-neck access (Plan D), prioritizing efficacy and safety in all settings.^[4]

Special Considerations

Pediatric Airway Management

The pediatric airway differs significantly from the adult airway, necessitating specific adaptations in management to ensure safety and efficacy. Infants and young children have a relatively larger occiput, which can cause flexion of the head and airway obstruction when placed in the sniffing position; thus, a neutral head position is preferred to maintain airway patency. The epiglottis is omega-shaped and floppy, located more anteriorly and superiorly, complicating visualization during laryngoscopy.^[114] The cricoid cartilage represents the narrowest point of the airway, unlike the glottis in adults, which influences tube selection to prevent subglottic injury.^[115] Endotracheal tube sizing in children relies on age-based formulas to accommodate these anatomical features; for uncuffed tubes, the internal diameter is estimated as (age in years / 4) + 4 mm.^[116] Direct laryngoscopy typically employs a straight Miller blade to lift the epiglottis directly, providing better visualization in neonates and infants where the curved Macintosh blade may be less effective.^[117] Uncuffed endotracheal tubes are recommended for children under 8 years to minimize the risk of subglottic edema and mucosal ischemia from pressure at the cricoid ring.^[118] Supraglottic airway devices, such as laryngeal mask airways (LMAs), are available in scaled pediatric sizes (e.g., size 1 for neonates weighing 2-5 kg, size 1.5 for infants up to 10 kg, and sizes 2-2.5 for children 10-25 kg), offering a non-invasive alternative for ventilation when intubation is challenging.^[119] Children face heightened risks during airway management, particularly in cases of respiratory distress from conditions like croup or foreign body aspiration, where airway reactivity and smaller diameters can lead to rapid desaturation.^[114] Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in pediatrics often includes premedication with atropine at 0.02 mg/kg (minimum 0.1 mg, maximum 0.5 mg) to counteract vagally mediated bradycardia induced by laryngoscopy or succinylcholine.^[120] Predicting difficult airways in children involves adapted assessment tools, such as the POEM score, a pediatric modification of the adult LEMON mnemonic that incorporates elements like head position, epiglottis shape, and obstruction risk.^[121] The incidence of difficult intubation in pediatric populations is approximately twice that of adults, ranging from 1-6% depending on age and comorbidities, with neonates and infants at highest risk due to anatomical immaturity.^[122] Recent guidelines emphasize video laryngoscopy as the first-line approach for children under 2 years, as it improves glottic visualization and first-attempt success compared to direct laryngoscopy, thereby decreasing complications like hypoxia.^[123]^[124] As of 2025, guidelines continue to support these adaptations, with ongoing emphasis on videolaryngoscopy based on recent multicenter trials showing improved outcomes in neonates and infants.^[125]

Complications Across Techniques

Advanced airway management techniques, while essential for securing ventilation in critical scenarios, carry a range of immediate risks that can compromise patient safety. Hypoxia occurs in approximately 5-10% of intubation attempts, often due to prolonged apnea or inadequate preoxygenation, leading to potential organ ischemia if not rapidly addressed. Aspiration of gastric contents affects 2-5% of cases without endotracheal tube cuff inflation, exacerbating respiratory distress and increasing infection risk. Trauma is another concern, with dental or lip injuries reported in 1-3% of procedures and arytenoid dislocation in less than 1%, typically from forceful laryngoscopy or device manipulation.^[1] Technique-specific complications further highlight the variability across methods. Esophageal intubation, a critical error in endotracheal procedures, happens in about 3% of attempts and can be mitigated through confirmation methods like capnography to avoid undetected misplacement. Extraglottic devices, such as supraglottic airways, are associated with gastric distension in 10-20% of uses, potentially leading to regurgitation under positive pressure ventilation. Surgical interventions carry bleeding risks, with cricothyrotomy incurring hemorrhage in around 10% of cases and tracheostomy in about 5%, often requiring immediate hemostatic measures. Long-term complications underscore the need for vigilant post-procedure care. Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) develops in 20-40% of intubated patients, but elevating the head of the bed to 30-45 degrees can reduce incidence by up to 20% through minimized aspiration. Tracheal stenosis arises in 1-5% of patients following extubation, particularly after prolonged intubation or traumatic insertion, potentially necessitating reconstructive surgery. Mitigation strategies are crucial for reducing these adverse events. Simulation-based training has been shown to improve procedural skills and reduce errors, enhancing provider proficiency in high-stakes environments. Additionally, structured post-event debriefing promotes team reflection and system improvements to prevent recurrent complications. Overall mortality directly attributable to advanced airway management remains low at less than 0.5% in controlled settings like operating rooms, but rises to 2-5% in emergency contexts due to compounded factors such as hemodynamic instability.

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[94]
Risk Factors for Posttracheostomy Tracheal Stenosis - Li - 2018
Aug 21, 2018 · Previous studies found tracheal stenosis to be the most common long-term complication of tracheostomy, with incidence rates of 1.7% and 1.8%. ...
[95]
The cuff-leak test: what are we measuring? - PMC - PubMed Central
The cuff-leak test may help to identify patients at risk to develop post-extubation laryngeal edema. However the discrimination power of the cuff-leak test is ...
[96]
Impact of Tracheostomy Timing Within the National Veterans Affairs ...
Mar 19, 2024 · Early tracheostomy within 10 days was associated with 5.8 fewer ICU days (95% CI [5.0, 6.6]) and 11.9 fewer hospital days (95% CI [9.1, 14.8]).<|separator|>
[97]
Timing of Tracheostomy in ICU Patients: A Systematic Review ... - NIH
Sep 14, 2024 · A recent meta-analysis of RCTs found that early tracheostomy reduced the length of ICU stay and duration of mechanical ventilation but did not ...
[98]
Airway Assessment - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 4, 2023 · " The sniffing position requires neck flexion to 35 degrees and head extension to 15 degrees. Neck immobility interferes with aligning the ...Airway Assessment · Anatomy And Physiology · Enhancing Healthcare Team...<|separator|>
[99]
Mallampati Score - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 7, 2025 · Multiple methods, including the Mallampati scoring system, have been proposed to aid in predicting difficult intubation and mask ventilation.
[100]
Thyromental Distance - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A short thyromental distance of < 6.5 cm might be associated with a difficult intubation, especially if the Mallampati score is 3 or 4.
[101]
Mnemonics for difficult airway predictors
Oct 17, 2012 · 2. Difficult Laryngoscopy and Intubation (LEMON) ; Obstruction / Obesity, Four cardinal signs of upper airway obstruction: stridor, muffled voice ...1. Difficult Bag-Mask... · 2. Difficult Laryngoscopy... · 4. Difficult Cricothyrotomy...
[102]
Ultrasound Imaging of the Airway and Its Applications
There is some evidence to support its use in the prediction of difficult airway by measuring pre-tracheal soft-tissue thickness and pre-epiglottis space ...
[103]
Clinical versus Ultrasound Measurements of Hyomental Distance ...
Mar 3, 2020 · This might be the reason why several ultrasound parameters in the anterior neck region might be correlated with difficult airways. Among these, ...Missing: pretracheal | Show results with:pretracheal
[104]
Unanticipated Difficult Intubation in an Adult Patient - StatPearls - NCBI
Failed intubation occurs in about 1 in 390 patients, and maternal mortality is four times higher than in other populations.[2] Anatomical and physiological ...Introduction · Indications · Preparation · Technique or Treatment
[105]
The difficult airway in the emergency department - PMC - NIH
Our difficult intubation rate was 4% while our failed intubation rate was 0.7%. This compares with 2.7–12.3% cited in the emergency medicine literature [5–9, 15] ...
[106]
Predictive Machine Learning Algorithms in Anticipating... - Airway
It is preferred to choose the physical parameters that can predict the difficult airway more accurately in clinical scenario and train the algorithm.
[107]
2022 American Society of Anesthesiologists Practice Guidelines for ...
This version emphasizes oxygen administration throughout difficult airway management and during extubation. Additionally, it emphasizes using capnography to ...
[108]
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.937471/full
[109]
The Vortex Approach
The focus of the Vortex Approach is on providing "implementation tools" for real-time use during the process of airway management. In addition it provides " ...DownloadsAirway CartBest EffortPlanningPublications
[110]
Percutaneous Transtracheal Jet Ventilation Technique
Nov 29, 2023 · While exerting negative pressure on the barrel of the syringe, insert the needle through the cricothyroid membrane into the larynx. Air bubbles ...Missing: blocker | Show results with:blocker
[111]
Difficult Airway Society 2015 guidelines for management of ...
Nov 10, 2015 · Maintaining oxygenation: supraglottic airway device insertion. In ... Tracheal intubation through the I-gel™ supraglottic airway versus the LMA ...
[112]
Pediatric Airway Anatomy - OpenAnesthesia
May 6, 2024 · Compared to the adult airway, the pediatric airway is very reactive and more prone to laryngospasm and bronchospasm. Increased vagal tone, ...
[113]
Structural and functional development in airways throughout childhood
The pediatric larynx has a more complex shape than previously believed, with the narrowest point located anatomically at the subglottic level and functionally ...
[114]
Pediatric Endotracheal Tube Size - Medscape Reference
Several formulas such as the ones below allow estimation of proper endotracheal tube size for children 1 to 10 years of age, based on the child's age.<|control11|><|separator|>
[115]
Miller laryngoscope - LITFL
Nov 3, 2020 · The Miller laryngoscope is a straight blade designed to obtain a view of the vocal cords by directly lifting the epiglottis.
[116]
Cuffed vs Uncuffed Endotracheal Tubes for Pediatric Patients
Feb 10, 2021 · Traditional teaching was to use appropriately sized uncuffed ETT in children less than 8 years old in order to maximize the internal diameter of ...
[117]
i-gel® supraglottic airways - Intersurgical
i-gel® has a soft, gel-like, non-inflatable cuff, designed to provide an anatomical impression fit over the laryngeal inlet. The shape, softness and contours ...I-gel® for emergency medicine · I-gel® for anaesthesia · I-gel® Plus
[118]
Atropine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jul 6, 2025 · Rapid sequence intubation pretreatment: 0.01 mg/kg IV for adults with bradycardia secondary to repeat dosing of succinylcholine. Pediatric 0.02 ...Indications · Mechanism of Action · Administration · Contraindications
[119]
Pediatric Airway Evaluation - OpenAnesthesia
Apr 26, 2023 · Mallampati scores of III and IV have been shown to be associated with difficult airway in pediatric patients.Missing: POEM | Show results with:POEM
[120]
Management Of The Pediatric Difficult Airway: New Strategies ...
Jul 2, 2024 · The incidence of difficult intubation in children is reported from 0.88% to 5.8% depending on the pediatric population included and the ...<|separator|>
[121]
Videolaryngoscopy versus direct laryngoscopy for paediatric ... - NIH
Oct 3, 2025 · Videolaryngoscopy (VL) represents an alternative to direct laryngoscopy (DL), but its comparative efficacy, safety, and clinical impact in ...